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Of THE 

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BISnARI CAJIEL-DRIVEE. 



THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS 



THE 



UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY 



By ELISEE RECLUS 



EDITED 



By a. H. KEANE, B.A. 



MEMB. OF COUNCIL, ANTHROP. INSTITUTE; COR. MEMB. ITALIAN AND WASHINGTON AXTHROP. SOC. 
PROFESSOR OF HINDUSTANI, UNIVERSITY COL. LONDON; AUTHOR OF "ASIA," ETC. 



VOL. X. 

NORTH-EAST AFRICA 





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FiiP-TED BT J. B. VIRTUE AND TO , LIMITED, 

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COXTEXTS. 



VOL. X. 



I. Gen^eral Svetey 



PAOS 

1 



II. Thb Nilb Basix 31 

The River, p. 31. Lake Victoria Xyanza, p. 35. The Somerset Xile, p. 37. Lake Albert 
Nvanza, p. 39. The White Xile, p. 40. The Blue XUe, p. 47. The Atbara Eiver, p. 50. 
The Xuhian XUe, p. 52. The Lower Nile, p. 37. The Fayum Depression, p. 60. Periodi- 
cal Rising of the XUe, p. 69. 

m. Regiox op the Great Lakes 74 

Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 75. Inhabitants, p. 76. The Ruanda Country, p. S2. ITie 
Empire of U-Ganda, p. 82. Religion, Trade, Administration, p. 86. Topography, p. 88. 
The Kavirondo and Xanda Countries, p. 88. The U-Nyoro Territory, p. 91. 

IV. Region of thb TJppeb XrLB TiUBrTAHiES . 95 

Inhabitants, p. 97. The Latuka Country, p. 102. Topography, p. 112. 

V. SoBAT AXD YaL EaSIXS 116 

The GambU and Koma Tribes, p. 116. The ShUluks, p. 119. Topography, p. 122. 

VI. Aby.ssixia (Ethiopia) 123 

Relief of the Land, Population, p. 123. Historic Retrospect, p. 124. Exploration, p. 126. 
The Abyssinian Plateau, p. 128. The KwaUas and River Gorges, p. 128. Orograpbic 
System, p. 131. The Xorthem Highlands, p. 131. Hamassen and Simeu Uplands, p. 133. 
The Eastern Border Range, p. 133. Central and Western Highlands, p. 136. The 
Abyssinian Se.iboard, p. 137. Late Alalbed, p. 137. Climate, p. 139. Flora, p. 142. 
Fauna, p. 144. lahabitants, p. 145. Agriculture, p. 134. Arts and Industries, p. 154. 
Religion and Education, p. 155. Government, p. 159. Topography, p. 161. Gondar, 
p. 161. Debra-Tabor, p. 163. Magdala, p. 168. Adua, p. 171. Aksum, p. 172. Mas- 
sawah, p. 178. Dafalak Islands, p. 180. Administrative Divisions, p. 183. 

VII. Shoa, Da^jakil, akd Xorth Galla States 184 

The Shoa Highlands, p. 184. Volcanic Formations, p. 185. The Galla Highlands, p. 186. 
The Afar Country, p. 186. The Awash Basin, p. 187. Climate, Flora and Fauna, p. 188. 
Inhabitants, p. 190. The Somali, p. 193. The GaUas, p. 194. Topography, p. 200. 
Harrar and Zeilah, p. 202. Innarya, p. 213. Yangaro. p. 214. Kaffaland, p 214. 

VIII. Tppee Xvbia 216 

Physical and Political Features, p. 217. Gumn, Berta, and Lega Highlands, p. 218. 
Climate, Flora, Fauna, p. 220. Inhabitants, p. 222. The Funj Race, p. 227. The 
Kunama and Barea, p. 229. The Bejas, p. 234. Topography, p. 239. Senar, p. 241. 
Khartum, p. 244. Xaga, lleroe, p. 246. Kassala, p. 249. Berber, p. 252. 



-X.-\ ;.'^Q 



iv CONTENTS. 

CHAT. MOB 

IX. KOEDOFAV 257 

Physical Features, p. 257. Hydrographic System, p. 2.58. Climate, p. 259. Flora, 
p. 260. Inhabitants, p. 261. The Nubas, p. 263. Social Usages, p. 267. Topography: 
El-Obeid, p. 266. 

X. Dar-For 271 

Progress of Discovery, p. 272. Physical Features, p. 272. Hydrographic System, p. 274. 
Flora,- p. 275. Fauna, p. 276. Inhabitants, p. 276. Commercial Eelations, p. 278. 
Topography : El-Fasher, p. 279. 

XI. Nubia 281 

The Nubian Coast Range, p. 282. The Nubian Gold Mines, p. 2S3. The Central High- 
lands, p. 284. Geological Formations, p. 286. The Bayuda Steppe, p. 287. Climate, 
p. 289. Flora, p. 290. Fauna, p. 291. Inhabitants, p. 292. The Bisharin, p. 295. 
Topograph:/, p. 297. Dongola, p. 299. Wady- Haifa, p. 309. Korosko, Ibsambul, p. 309. 

XII. Egvpt 307 

Historic Eetrospect, p. 307. Chronology, p. 308. Social Condition of the Ancient 
Egj-ptians, p. 309. Present Condition, p. 310. Geographical Exploration, p. 312. Extent 
and Population, p. 313. The Arabian Eange, p. 314. Geology, p. 317. The Libyan 
Plateau, p. 319. The Petrified Forests, p. 321. The Western Oases, p. 322. The Natron 
Lakes, p. 326. The Libyan Desert, p. 329. Climate, p. 331. EainfaU, p. 333. Climatic 
Changes, p. 334. Flora, p. 336. Fauna, p. 338. Inhabitants, p. 341. The Copts, 
p. 341. The Fellahin, p. 344. The Arabs of Egypt, p. 346. The Levantines, p. 350. 
Keligion, p. 353. Social Usages, p. 355. Slaverj-, p. 356. Land Tenure, p. 357. Irri- 
gation, p. 359. The Corvee, p. 361. Conservatism and Progress, p. 362. The Suez 
Canal, p. 363. Topography, p. 373. Philfe, p. 373. Edfu, p. 377. Thebes, Luxor, 
Karnak, p. 379. Denderah, p. 387. Thinis, p. 388. The Great and Little Oases, p. 391. 
Meidum, Saqqarah, p. 398. Memphis, p. 400. The Great Pyramids, p. 401. Cairo, 
p. 405. Barrage of the Nile, p. 413. Suez, p. 415. TeU-el-Kebir, Pithom, p. 417. Port 
Said, p. 419. Damietta, p. 423. Eosetta, p. 425. Abukir, p. 427. Alexandria, p. 428. 
Naucratis, p. 435. Agriculture, p. 436. Irrigation, p. 438. Industries, p. 439. Trade, 
Eailways, Telegraphs, p. 440. Government, p. 442. Prospects, p. 444. Administrative 
Divisions, p. 446. 

Appendix I. Statistical Tables 447 

,, II. Ethnology of North-East Africa 459 

,, III. Egyptian Chronology 474 

Index , = . 489 




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



MAPS PEINTED IN COLOURS 



PAfrE 

1. North-Eaat Africa 16 

2. Northern Abyssinia 128 

3. The Egyptian Soudan 376 



4. Cairo and its Environs. 

5. The Delta and Suez Canal 



rAOB 

400 
421 



PLATES. 



Bishari Camel-driver . . . Frontispiece 
The Nile — View taken from the Island of 

Phila3 .... To face page 6 
Group of Nubian Women . . . .18 

Bishari Gum-dealers at Korosko ... 22 
View of Victoria Nyanza taken from Murchison 

Bay 36 

General View of Khartum .... 4-1 

The Nile at the Second Cataract ... 56 

Colossal Statues of Memnon .... 68 

Banks of the Nile— The Shaduf ... 72 

Natives of U-Ganda 92 

Alurchison Falls 94 

Group of JIakrakas 106 

General View of Dem Suleiman . . .112 
Simen Highlands — View taken from the Lamal- 

mon Pass 134 

Shaikieh Arah and Ethiopian Female Slaves 

at Khartum 150 

The Gimp at Gondar 162 

Adua, Capital of Tigre 172 



General View of Massawah . To face page 180 

Somali Man and Woman . . • 192 

General A'iew of Ankober .... 200 

Obok — View taken from the Roadstead . . 208 

Primeval Forest at Fazogl .... 220 

Kadi of Khartum and Hadendoa Sheikh . . 234 

Pyramids of Mcroe — Southern Group . . 248 

General View of Suakin 254 

Jebel-Ain 274 

Assuan, North Frontier of Nubia . . . 282 

Entrance of the Korosko Route at Abu-Hamed 286 

Second, Third, and Fourth Pyramids . . 312 

Libyan Desert— Mirage on the Horizon . . 320 

Cairo Arabs ....■■• 346 
Sefi Canal at Fidemin-el-Fayum . . .360 

Suez Canal at the Serapeum .... 368 

Colossal Statues of the Ramesseum at Thebes . 384 
A Street in the Old Town, Cairo . . .406 
The Kait-Bey Mosque, Cairo . . • .410 

Citadel of Cairo 412 

General View of Alexandria .... 432 



Yl 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



ILLUSTEATIONS IN TEXT. 



1 . Highlands and Plateaux of Central Africa 

2. Hydrography of Africa according t 

Mediasval Geographers 

3. Outflow of Lake Nyanza, according to 

Spelie ..... 

4. Isothermal Lines of Africa 
6. Distribution of the Rainfall in Africa 

6. Vegetable Zones in Africa 

7. Languages of Africa .... 

8. Religions of Africa .... 

9. Chief Routes of Explorers in the Interior 

of Africa (18S3). 

10. Sources of the Nile and Nyanza Plateau 

11. From Dufile to Lado 

12. Region of the " Sud " 

13. The Nile at Khartum . 

14. Meshra-er-Rek in the Zariba Region . 

15. Basin of the Nile Affluents 

16. Cataract of Hannek .... 

17. Kaihar Cataract .... 

18. The Keneh Valley on the Route to Koseir 

19. Head of the Ibrabimieh Canal . 

20. Entrance of the Fayum 

21. Fayum ...... 

22. Rosetta Mouth 

23. Damietta Mouth .... 

24. Branch of the Nile flowing to Lake Men- 

zaleh ...... 

25. Yearly Oscillations of the Nile . 

26. Section of the Nile Valley at Siut 

27. U-Kerewe and U-Snknma . 

28. Karagwe ...... 

29. South U-Ganda 

30. LF-Ganda : RuBAGA, Principal Residence 

OF M'Tesa .... 

31. U-Nyoro 

32. Water-parting between the Nile and Congo 

33. Shuli JIusicians .... 

34. Baui Smiths 

35. Routes of Explorers East of the Bahrel- 

Jebel ...... 

36. Chief Routes of Explorers in the Zarib.a 

Region ..... 

37. Inhabitants of the Zariba Region 

38. Confluence of the Sobat and Yal 



PAGE 

4 



7 
10 
11 
14 
21 
24 

28 
35 
42 
43 
44 
46 
51 
S3 
54 
58 
59 
61 
62 
64 
66 



68 
"0 
72 
78 
80 



90 

92 

96 

100 

102 

103 

110 
114 
118 



FIO, 

39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 

43. 

44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 

48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 
55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 

61. 
62. 

63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
07. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 

73. 

74. 
75. 



Shilluk Type ..... 
Chief Routes of Abyssinian Explorers 
Profile of Abyssinia from East to West 
Davezut Falls, near Samara (Debra 

Tabok) ..... 
Northern Spurs of the Abyssinian High 

lauds ... . . 

The Simen Highlands 
Lakes of East Abyssinia 
Lake of Alalbed .... 

Intermediate Abyssinian Plateaux and 

Valleys 

Inhabitants of Abyssinia . 

Gondar ...... 

Debra- Tabor 

Mahdera-Mariam .... 

Koarata and Southern Shore of Lake Tan; 
Magdala ...... 

Adua and Aksum .... 

Aksum ...... 

Kuma'ili Valley ..... 

Bogos Territory ..... 

Massawah 

Annesley Bay ..... 
Routes of the Chief Explorers in the Lower 

Awash Region .... 
Somali Girl ..... 
Routes of the Chief Explorers in South 

Abyssinia ..... 

Galla Gikl 

Populations of South Abyssinia 
Chief Towns of East Shoa . 
Harrar ..... 
Zeila 



Course of the Lower Awash 
Tajurah Bay and Lake Assal 

Obok 

Assab ...... 

Routes of the Chief Explorers in Takfl and 

Neighbouring Distritts 
The Lega Country .... 
Inhabitants of the Blue Nile 
Inhabitants of Taka and Neighbouring 

Districts 

Shukurieh Beja .... 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S. 



79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 
96. 

97. 
98. 
99. 
100 



101. 
102, 
103. 
104 
105. 
106 
107 
108 
109 



FAOB 

Fazogl Gold Mines 240 

Senar .242 

Confluence of the Two Niles .243 

Khartum 245 

Pyramicls of Meroe 247 

Kiissala 251 

Berber 253 

Suakin in 1882 254 

Suakin Uplands 255 

Central Kordofan 262 

El-Obeid 267 

Central Region of Dar-For . . .273 
JUneral Region of the Etbai Uplands . 282 

Xubian Gold Jlines 284 

Korosko Desert 285 

Baynda Steppe 287 

Dongola and the Third Cataract . . 301 
The Temple of Abc-Sdibel, rs Xcbia . 305 
Density of the Population of Egypt . . 315 

ASSLAX : AXCIEXT QcaRKT, now AB.iX- 

DOSED ...... 317 

Chains of Oases "West of Egypt . . .324 

The Matron Lakes 327 

Isothermfll Lines and Rainfall of Egypt . 335 
EoTPTLiX TvPE : B.\s- Relief okxament- 
DJG THE Tomb of Sheikh Abd-el- 
GcRNAH, AT Thebes .... 343 

Village Hcts 345 

A Bedovim 347 

Arab Tribes in Egypt . .348 

, A Tillage Shelkh .... 349 

Religions of Egypt 354 

, Domains of the Dairah in the Delta . . 358 
. Trajan's Canal ..... 365 

. Suez in the year 1800 . .366 

Proposed Freshwater Canal from Suez to 

Alexandria 3CS 



FIG. 






TAGE 


110. 


Lake Timsah 


KTO 


111. 


Great International Routes of the Old 






World 


371 


112 


Assuan and the First Cataract before the 






Opening of the Railway . 


376 


113. 


Ruins of Thebes 


380 


114. 


RciNS OF Thebes: Proptlon, ob North- 






ern G.ITE 


382 


115. 


Entrance to the Valley of the Royal 






Tombs 


384 


116. 


Kosseir 


386 


117. 


Abydos : Bas-Relief ts the Temple of 

SeTI I., REPRESEXTING A ScENE OF 






Adoe.\tion 


389 


118. 


Red Pottery of Silt .... 


391 


119. 


Oases of Khargeh and Dakhel . 


392 


120. 


UXDERGROCND PASSAGE AT MeHENT)!, 






NEAR JIaUARRAKA, NvBIA 


393 


121. 


The Siwah Oases 


394 


122. 


Pyramid of Meidvm .... 


399 


123. 


Ascent of the Great Pyra.mid 


402 


124. 


The Sphinx 


406 


125. 


Mcsharabieh, with Screen in Frost 
TO conceal the Inmates from their 






Neighbours 


408 


126. 


Mosqce of Mohammed At.: 




411 


127. 


Barrage of the Nile . 




414 


128. 


Suez .... 




415 


129. 


Entrance to the Wady Tumi 


at, Tell-el- 






Kebir 




417 


130. 


Port Said 




420 


131. 


The San Morass 




422 


132. 


Damietta 




424 


133. 


Abukir and Alexandria . 




429 


134. 


Alexandria 




431 


135. 


Alexandria and Lake Mariut 




433 


136. 


Egyptian Railways . 


. 


441 




\ 



THE UNBT^RSAL GEOGRAPHY. 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 




CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL SURVEY. 

IROil tlie very name of Africa, it is evident that clown to a compara- 
tively recent period this continent still formed part of the unknown 
werld. It was the Libya of the Greeks, a region of undefined limits 
towards the south and the setting sun. Amongst other mytholo- 
gical or poetic titles, they also gave it the vague designations of 
Eskhate, or " The "World's End," and Hesperia, or " "Western Land," a term which 
was also applied to Italy, and then to Spain, and which, under the Arab form of 
Maghreb, has become the modem name of Mauritania. The tenu Africa itself, now 
applied to the whole continent, is of doubtful origin. Whether it designated the 
ancient Carthage in the sense of the " Separated," or " Colony," recalling the 
supremacy of the Phoenician Tyre, or whether it was a collective name of the 
Berbers, or only of a single tribe, that of the Auraghen or Aurigha, are questions 
that cannot now be solved. In any case Africa, already so named by Ennius before 
the second Punic war, was for the Pomans at first nothing more than the Libyan 
neighbour of Italy, the Tunisian Tell still called Friga, a name which became 
gradually extended to the whole continent, just as the Asia of the Cayster Yalley 
ultimatelj- embraced India, Siberia, and China. 

As now surveyed around its entire seaboard, Aii'ica stands out as the best- 
defined division of , the Old "World — a vast island, attached only by a narrow isthmus, 
VOL. X. B 



2 NOETH-EAST APEICA. 

90 miles troad, to tlie Asiatic mainland. Even this isthmus itself is an old marine 
and flu\-ial basin — Mediterranean alluyium in the north, a deposit of the Red Sea in 
the south ; between these two marine zones an ancient Nilotic delta, which, to judge 
from the allied faunas, probablj^ at one time commimicated with the Jordan. But 
although the Isthmus of Suez had no existence in Tertiary times, there were other 
stretches of land connecting Egypt with Cj'prus and Syria ; for nowhere else in the 
periphery of the globe are there found contiguous marine inlets presenting such 
differences in their fauna as do those of Suez and Gaza. 

But if the waters of the Indian Ocean have remained completely distinct from 
those of the Mediterranean since the Eocene epoch, with the exception perhaps of a 
shallow channel flooded in Quaternary times, the intervening barrier has at last 
been removed by the hand of man. Thanks to his industrj-, the two seas hence- 
forth mingle their waters in the inland basin of Lake Timsah, and the circumnavi- 
gation of Africa is open to the largest vessels afloat. Compared with this southern 
continent, whose contour is so clearly defined, the two other divisions of the Old 
World seem to merge in one continental mass. Certainly the dejjression skirting 
the Ural range from the Gulf of Ob to the Caspian, and the Manich isthmus between 
the Caspian and Euxine, cannot be regarded as such sharp geographical parting 
lines as the marine channel now flowing between Suez and Port Said. 

But however clearly severed at present from the rest of the Eastern hemisphere, 
Africa is not so entirely distinct from Europe and Asia as might at first sight be 
supposed. Parts of its seaboard were even formerly connected directl}' with the 
regions beyond the Mediterranean, and there was a time when the Atlas Mountains 
effected a junction across the present Strait of Gibraltar with the parallel Sierra 
Nevada range. Even down to the close of the Pliocene epoch, Tunisia was still 
united with Sicily and Italy through a broad zone, of which the only surviving 
fragments are the little Maltese group of islets. Greece also merged southwards in 
boundless jilaias watered by streams whose banks were frequented by the elephant 
and hippopotamus.* 

Although now detached from Spain and Italy, North-west Africa is still in its 
geology, natural history, and climate essentially a Mediterranean land, forming with 
the opposite European seaboard a distinct physical region. Along both coasts the 
same fossils occur on the old rocks, while similar floras and faunas are now in 
possession of the soil. The Mauritanian coastlands differ far more from Nigretia, 
from which they are separated by the Sahara, than they do from Provence, and as 
already remarked by Sallust, North Africa is physically a part of Europe. East- 
wards also the Ethiopian shore of the Red Sea belongs to the same formations as the 
opposite coast of Arabia, and a general resemblance characterises the climate, 
natural productions, and inhabitants on either side of Bab-el- Mandeb. 

In its massive outlines Africa presents the same monotonous aj^pearance as the 
two other southern divisions of the globe— South America and Australia. It is even 
less indented than the corresponding section of the New World ; nor is it supple- 
mented, like Australia, by a vast region of archipelagoes and islands, scattered over 

• Eamsay ; Zittal ; Neumayr. 



MO"C^n?AmS. 3 

the northern and eastern seas. Its very size, estimated at nearly 12,000,000 square 
miles, or over three times that of Europe and four times that of Australia, 
contributes to its heavy uniform aspect. Notwithstanding its greater bulk, its 
coastline is considerably less than that of Europe. Exclusive of a thousand smaller 
inlets, such as the Scandinavian fjords and the firths of Scotland, the latter has a 
peripherv of about 19,000 miles, the former not more than 15,000, much of which 
is unbroken by a single creek or bay. Its general form is that of an eUipsoid, 
disposed in the direction from north to south, and bidgiag out westwards in a still 
less varied semi-eUiptical mass between Cape Bon and the Gulf of Guinea. The 
prevailing uniformity is modified on the east side chiefly by the sharp peninsida 
terminating at Cape Gardafui, on the west by the retreating curve of the coastline, 
by which the Atlantic basin is suddenly doubled in width. The eastern projection, 
which is separated by the Gulf of Aden from Hadramaut, follows the direction 
of the south-eastern extremity of Arabia, a region which in its climate and other 
respects forms a land of transition between the two continents. 



i[or>'TAi>"s. 

From its regular contour, Africa might seem to be built on a generally uniform 
and simple plan. But such is not the case. Europe, notwithstanding its countless 
indentations, may be compared to an organism furnished with a backbone and 
members ; Asia also groups its boundless plains and peninsulas around a culminat- 
ing nucleus, the Great Pamir, or " Roof of the World ; " while both Americas have 
their western Cordilleras, and in the east vast alluvial plains and river basins 
separated one from the other by scarcely perceptible parting lines. But Africa is 
comparatively speaking an almost shapeless mass, with a rudimentary organisation 
destitute alike of central uplands and regular watersheds. If evertheless the eastern 
coast ranges, running parallel with the Indian Ocean, may in some respects be 
regarded as forming, if not a backbone, at least the border chain of one great con- 
tinental highland system. Spite of the broad gaps pierced by the Limpopo, 
Zambezi, and Juba rivers, the broken fragments of a vast Cordillera may be recog- 
nised in the uplands stretching interruptedly from the Cape northwards to the 
Abyssinian highlands. In this zone of border ranges occur the culminating points 
of the continent, the extinct EiUma-njaro and Kenia volcanoes, perhaps the 
summits known to the ancients as the " Mountains of the iloon." TTest of these 
peaks the plateau is intersected by a parallel chain of other volcanoes, some of 
which are said still to emit smoke ; while beyond Victoria Xyanza a third range, 
dominated by ilfimibiro and Gambaragara, would seem to form a western border 
system or water-parting between the Upper Is'Ae and Congo basins. Here the 
plateau expands to a breadth of ooO miles, terminating northwards in the Abys- 
sinian highlands, a rocky citadel whose base exceeds those of all the other continen- 
tal orographic systems. These Ethiopian heights stand over against those of Yemen, 
and like them, are a remnant of the border range sweeping roim.d the Indian and 

B 2 



4 KOETH-EAST APEICA. 

Pacific Oceans from tlie Cape of Good Hope to Cape ITom, and forming a vast 
semicircle of 2-4,000 miles, equal to the circumference of the globe. 

Although not yet thoroughlj' explored, Africa is already sufficiently kno'sra at 
least in the main features of its general relief. More compact and less indented 
than the other divisions of the globe, it also remains less accessible through the 

Fig. 1.— Highlands and Plateaux of Central Africa. 
Scale 1 : 20,000,000. 




-C. f-e rroa 



, 300 Miles. 



work of erosion. Its mean elevation exceeds that of Europe and Asia, although 
there are scarcely any mountains equal to the Alps and Caucasus, none comparable 
to the Ilimalayas. Considered as a solid mass with vertical scarps and horizontal 
surface, its altitude, according to Chevanne, is at least 1,900, possibly 2,200, feet. 
An oblique line drawn from Loanda on the Atlantic to a point on the Red Sea 
between Suakin and Massawah marks off a region which forms an almost continuous 



EIVEES. 5 

tableland, intersected by mountain ranges resting on foundations of from 3,000 to 
4,500 feet. The Congo and XLle basins confine on the north and west this region of 
plateaux, which comprises about a thii'd of the whole continent. On the other 
sides the border ranges are considerably less elevated and much more divided than 
those of South and East Africa. They are nowhere continuous, but rise in scattered 
fragments between the Congo and Niger, between the Xile and Lake Tsad, in the heart 
of the Sahara, which is broken by the two isolated masses of Tibesti and Ahaggar, in the 
extreme west, where the scarps of the plateaux run parallel with the coasts of Upper 
Guinea and Senegambia ; lastly in Mauritania, where the Atlas range constitutes a 
distinct orographic system, formerly connected with those of South Europe. South 



Fig. 2. — Hydrogkaphv of Aprica according to IIedueval Geographers. 




C Per 



of this system the continent may be roughly described as a vast plane inclined in a 
north-westerly direction. 



Rivers. 

The rudimentary character of its general relief is also reflected in its hydrographic 
system. The African rivers, still to a great part entangled in the intricacies of the 
plateau, have a somewhat irregular and unfinished course, often forcing their way 
through narrow rocky gorges, and obstructed by numerous falls and rapids. Even 
the more copious streams are relatively less accessible to navigation than those of 
the other continents. In this respect the contrast is specially striking between 
Africa and South America, the two divisions of the globe which are more frequently 
compared -n-ith each other. The " Dark Continent " is entii'ely destitute of the 
great estuaries and broad arteries gi^'ing access in the New World from the Atlantic 
seaboard almost to the foot of the Andes. The comparative absence of navigable 
waters, of islands and good harbours, combined with the great extent of desert 
wastes, has mainly contributed to exclude Africa from the general life of the com- 
mercial world. 

All the great rivers — Nile, Congo, and Niger — are interrupted by cataracts and 



6 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

rapids, which cut off from outward intercourse populous regions whose fluvial 
systems ramify over many hundred millions of acres. The XHe and Congo rising 
amid the higher plateaux, where the slope is still undecided, traverse in their upper 
courses many great lakes, which according to a vague tradition once constituted a 
single lacustrine basin of enormous extent. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese 
explorers had some idea of this hydrographic system. But in tracing the outlines 
of the great equatorial lakes they seem to have rather copied older maps than relied 
on positive information. But, however this be, they appear to have believed in the 
existence of a single source for the Nile, Congo, and even the Zambesi. But the 
streams were also supposed to traverse extensive imderground regions, and an 
Italian map engraved in the middle of the fifteenth century represents a JSile with 
three heads, separated by a vast space from the emissaries of the chief fountain. 
This Nile is moreover made to flow in the direction from north to south, a small 
Egj-ptian delta corresponding to a much larger delta in South Africa. 

The first modern explorers of the same region were also influenced by these 
traditional ideas. Even Speke traced the course of four rivers issuing from various 
parts of Lake Nyanza to form the Nile, while Stanley made Tanganyka the source 
of two effluents, one flowing northwards to the NUe, the other westwards to the 
Congo. But although these great arteries do not rise in a common source, the 
water-parting between them is in some places so low and undecided that a slight 
disturbance of the surface would sufiice to change the direction of many affluents. 
It is even possible that on the dividing line of some basins there may exist lakes or 
swamps draining in both directions. 

The unfinished aspect of the central rivers, the cataracts interrupting their 
course, the lacustrine reservoirs scattered over the plateaux, produce a certain resem- 
blance between equatorial Africa and the Scandinavian peninsula. But in the 
northern region, still under ice within a comparatively recent geological epoch, the 
rivers have scarcely commenced their work of erosion. The climatic conditions are 
of course entirely different, and although the existence of an old glacial period may 
be suspected even in the torrid zone, the long ages that have elapsed since that 
remote epoch must have effaced nearly all trace of glaciers and moraines. Hence 
the rudimentary character of these fluvial basins is probably due to a different cause. 
The climate, which was formerly much more humid in the Sahara, may possibly 
have been correspondingly di-ier in the south-eastern region of the Nyanza plateau. 
In the absence of a copious rainfall the rocks would remain imeroded, and the now 
flooded cavities imfilled by the alluvia of running waters. During its long geolo- 
gical life the earth has witnessed many shiftings of the climatic zones. If the rains 
are more abundant in some places than formerly, in others they are more rare, and 
the Igharghar basin, for instance, in North-west Africa, belongs to one of these 
dried-up regions. 

East of the Nile and of the great lakes there is no space between the plateaux 
and the coast for the development of large streams. From the Egyptian uplands 
the Red Sea receives nothing but intermittent wadies, and along a seaboard of about 
2,400 miles southwards to Mozambique the Indian Ocean is fed only by such 



LIBRARY 

OF THE 

UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. 



EIVEES. 7 

sluggisla rivers as the Juba, Tana, Lufiji, and Rovuma. But south of the great 
central lacustrine plateaux the Zambezi, whose furthest headstreams rise near the 
■west coast, drains a vast tract of country estimated at about 750,000 square miles, 
or nearly three times the size of France. In volume it ranks third amongst African 
rivers, but in length fourth only. Still farther south the Limpopo has also a con- 
siderable discharge ; whereas the Orange, whose basin exceeds 400,000 square miles 
in extent, contributes to the South Atlantic very little of the rainfall collected in 



Fig. 3. — Outflow of Lake Nyanza, accordino to Speke. 
Scale 1 : 1,000,000. 



4.' 




C P^rrop 



ISO Miles. 



the gorges of its upper course. The Kunene and Koanza, which follow from south 
to north, although more copious, have stiU but a slight volume compared with their 
respective areas of drainage. The same may be said of the Ogowe, which rises in 
the peninsular tract formed by the great bend of the Congo east of equatorial 
Guinea. 

The Niger, or " Nile of the Blacks," forms with the Nile, Congo, and Zambezi, 
one of the four great arteries of Africa. Even down to the beginning of this cen- 
tury many geographers still supposed that the Nile and the Niger mingled their 



8 NOETH-EAST .VFEICA. 

waters across the continent. Some old maps represent the latter as rising in the 
same lake as the eastern Nile, whereas its main source lies, not in the centre of 
Africa, but at Mount Loma, on the slope of the Rokelle Moimtains, in the vicinity of 
the west coast. A space of at least 2,700 miles thus intervenes between the farthest 
headstreams of both rivers, whUe the nearest affluents are still separated by a dis- 
tance of some 720 miles. The Niger in fact belongs to a region wholly different 
from that of the Nile in the form and disposition of its plateaux. On the other 
side of the hills where it takes its rise, the Congo, Rio Grande, Gambia, and several 
other streams flow to independent estuaries on the west coast, while farther north 
the Senegal, rising on the same slope as the Niger, sweeps round the hills, forcing 
its way to the Atlantic through a series of rocky gorges and rapids. 

North of the Senegal no large river reaches the coast, and for a space of 4,800 
miles from the bar of Saint Louis to the Nile delta nothing is met except a few 
wadies or small streams, such as the Draa, in the south of Morocco, the Moluya, 
Shelif , Mejerda, flowing to the Mediterranean. The Congo alone probably discharges 
as much water as all the other African rivers together. Next to it rank the Niger 
and Zambezi, the Nile in this respect taking only the fourth place. 

Of the inland basins either constantly or intermittently closed, the most impor- 
tant are Lakes Tsad in the north, and Makarakara-Ngami in the south, both Ijong at 
nearly equal distance from the middle Congo, and thus presenting a sjonmetrical 
disposition on either side of the equator. Tsad, much the largest of the two, is 
also situated in the northern or largest section of the continent, the extent of both 
thus corresponding with that of the surrounding regions draining to the oceans. 
But here all further analogy ceases, at least if it be true that Tsad has always been 
a closed basin ; for the Ngami reservoirs certainly communicated at some former 
geological epoch with the Limpopo and Zambezi. 

Besides these central depressions, each section of the continent has its deserts, 
strewn with secondary basins and oases, whose waters lose themselves in the sur- 
rounding sands. Altogether the area of inland drainage is estimated by Chavanne 
at nearly 3,000,000 square miles, of which 560,000, or less than a fifth, lie south of 
the equator.* Amongst the northern tracts without any outflow there are some 
depressions which at present lie below sea-level. These are probably the remains 
of straits and inlets formerly belonging to the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The 
largest are those which seem to form a continuation of the Tunisian Gulf of Cabes 
(Syrtis Minor), south of Algeria, which formerly received the discharge of the now 
dried up Igharghar, a river 780 miles long, and consequently longer than the 

* Closed hydrographic basins of the African continent : — 

NoHTH Africa. 

Sg. Miles. 

Basin of the Tsad, including the Fede 730,000 

„ „ Igharghar 330,000 

Olher basins and waterless spaces 1,315,000 



South Africa. 

Basin of Lake Ngami 3H,000 

Other basins and waterless spaceB 257,000 



ISLAXDS. 9 

Limpopo. Other cavities below sea-level follow in succession between tbe Great 
Syrtis and the Xile south of the plateau of Cyrenaica. At the foot of the Abys- 
sinian highlands on the Red Sea coast are also found deep troughs, the sui-face 
waters of which have sunk to a level far below that of the neighbouring inlets. In 
the southern section of the continent such maritime depressions do not occur. 



Islands. 

Africa is as poorly furnished with a complement of islands as it is with large 
inlets and orographic systems. In their submarine relief those in the Mediterranean 
belong rather to Europe than to this continent. Crete is connected with Asia 
Minor and with Greece ; Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia with Italy ; the Balearic 
group by a submarine bank with the coast of Yalentia ; Jerba alone and a few islets 
in the Gulf of Cabes and along the Mauritanian shores form parts of the northern 
seaboard. On the Atlantic side little occurs beyond some rocks and low-lying banks, 
such as the Bissagos or Bishlas Archipelago, which a slight allu^-ial deposit or up- 
heaval of the land would suffice to connect with the continent. The more distant 
groups of Madeira and Porto Santo, the Canaries and Cape Yerde Islands, are of 
volcanic origin, and separated from the mainland by abysses over 3,000 feet in 
depth. Of igneous formation are also the islets in the Gulf of Guinea, Annabom, 
Saint Thomas, Prince, Fernando-Po, which form a chain of volcanoes aU more recent 
than the neighbouring mainland. 

The small groups in the Eed Sea are mere coral reefs dominated here and there 
by a few volcanic peaks. Even in the Indian Ocean the only real African island is 
Socotra, the " spear-head " of the peninsula at present terminating at Cape Garda- 
fui, and farther south Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia, disposed parallel with the 
coast. The Comoro Group is of volcanic origin, and Madagascar too far removed 
from Mozambique to be regarded as a dependency of the continent. Its nearest 
headland is ISO miles distant, and even this space is doubled for ordinary craft by 
the velocity of the intervening marine currents. Its flora and fauna also show that 
this great island belongs to a distinct geological domain. Geoffrey de Saint-Hilaire 
looked on it as a world apart, and most subsequent zoologists have regarded it as a 
fragment of " Lemuria," a vanished continent, which also embraced the granite 
groups of the Seychelles and Rodriguez as well as Ceylon and the Maldives, and 
may have even reached as far as Celebes in the Eastern Archipelago. 

Climate. 

Above all the great divisions of the globe, Africa is distinguished by the general 
regularity of its climatic phenomena, a circumstance due to its massive form and 
to its equatorial position. In the region approaching nearest to the northern or 
southern lines of the equinoxes, rain falls throughout the year, thanks to the 
opposing trade winds, which by neutralising each other often preserve the stillness 



10 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



of the atmospliere, and enable the local vapours to condense and precipitate them- 
selves on the spot. In the northern hemisphere a zone of two ■wet seasons stretches 
from the equator to the fifteenth degree of latitude. In summer, copious rains are 
caused by the moisture-bearing south-west winds ; in winter, those blowing from 
the north-west become in their turn the bearers of hca%y rain- charged clouds to the 
southern hemisphere. But on both sides of the torrid zone, which comprises about 
seven- tenths of the whole continent, the difference in the disposition of the winds 



Fig. 4. — Isothermal Lixes of Africa. 
Scale 1 : 75,000,000. 




C Porrjn 



1,200 Miles. 



causes a corresponding contrast in the rainfall. Here the trade winds maintain 
their normal direction constantly, or with but slight temporary deviations ; blowing 
from the north-east in the northern, from the south-east in the southern hemisphere, 
they divert to the equator most of the vapours crossing their path, leaving else- 
where clear skies and arid lands. Thus it happens that Africa has two almost com- 
pletely barren zones of rocks, gravels, marls, clay and sand — the Sahara and 
Libyan desert in the north, Kalahari and other wastes in the south. This 



CLIMATE. 



11 



symmetrical disposition of the climates is completed by the regular alternation of 
winds and rains in the zones of Mam-itania and the Cape of Good Hope, both 
belonging to the region of sub-tropical rains, which fall in the respective winters 
of each hemisphere. Africa is thus disposed from north to south in successive grey 
and more or less intensely green belts, presenting to the inhabitants of the other 



Fig. 5. — Distribution op the Rainfall in Aprica. 
Scale 1 : 7,500,000. 




Meridian of Cr 



[X3 

Under 4 

Inches. 



4 to 20 
Inches. 



20 to 40 
Inches. 



40 to 60 
Inches. 



60 to SO 
Inches. 



80 Inches and 
upwards. 



1,200 inies. 



planets an aspect perhaps analogous to that offered to om* gaze by the parallel 
cloudy zones round about Jupiter. 

These different zones of moisture, whose limits coincide in several places with 
the isothermal lines, are developed across the continent with sufficient regularity 
to enable M. Chavanne to map them out. Africa is more sharply distributed in 
distinct regions by its deserts than it could have been by broad arms of the sea, 



12 NOETH-EAST iVTEICA. 

and the distribution of its inhabitants has also been determined almost exclusively 
by the climatic conditions, depending everywhere on the abundance of rain and 
vegetation. 

Flora axd Faixa. 

In its flora and fauna, as ■well as its climate and geology, North Africa belongs 
to the zone of transition between Europe and Asia. The apparent unity imparted 
to the continent by its compact form is not realised when we examine in detail the 
jjhenomena of life. Cyrenaica and the whole I\Iauritanian seaboard on the slope of 
the Atlas range belong to the vegetable domain of the Mediterranean, in which 
are also comprised Spain, Provence, Italy, the Ballvan peninsula, the shores of 
Asia Minor, and Syria. The zone of the Sahara, which stretches imder the Tropic 
of Cancer across the continent, is continued in Arabia to the Persian Gulf, and 
even through some of their rarer species embraces the Baluchistan coast, Thar, the 
Rann, and the Kathyawar peninsula in India. Lastly, the fl.oras of Yemen and 
Hadramaut resemble those of Sudan, the narrow Red Sea having been easily 
traversed bj' African species. 

For the whole continent, the characteristic vegetable zone is that of Sudan and 
the equatorial regions, which stretches from sea to sea, and from desert to desert, 
between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, between the Sahara and Kalahari. 
Speaking broadly, it is much poorer in distinct species than the other tropical 
regions, such as India and the Sunda Islands, and even than some sub-tropical 
lands, such as Asia Minor. Nevertheless certain central districts in Africa 
possess a remarkable variety of plants, as for instance, the territory watered by the 
Diur, not far from the dividing line between the Nile and Congo basins. Here 
Schweinfurth collected in five months nearly seven hundred flowering species, 
which it would be impossible to do in the richest European lands. 

Most of the African tropical domain is exposed to the periodical rains, wdth 
long intervening periods of dryness. Hence arborescent vegetation nowhere 
displays greater exuberance and vigour than on the jjlains between the Congo and 
Nile, where the streams often disa2Jpear amid dense masses of foliage, and in the 
neighbourhood of the Bight of Benin, which enjoys far more humidity than the 
interior. A large extent of the zone of the Sudan is occupied by prairies, although 
some tracts are so overgrown with graminaceous and other herbs that animals 
refuse to penetrate into them. In the Nile marsh lands, certain andropogonous 
varieties have non-woody stalks over twenty feet high, affording to the giraffe 
cover from the hunter. The various graminaceous plants of Central Africa are not 
intermingled like those of the European fields, and tracts several hundi-ed square 
miles in extent are sometimes occupied by a siogle species. 

Thorny plants are relatively very abundant in the forests of the Sudan, and after 
clearances the trees appear not to spring up so rapidly in this zone as in South 
America. Varieties of the j)alm famil}' are ten times more numerous in Asia and 
America than in Africa, which has consequently a wider range for its prevailing 
species. The equatorial regions of other continents have scarcely any cocoa-nut 



FLORA .AST) FAFXA. 13 

forests except on tlie Malabar coast, in Ceylon, and aroimd tlie Caribbean seaboard, 
whereas in Xorth Afi'ica the dum palm Qiypho'ne thebaica^, and the deleb (borassiis 
flabelliforinis), as well as the date {jpJuenix dacti/Ufera) cover extensive tracts in the 
oases of the northern Sahara. Compared with the number of its species, the 
Nigretian flora possesses many trees with an abnormal development of stem, leaf, 
and fruits. The baobab is noted for the enormous size of its trunk, while the 
kigelia and some other bignoniacece have fruits two feet long, and the eiisefe, a 
variety of the musacese, displays the largest foKage in the entire vegetable 
kingdom. 

The Kalahari flora, south of the tropical domaia, resembles that of the Sahara, 
except that it forms no oases, nor are the few watered tracts anywhere shaded by 
palms. This flora is distinguished by its thorny acacias and mimosas, and, like 
that of Xorthern Xigretia, it abounds in gramiaaceous species. On its northern 
margin some almost rainless districts grow the wehcitschia, a remarkable plant, so 
flush with the ground as often to escape the notice of travellers. Burrowing 
downwards in the form of a reversed cone, it displays above ground nothing but a 
rough surface over a yard long, throwing off right and left two cotyledons of a 
leathery appearance, and occasionally exceeding 16 feet in length after a growth 
of one hundred years. 

On the east coast of Africa, the transition between the vegetable zones is more 
gradual than on the opposite side, where the tropical domain is abruptly limited by 
the Kalahari desert. Along the Indian Ocean the change takes place imper- 
ceptibly from north to south through the Limpopo basin and Xatal. On this 
seaboard, which is skirted by the warm Alozambique stream, the southern limit of 
the pabn lies 16 degrees lower down than on the Atlantic coast. But on the 
whole the vegetation south of the Orange River is clearly distinguished from that 
of the rest of the continent. Although the rainfall is limited and the geological 
formations far from varied, the Cape flora, consisting chiefly of grasses, shrubs, 
and bushes, is altogether unique for the multitude of its intermingled species. In 
this respect it is unrivalled even by the richest European coxmtries. Nowhere 
else do the motmtain slopes present more vegetable forms disposed in belts sharply 
separated from each other by the several zones of altitude. It may be asked 
whether this Cape flora is not a survival from far more extensive lands engulfed in 
the sea, most of whose vegetation has found a refuge in the relatively limited tract 
bounded northwards by the basin of the Orange River. In the same way the 
island of Madagascar appears to have preserved a great part of the flora of the 
vanished "Lemurian" continent. It still possesses over forty vegetable families 
peculiar to itself. 

The appearance of Europeans and Semites has been accompanied by the 
introduction of many new species, which in several districts have displaced and 
even extei-minated the indigenous forms. Elsewhere the range of certain plants 
appears to have been modified even without the intervention of man. Thus the 
papyrus, which three thousand years ago was characteristic of the Egyptian Xile, 
is now, according to Schweinfurth, found only on the Upper Xile near the equator. 



14 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



The pink lotus also {^nehtmhium speciosum), whose flower symbolised the fertilising 
stream, the sun, and the sun-god, no longer flourishes on the Egj-ptian waters. 
On the mummies of the tombs in Upper Egypt are found floral wreaths containing 



Fig. 6. — Vegetable Zoxes of Africa. 
Scale 1 : 75,000,000. 




Meridian oT nreenwicn 



Mediterranean. Mazanderan. Steppes. Savannas. Ti-opical- forest tracts within 

the savannas. 



Cape. 



Madaguscar. Abya&iuian Ltesert. 

Plateaus. 

.,^ 1,200 Miles. 



Oasis, 



numerous species, such as the centaurea dcprcssa, which have since disappeared 
from the local flora, or at least no longer grow spontaneously. 

The zones of the African fauna are less clearly defined than those of the 
vegetable kingdom. Migrating more easily than the plants, the animals have 
crossed many frontiers within which the plants have been confined by the climatic 
conditions. Hence the same animal types prevail throughout Nigretia and the 



FLOEA AND FAUNA. 15 

region north of Cape Colony. Numerous species of mammals and birds are met 
from the southern extremity of the continent to the banks of the Senegal ; nor are 
the plateaux and highlands anywhere lofty enough to prevent the migrations of 
animals, which in Africa are kept apart rather by the broad desert wastes than by 
mountain barriers. 

The Mascarenhas, and especially Madagascar, are centres of independent life, 
the latter containing over one hundred animal species not foimd elsewhere. But 
the immigrations of Arabs and Europeans have added several species to the 
African fauna, in exchange for those they have contributed to extirpate. The 
camel, without which it seems impossible for caravans to cross the Sahara in its 
present arid state, is nevertheless a comparatively recent arrival, its image occurring 
nowhere either on the old Egj-ptian monuments or on the "inscribed stones " of 
the ancient Berbers. Hence it is evident that the Sahara was not always a desert ; 
and valuable inscriptions, confirming the text of Herodotus, prove that the ox and 
the zebu were the first pack animals of the Garamantes on the route between 
Fezzan and Sudan. Now man has been followed by his ordinary companions, 
such as the horse and dog, at least wherever they have been able to adapt them- 
selves to the climate. "WTien the American Chaille-Long appeared on horseback at 
the court of the King of Uganda, north of the Victoria Nyanza, the natives 
fancied, like the Mexicans at the first appearance of the Spanish cavalry, that 
horse and man formed one animal, and when the stranger dismounted they ran 
o£E terror-stricken at the sight of this centaur dividing itself into two distinct 
beings. 

The greatest obstacle to the development of Africa is caused bj" the tsetse 
(^glossina morsitans), a simple fly, whose bite is fatal to horses, camels, oxen, and 
dogs, although harmless to man, the calf, goat, and wild beasts. This destructive 
insect, which is supposed, rightly or wrongly, to infuse anthrax virus into its 
victims, is very common in certain districts of South and Central Africa, but does 
not extend farther north than the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Senaar, and is unknown in 
the north-west. The donderoho, another two-winged pest observed to the south of 
the Eilima Xjaro, spares cattle, but attacks the ass, goat, and sheep. 

Africa is the home of the largest living quadrupeds, such as the elephant, 
various species of the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, giraffe, and other herbiferous 
animals. At the same time the African elephant is smaller, less vigorous, and 
more difficult to tame than its Indian congener, from which it differs in its convex 
frontal bone, large ears, and some other physical characteristics. The attempts made 
by Gordon to domesticate this animal and employ it in warfare were not successful, 
and in this respect Europeans have still to discover the secrets known not only to 
the Hindus, but even to the ancients, and, according to Duveyrier, to the tribes 
south of Mauritania, and to the Wakorays of the western Sahara. 

The lion of the Atlas highlands is fiercer than the Babylonian species; the 
gorilla is the strongest and most formidable of the ape family ; of all hoofed 
animals the zebra is the most indomitable ; neither the American caiman nor the 
Indian gavial approach the dimensions of the African crocodile, and of all 



16 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

running birds the African ostrich is the most powerful. This continent excels not 
only in the number and size of its animal species, but also in the multitude of 
individuals. Thus on the central plateaux travellers have observed vast plains 
covered by countless herds of ruminants, and Livingstone tells us that he had to 
force his way through the dense troops of antelopes. But since then wide gaps 
have alreadj' been made amongst these teeming multitudes by destructive hunting 
expeditions in the Nile basin and in the southern plains. It is calculated that the 
15,600 cwts. of ivory yearly imported into Europe cost the lives of 50,000 
elephants. Whole species are threatening to disappear, as the small Mauritanian 
elephant and certain animal forms in the Mascarenhas Islands have already 
vanished. The range of the rhinoceros formerly comprised south-west Morocco, 
where it has not been seen in historic times. 

Inhabitants. 

During the first half of the present century European geographers, still 
unacquainted with the interior, were naturally iuclined to exaggerate the extent 
of the desert regions, and readily regarded as solitudes all spaces left blank on the 
maps. The continent was supposed to contain some fifty or sixty, or at the 
utmost a hundi-ed, million inhabitants. Siace that time more accurate statistics 
have been taken in some of the European colonies or possessions on the coast ; 
rough estimates have also a23proximately determined the population of some 
districts near the maritime ports, and travellers, yearly iacreasiag in nimibers, 
have brotight from the interior at least sufficient data to enable us to classify the 
inland regions according to the greater or less density of their populations. In 
some of these districts the people are as closely packed as in Belgium, while 
elsewhere village succeeds village for several leagues together. The basins of 
Lake Tsad and the Joliba (Niger), as well as most of Nigritia south of the Sahara, 
are thickly jDeopled, as are also the region of the great lakes, the Nile delta, the 
"White Nile in the Shilluk territory, and the lands watered by the Congo and its 
chief affluents. The population of the whole continent cannot be estimated at less 
than two himdred millions, or seven times more than the calculations of Pinkerton 
and Yolney nearl}' a century ago. More recently Balbi fixed the nimiber at sixty 
millions, which was long accepted as the most probable. The hypothetical element 
in all these rough estimates will doubtless be gradually diminished by the 
systematic work of modern explorers.* 

To Africa the expression " Dark Continent " is frequently applied, as if all its 
inhabitants were Negroes properly so called, analogous in type to the maritime 
populations in the west equatorial region. The term Beled-es-Sudan, or " Black 
Land," would thus be extended to the whole continent. But the true Negroes, 
although perhaps forming a majority of the inhabitants, occupy less than half of 
the land. The regions to the north, east, and south belong to tribes and peoijles 
of diverse physical appearance, and grouped in distinct races or sub-races. Some 

* Approximate estimate of the population of Africa by Behm and Wagner in 1882, 205,825,000. 



jiKiYnnilir j! ILLllXUii;', 





.■''3 t '4J^ ;»^ 



I 



I 



'<^ 






LISRAHV 

OF THE 

:RSITY of ILLINOIS 



r\ TTAB TTA\"rS 17 

ethnologists have supposed that all the " Children of Ham," from the Berbers to 
the Hottentots, are descended from one original stock, and that their diverging 
types are due to gradual adaptation to different environments. But such a 
hypothesis is unsupported by any proof, and the observer is struck especially by 
the ethnical contrasts, whether fundamental or derived, which are presented by 
the various African populations, as he advances from north to south. Even 
within the strictly Xegro division the anatomy, muscular system, physiognomy, 
colour, and speech offer as great a diversity of forms as is found amongst the white 
peoples of Europe or the yellow Asiatics. At the same time the classifications 
hitherto proposed by anthropologists, and based on physical resemblances or 
linguistic affinities, are of a purely conventional or provisional character. Numer- 
ous communities, of which Kttle is known beyond their name, are grouped now in 
one, now in another division. VTe seem at times to be lost in the maze of names 
of tribes and races collected by travellers in the various regions of Africa, and the 
chaos is often intensified by the reckless use of these names, the same term being 
applied in one place to two distinct peoples, while in another the same group is 
indicated on the maps by several different appellations. 

The ifediterranean seaboard differs from the rest of the continent as much in 
its inhabitants as it does in its geological history, its physical features, its animal 
and vegetable species. The bulk of the ilaui-itanian population consists of the 
so-called Berbers (Imazighen, Imohagh), who approach the Eui-opean type more 
closclv than the other A fnV.in races. Amongst them are met several tribes in 
which blue eyes and fair or light chestnut hair are so common that they have 
often been wrongly regarded as of European descent. These Berber peoples seem 
to be allied to the ancient Egyptians. The whole of Xorth Afi-ica and Southern 
Europe may have even been peopled from one ethnical source in prehistoric times, 
the populations, Kke the animal and vegetable species, thus radiating from a 
common centre. The oases and upland valleys in the Sahara have also been 
occupied by the Berbers, some of whose tribes, designated by the name of 
"iloors," dwell even south of the desert along: the right bank of the Senegal. 

Some of the Berber communities, such as the Imohaghs or Tuaregs of 
Ahaggar, and the Imazighen or Kabyles, that is, " Tribes," and especially those 
of Morocco, appear to be of pure stock. But in the plains, and still more in the 
towns, endless crossings have modified the type in a thousand ways, and given rise 
to half-caste populations bearing a great variety of names. As in Europe 
" Moorish ' ' blood stiU flows in the veins of Andalusians, Mm-cians, Talentians, 
and Algarves, so in Africa Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Spaniards, Provencals, 
Italians, Greeks, and Frenchmen have left some traces of their presence, either as 
slaves or conquerors. 

On the other hand, the dark aborigines of the Sahara and the Xegroes 
imported from the south into every part of Barbary have become diversely inter- 
mingled with the Berber tribes, whUe fresh elements have been introduced from 
the east by the Arabs. Under this term " Arab " were moreover comprised 
Syrians and Easterns of all kinds, and it has even been extended to a large part of 

VOL. X. c 



18 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

the Mauritanian population, Arabs only in speech, traditions of conquest, religion 
and some doubtful genealogies. 

■ In the Nile basin great mixture has also taken place, but in this intermingling 
the European and Turkish elements are but slightlj^ represented, whereas the 
Arabs and other Semites have had a preponderating influence in the formation of 
many communities in North-east Africa. Historians have often attempted to draw 
an absolute line between the Egj'ptians and the Nilotic peoples above the cataracts. 
They considered that the inhabitants of the three Egjqjtian provinces should be 
grouped either with the Semites or Aryans, or else regarded as a distinct race. 
The E,etu (Rotu), that is, the ancient inhabitants of the Lower Nile, have thus 
been afEliated to a so-called " Proto-Semite " stock, whence the Arabs also were 
supposed to be descended. Although arguments based on the element of speech 
have but a relative value, it is generally admitted that the " Hamitic " linguistic 
family, comprising Old Egyptian, Galla, and Berber, presents in its structure a 
remote affinity to the Semitic idioms. But Old Egyptian and its modern repre- 
sentative, the Coptic, is much more clearly related to the Berber dialects. The 
Retu tj^e itself, surviving in that of the modern Fellahin in spite of coimtless 
crossings and modifications, is by no means Semitic. Nor is it akin to that of the 
Negroes of the interior. Doubtless many Egyptians, as has been remarked by 
ChampoUion the younger, resemble the Barabra of Nubia, who themselves differ 
little from the Beja. Travellers ascending the Nile assure us that the tj'pe of the 
northern Fellahin merges by insensible transitions in that of the southern popula- 
tions. But this phenomenon is the inevitable result of racial interminglings. The 
original tj'pe has been modified in a thousand ways by crossings, migrations, 
conquests, the introduction of slaves, diet, and other social conditions. Thus have 
been developed numerous mixed races, and the most varied contrasts in figure, 
colour, habits, speech and j)olitical institutions between neighbouring populations. 

In the region of the great lakes and of the western affluents of the Upper Nile, 
the Negro nations, properly so-called, are represented by the Fung, the Shilluks, 
the Bari, Denka, and other dark communities. But the majority of these Negroes 
are far from being characterised by the black and shining skin, the pouting lips, 
the projecting jaws, flat features, broad nose, and woolly hair which are usually 
supposed to be characteristic of all Africans. Even the Monbutt.u, a nation 
dwelling to the south of the Niam-niam, between the Congo and Upper Nile basins, 
are distinguished by an almost light complexion, a tolerably full beard, a straight 
or aquiline nose, and amongst them are frequently' met persons with hair of 
an ashy blonde colour. Schweinfurth estimates these "fair negroes" at over 
a twentieth of the whole ]\Ionbuttu nation. Possibly their carnivorous diet, 
comprising even hmnan flesh, may contribute to some extent to give a relatively 
light comj^lexion to these aborigines. At least the observations of M. Antoine 
d' Abbadie on the Ethiopian tribes, observations confirmed by several other travellers, 
tend to show that flesh-eating peoples, even those of hot lowlands, have a much 
fairer complexion than those living on a vegetarian diet, even when the latter 
dwell at a higher elevation on lofty plateaus and mountain slopes. The Negroes 




GKOUP OF KCBIAN WOMEN. 



LIBRARY 

OF THE 

'•'^ -'ILLINOIS, 



INHABIT/USTTS. 19 

■fllio approach nearest to the traditional type as popularised on the stage are those 
of the Atlantic seaboard. Nowhere else has the slave-trade caused greater havoc 
than amongst these tribes, and the hatred of the white master for his slave has 
tended to exaggerate the repulsive tj-pe attributed to the slave races in general. 

According to phj'siologists, the blood of the Negro is thicker and less red tlian 
that of the whites. It coagulates more rapidly and flows more sluggishly. The 
Negro, like the yellow Asiastic Mongol, is of a less sensitive temperament than the 
European. He suffers less under surgical operations, and runs less danger from 
their consequences ; his nervous life is less intense, his pulsation less active, than 
that of Europeans. Several of the maladies common in Europe are unknown, or at 
least very rare, in Africa. Cancer, croup, dental caries, tj-phoid and marsh fevers, 
seldom attack the Negro, who on the other hand suffers more from bilious and 
cutaneous disorders. Tetanus also is much dreaded bj- them, and the least change 
of climate exposes them to pulmonary affections. T\Tiere the whites and blacks 
live side by side on the same plantations, the former fall victims to j-ellow fever, 
the latter to cholera. Home-sickness is also one of the most fatal affections of 
the African race. 

The portion of Africa lying in the southern hemisphere is mainly occupied by 
the Bantus, whose various communities present a somewhat analogous tj'pe, and 
speak languages derived from a common stock, as had ah-eady been observed by 
Lichtenstein at the beginning of the century. The Kafirs of Natal and Cape 
Colony are amongst the finest of this noble Bantu race, which rivals the Barabra 
of the Nile in its proud carriage and gracefiil attitudes. But in direct contact 
with these superb Africans are found other aborigines presenting a totally different 
and far less noble type. These are the Koikoin, or Hottentots, characterised by 
a yellowish complexion, low statui'e, and slightly developed muscular system. 
These commimities, as distinct from the Bantus as are the Chinese from the 
Arj'ans, may perhaps represent a vanquished race di-iven bj' the invaders gradually 
to the southernmost limits of the continent. But such a hypothesis seems much 
more justified in respect of certain " pigmy peoj)les " scattered over a great part of 
Africa. Such are the San, or Bosjesmen, that is " Bushmen," of South Africa, the 
Dokos of Kaffa, the Akka or Tikki-tikki of the "Welle River, the Obongo of the 
Ogowe basin. In connection with these dwarfish populations, and especially the 
Bushmen, anthropologists have observed that if Africa is the continent of the great 
anthropoid apes, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee, it is also the home of the 
most ape-like human races. In this region of the globe, they tell us, the two 
orders of primates approach nearest to each other. One is tempted to regard these 
pigmies as a remnant of the aboriginal element deprived of their lands by stronger 
intruding races. 

The inhabitants of Madagascar are only partly connected with those of the 
neighbouring continent, for a portion of the population is certainly of Malay 
origin. Like the local plants and animals, it bears witness to the geographical 
independence of the island. But in the adjacent Comoro group the prevailing 
speech is African. 

c 2 



20 NORTH-EAST .IFEICA. 

National prejudice, for which historians fail to make due allowance, has given 
rise to the widespread impression that the Africans have, so to say, taken no part 
in the general work of civilisation. The first examjjle which presents itself to the 
mind is that of the king of Dahomey, celebrating the " great custom " by a general 
massacre and the flooding of a lake with human blood ; or else we conjure up the 
image of those armed Monbuttu hordes which rush to battle grinding their teeth 
and shouting " Meat ! Meat ! " But these frightful pictures are not an epitome of 
the history of Africa. On the contrary, we are irresistiblj' attracted by the study 
of our own social evolution to the Nile basin in North- East Africa. Looking back 
through the long perspective of the past, far beyond the heroic times of Greece, 
where was cradled our distinctly European culture, we ascend from century to 
century to the remote ages when the Pyramids were raised, when the first plough- 
share turned up the rich soil of the Nile delta. In Egypt are found the very 
oldest documents of authentic history. So well established was its claim to the 
foremost place in the development of civilisation, that the Greeks themselves 
regarded the Nilotic region as the common cradle of mankind. Whatever be the 
constituent ethnical elements of the nation to which we trace the germs of our 
intellectual life, it is certain that their civilisation was of African origin. It had 
its earliest seat in the narrow and fertile valley of the Nile, between the arid rock 
and the still more arid sands of the wildei-ness. Through this mysterious stream, 
flowing from the depths of the continent, were first established mutual intercourse 
and civilising influences amongst the various regions of the old world. The north 
African lands Ij'ing farther west were almost entirely excluded from any share in 
this movement, at least before the introduction of the camel into the Dark 
Continent, for till then they remained separated by the vast intervening desert 
from the thickly peopled regions of Sudan. 

From the remotest antiquity the Africans, even beyond Egypt, took part in the 
triumphs of mankind over nature. They were either stockbreeders or tillers of the 
land, and to them we are indebted for many valuable plants and domestic animals. 
From the African continent comes the variety of sorgho which, under the name of 
durra, is cultivated from the banks of the Nile to the shores of the southern ocean, 
and which is rivalled only by wheat and rice in its economic importance to 
mankind. From Africa we have also received the date, for the Berbers and 
Sudanese wore probably the first to study the habit of this jjalm, which grew 
spontaneously in their forests. According to Schweinfurth, the wild stock of the 
Ethiopian banana, known to botanists by the name of iniisa ensete, gave rise to the 
hundred varieties of the cultivated banana, whose fruit serves as a staple of food in 
many American lands. To these three important vegetable species must also be 
added the kaffa shrub, or cofl'ee plant, so highlj' prized by a third of mankind for 
the stimulating jjrojDcrties and delicious aroma of its berry. 

The civilised world is also indebted to the natives of Africa for several domestic 
animals. Certain varieties of the dog, the cat, the pig of Senaar, and the ferret, 
have been tamed by them ; the ass also is certainly of African origin, and to the 
same source should perhaps be traced the goat, the sheep, and the ox. In recent 



I^^HAB^^A^TS. 



21 



times the guinea-fowl was, so to say, rediscovered by the Portuguese in this 
continent, whence it had been originally obtained by the Greeks and Eomans, but 
liad again disappeared during niediteval times. 

Even in the sphere of industries, Africa has contributed a certain share to the 
common inheritance of mankind. The monuments of Egypt, her highways, canals. 



Fig. 7. — L.^xGiAGES OF Africa. 
Scale 1 : 75,000,000. 




"c'diap of Lf^ 



^ ^e^TQn 



rrmi 



Semites Berbers 

(Arab and (Kabyles, 

Abyssinian). ToTiareg.) 



Hamites. 



Xuba. 



Fula. 



Xiam ■ Niam. Xe^i itues. 



Bauta San and Eoin-Soin Maiayo- 

(Kafirs, ^Hottentots, Polynesians. 



Zulus}. 



Buslimen}. 



Undassified Aryans. 

1,200 Miles. 



Turks. 



embankments, her costly fabrics, gems, and fiimitiu'c, her carved -woods and 
wrought metals — in a word, the thousand objects foiind in her burial-grounds — 
cannot all have been the work of the Eetu alone. Amongst the products of the 
old Eg^-ptian industry are frequently recognised certain foims also recuiTing in 



22 KOETH-EAST APEICA. 

Nubia, in Abyssinia, and even in Sudan. The smelting and working of iron, most 
useful of all metallurgic discoveries, has been attributed to the Negroes as 'svell as 
to the Chalybes of Asia Minor ; and the Bongos of the White Nile, as well as some 
other African tribes, have constructed furnaces of a very ingenious type. Their 
smelters and forgers are, for the most part, satisfied with rude and primitive 
implements, in the use of which they, however, display marvellous skill. The Fans 
of the Ogowe basin produce excellent iron, whose quality is scarcely equalled by 
Europeans themselves. In most of the native tribes the smiths constitute a special 
caste, much respected and even dreaded for their reputed knowledge of the magic 
arts. In Abyssinia and Senaar they are accused of changing themselves at night 
into hyaenas and other wild beasts, which prowl about the villages and disinter the 
bodies of the dead. 

In agriculture and industry the Africans so far co-operated in the development 
of human culture. But their direct influence in the trade of the world was felt 
only through Egj'pt and Mauritania along the Mediterranean seaboard. Com- 
mercial intercourse was doubtless carried on throughout the whole continent, but 
very slowly, and through a thousand intermediary tribes. The produce of Central 
Africa reached Europe long after all trace of its source had disappeared. In the 
same way the riverain populations along the banks of the Niger received their 
Manchester cottons and hardware from Bii-mingham without suspecting that their 
river flowed into the sea, or that there are other great divisions of the globe bej-ond 
the Dark Continent. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that for thousands of 
years an active trade has been carried on with the interior. Down to a recent epoch 
caravans were regarded as sacred, passing fearlessly through contending armies 
and across distiu-bed regions. The spirit of traffic prevails amongst numerous 
tribes in Mauritania, the Upper Nile, and Sudan, as amongst the Jews and 
Ai-menians elsewhere, and their dealers disjjlay all the shrewdness, tenacity, and 
inexhaustible obsequiousness everywhere characteristic of the mercantile classes. 

From time immemorial the cowries of the Maldive Islands [cyprcea moneta), 
gradually replacing other small objects, such as grains of durra and various seeds, 
have penetrated as a sjTubol of exchange as far as West Africa. Through the 
Calcutta, London, or Zanzibar routes, they are still imported to the Bight of Benin, 
whence they are forwarded to the markets of Lake Tsad.* But the natives now 
use them chieflj^ as ornaments. European travellers find that the Turkish piastres 
and Maria Theresa crowns have already ^jreceded them in most of the unknown 
regions of the interior. The Bongo tribe was even acqiiainted with the art of 
minting, and current coins are also the bits of iron four inches long which are in 
common use amongst the Ogowe Fans. 

But iu maritime commerce the Africans scarcely take any part. With the 
exception of Alexandiia, which, thanks to its position on the route between Europe 
and India is an essentially international point, Carthage was the only continental 
city that rose to power by its trade. But Carthage was itself a Phoenician colonj', 
foimded on a headland projecting into the Mediterranean iu the direction of 
• John E. Hertz, "Proceedings of the Hamburg Geographical Society," 1880-Sl. 




BISHAEI GUM-DEALEES AT KOEOSKO. 



MNIVERSl.roT ILLINOIS, 



RELIGION. 23 

Europe. Seafaring commimities are rare aloug the African coasts. The list is 
almost exhausted h}- the mention of the Somali at the eastern " horn," and of the 
Kra or Kroomen on the Atlantic side. But the former scarcely get beyond the 
Gulf of Aden, passing with the shifting trade winds from shore to shore, while the 
latter seldom venture far from the coast lagoons and estuaries. 

Religiox. 

Siuce the fall of Carthage and the decadence of Egyptian culture, the most 
important event in African history has been the Moslem invasion. In the Dark 
Continent the zealous missionaries of Islam have reajDed the richest harvests. The 
simplicity of the Mussidman creed, which limits itself to proclaiming the unity, 
omnipotence, and goodness of God ; the clearness of its precepts, recommendiag 
above all prayer, and cleanliness as the outward symbol of purity ; the zeal of its 
preachers, the prestige of its victories over the " infidel," all combiaed to seduce 
the Egj-ptians, the Berbers, and Xegroes. From age to age the Mohammedan 
domain has grown La extent, until it now comprises nearly haK of the contiuent, 
from the Isthmus of Suez to the som-ces of the Xiger, and even to the Gulf of 
Guinea. During the first period of its triumphs, Islam, heir to the sciences received 
from the Byzantine world, infused new life, as it were, into Egj'pt and Mauritania, 
endowed them with a fresh civilization, and through the caravan trade with 
Morocco, abeady the emporium of Mussulman Spain, raised Timbuctu, on the Niger, 
into a srreat centre of commercial and intellectual movement. 

In K'igretia the propagation of Islam also coincides with important political 
and social changes. Large states were founded in regions hitherto a prey to a 
hundred mutually hostile and savage tribes. Manners were thus softened, and a 
sentiment of solidarity sprang up between communities formerly engaged iu ever- 
lasting warfare. Mohaimnedanism thus enjoys more material cohesion in Africa 
than iu Europe and Asia, where the faithful, scattered amid populations worship- 
ping at other altars, are often separated from each other by extensive wastes and 
arms of the sea. In the Dark Continent they occujjy a compact domain as large as 
all Europe, stretching uninterruj)tedly from the Red Sea to the Atlantic, and here 
their common belief tends everywhere to diffuse the social ideas, the habits, usages, 
and speech of the dominant Arab race. 

In recent times Christianity has attempted to dispute the field with its Moham- 
medan rival. Protestant missionaries have even obtaiued some little success, 
especially in South Africa. But compared with the apostles of Islam they stand 
at a great disadvantage, for they are unable, except in a figui-ative sense, to 
announce themselves as the brethren of their black proselytes. The " messenger 
of the good tidings" cannot give his daughter in marriage to his Christian Negro 
convert. Colour keeps them apart, and both remain men of different race and 
caste. 

Having become the inheritance of the faithful by the triumph of Islam, Africa 
has witnessed the birth of prophets powerful enough to declare the " holy war." 



24 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



During the invasion of Egypt by the French under Buonaparte at the close of the 
hist century, a mahdi — that is, a " spiritual guide " foretold by old prophecies — 
summoned his followers to exterminate the stranger. Recently other m.ahdis have 
stirred up the tribes in the West against the French of Senegambia, in the East 
against the Turks and English in Egypt. In the North, also, fanatics are prepar- 



Fig. 8. — Reltoions of Africa. 
Scale 1 : 75,000,000. 




Meridian of breen 



Nature Mohammedans. 

Worshippers. 



mtmi 



Monophysites 
and Gnostics. 



liilli) jHgSa 

Protestants. Catholics. 
1,200 Miles. 



Jews. 



ing emissaries in Algeria, Tripoli, and Senusiya, and sending them from mosque to 
mosque in order to excite the congregations against the intidel. In Mecca the 
most zealous pilgrims, that is, those subject to the most frequent fits of religious 
frenzy, are the Takrur or Takrarir, a term usually applied collectively to the "West 
African Negroes, but in a more special sen.se to those of Wadai and Boruu, and to 
the inhabitants of Metammch, in the north-west of Abyssinia. Notwithstanding 



SLAVEEY. 25 

the difficulties of the journey, thousands of these Takrurs undertake the pilgrimage 
every year. 

In West Africa the propagators of Islam, although using the language of the 
Prophet, are not Arabs, but Negroes of various tribes. As traders or artisans, they 
visit the populations along the banks of the Gambia, and penetrate even as far as 
Ashanti and Dahomey, on the Gold Coast and Bight of Benin. In East Africa the 
propaganda is also very active on the shores of the Indian Ocean, although here 
the Ai'ab or Swahili dealers take no interest in the conversion of their wretched 
\dctims. On the contrary, they prefer to keep them pagan, in order to retain the 
right of persecuting and plundering them. Once converted, even by the mere 
initial rite of circumcision, the natives, of whatever race and colour, acquire the 
privilege of common fellowship with the rest of the faithful. Nor is there lack of 
honest Mohammedans, who zealously labour in the spirit of the precepts of the 
Koran for the emancipation of their slaves. In the jJrovince of Bahr-el-Ghazal 
Felkin met the sou of a slave-dealer, who tinding himself by his father's death the 
owner of several hundi-ed Negroes, immediately liberated all of them. 

Slavery. 

But like their Christian rivals, the Arab traders dealt tiU recently for the most 
part in human flesh rather than in elephants' tusks, cotton, ground-nuts, or palm 
oil. Unfortunately for themselves, the Negroes are the most docile and devoted 
of servants. Anthropologists have remarked on their essentially feminine type as 
compared with that of the whites. They are generally noted for their soft voice, 
scant beard, delicate articulation, pink nails, velvety skin, and rounded muscles.* 
However physically strong, in manners and demeanour they also approach the 
general type of woman. They are timid and inquisitive, jealous and coquettish, 
great gossips and scandal-mongers, quick to love, as quick to fall out and make up 
their quarrels again. Like so many women, they also delight in abject submission, 
even sacrificing themselves for those who despise and oppress them. 

Hence from the remotest times the blacks were most highly esteemed as slaves, 
and of the tributes or presents forwarded to the Asiatic and European sovereigns, 
those were most acceptable which were accompanied by African captives. In 
Africa itself almost every community has its slaves, and amongst many tribes one 
half of the popidation is enslaved to the other. Prisoners of war, considered as so 
much merchandise, are bartered or sold to the highest bidder, destined either to till 
the lands of their o'wner or to increase the number of retainers attached to some 
powerful chief ; or else, in some districts, to be immolated in honour of the gods or 
ancestors of some obscure potentate ; or lastly, as amongst the Monbuttu, to be 
roasted and served up at the great feasts. Nevertheless, the position of the slave is 
not generally one of great hardship. He often himself accepts this lot to escape 
from starvation in times of distress, and if badly treated by his owner he enjoys 
the prescriptive right of transferring his services elsewhere. By renouncing his 

* Winwood Reade ; G. d'Eichthal. 



26 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

personal freedom he enters a new family, and the offspring of the free woman 
whom he marries are free like their mother. 

It must he confessed that the condition of the African slave has been aggra- 
vated mainly through the influence of European civilisation. Even long before the 
discovery of the Coast of Guinea by the white navigators, and before the foimda- 
tion of European colonies in the New "World, slave markets were held in Seville 
and Lisbon. But when Portugal had taken possession of the seaboard, and the 
Spaniards, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch required robust hands to 
rejilace the exterminated natives on their remote western plantations, then a large 
part of Atrica was transformed to a vast hunting-groimd for hiunan quarry, and 
the name of " white " became sjTionymous with " cannibal," as it stiU is in the 
GaUa language. All round the coast stations sprang up as outports for this new 
merchandise. The Portuguese forwarded to Brazil the Xegroes captured in 
Angola ; Jamaica, Barbadoes, and Yirginia received their supplies from the Cape 
Coast ; Louisiana and the French Antilles from Senegal and the Slave Coast ; New 
Amsterdam from Elniina. Every American settlement thus had its corresponding 
emporium in Guinea. The horrors of the " middle passage " exceeded all descrip- 
tion. To save space the living freight was packed in the smallest compass on 
board ship, where large numbers were swept away by typhus, heat, thirst, and 
suicide. It would be impossible even roughly to estimate the multitude of human 
beings sacrificed by the slave-trade, through the wars it fomented aroimd the 
African seaboard, the epidemics it propagated, the revolts and massacres of which 
it was the consequence. 

Although the Africans removed to the New "World must be reckoned by many 
millions, the coloui'ed population, consisting almost exclusively of men, increased 
very slowly on the plantations. In the jDresent century, however, the equilibrium 
of the sexes has at least been established amongst the exiled race. At present the 
number of pure or half-caste Negroes in America exceeds twenty-five millions, and 
amongst them there are still about one miUion five hundred thousand imemanei- 
pated. But since the sanguinary civil war waged in the United States for the 
liberation of the blacks, this ancient form of servitude is finally condemned, and 
the number of slaves is daily diminishing in its last strongholds, Cuba and 
BrazQ. 

In Africa itself, the institution has received a fatal blow by the closing of the 
maritime outports, and whatever may at times be said to the contrary, very few of 
the Arab and other craft engaged in the traffic succeed in forcing the blockade 
along the shores of the Indian Ocean.* Many however still cross the Bed Sea, in 
defiance of the English at Aden, of the French at Obock, and of the Italians at 
Assab, while tens of thousands continue to fall victims to the Arab and other 
kidnajopers ui the interior of the continent. Dui'ing the heyday of the slave- 
traders the traffic cost the lives of at least half a miUion Negroes every j'ear. 
Compared with that already remote epoch, the present must be regarded as an age 

• Slavers captured and condemned on the east coast of Africa, 1876-7, 27 with 438 slaves ; 1877-8, 15 
with 60 slaves. 



EXPLOEATION. 27 

of progress. The outports on the coast are no longer crowded with captives, and, 
as in the New "World, the wars stirred up by the dealers in human flesh involve the 
ultimate ruin of their infamous traffic. 



EXPLOKATIOX. 

Henceforth supported by other produce than that of slaves, the commerce of 
Africa already finds the interior more accessible to its agents, and the continent 
thus becomes daily more closely connected with the rest of the world. Large 
numbers of explorers starting from various points round the coast are continually 
invading new or little - known regions, and amongst them are many brave 
volunteers ever ready to sacrifice their lives in the sole interest of science and 
humanity. It is one of the glories of our age to have produced so many heroes, 
some who have achieved fame, others whose very names are already forgotten, but 
all alike devoting themselves merely to fiU up the blank spaces on the map of the 
Dark Continent. A " necrological " ^Xlap of Africa has been prepared bj- il. Henri 
Duveyrier, showing the names of the chief European explorers who, between the 
years 1800 and 1874, have either been murdered by fanatical Mohammedans or 
fallen victims to the deadly climate and the hardships undergone in their efforts 
to advance geographical knowledge. Since then the list has been considerably 
augmented, and the names of Flatters and his associates — of Schuver, Sacconi, 
Keith Johnston and many others — have been enrolled amongst the martjTS of 
science. 

In the history of African discovery, as in that of all other human conquests, 
progress has not always been continuous. Until recently the work of exploration 
has rather been carried on interruptedly, and at times even discontinued for long 
intervals. Between the first voyage of circumnavigation, mentioned by Herodotus 
as having been accomplished under Pharaoh Xecho, and that of Yasco de Gama, 
there was an interval of twenty-one centuries, dm'iug which numerous discoveries 
already made had been forgotten. The geographers of the fifteenth century were 
acquainted with the resvdts of the older explorations only through Ptolemy's 
inaccm'ate statements, which were made still more confusing by the carelessness of 
cop}"ists and the imagination of commentators. The coasts already known to the 
Phoenicians had to be rediscovered, for Hanno's voyage to the south of the Senegal 
Eiver, accomplished nineteen hundred years before the Portuguese, had long ceased 
to be remembered. Even after Gama's " periplus," and the occupation of a large 
portion of the coast by the Portuguese, our knowledge of the regions ah-eady 
visited was more than once obscured, thanks mainly to the jealousy of rival nations 
anxious to keep for themselves the secret of their expeditions. 

At present learned writers are patriotically engaged in vindicating for their 
respective countries the honour of having been the first to explore many since- 
forgotten regions. It seems certain that long before the Portuguese, Italian 
navigators had surveyed most of the north-west seaboard, and even the islands and 
archipelagoes lying off the coast. A sketch by the Venetian Marco Pizzigani, 



28 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



f 



dated 1807, and preserved in tlie library of Parma, lays down the African coast as 
far as Cape Bojador, iu a way generally in conformity with the results of the most 
careful modern sui-veys. The people of Dieppe on their part claim for their 
ancestors the glory of having foimded a " Little Dieppe " on the Guinea Coast in 
1364, and of having in 1402 colonised the Canaries under the orders of Jean de 
Bethencourt.* The Portuguese also, whose navigators claimed to be the first to 



Fig. 9. — Chief Eol'tfs of Explorers in the Interior of Africa (1883). 
Scale 1 : 75,000,000. 




Meridian of G 



The courses of rivers and outlines of 
lakes are not shown on this map. 



n Pfrnon 
Well known countries of which acctirate maps 
Iiave already been made are shaded in grey. 

1,200 Miles. 



sail into the waters of the " Impenetrable Sea " and open up the " Dark Ocean," 
regard their missionaries of the sixteenth century as the pioneers in the chief 
discoveries made in the interior of the continent. Yet long after the time of these 
missionaries, the maps of Africa continued to be disfigured by the names of peoples 
described as the " Tongueless," the "Noseless," the " Opistodactyles," with fingers 
grown backward, or of " Pygmies fighting the cranes for their food." 

• D'Avezac, "Esquisse generate do I'Afrique." 



EXPLOEATIOX. 29 

In our days geographical results are so carefully recorded that there can be 
no doubt as to the routes followed by travellers in the interior, and we are enabled, 
at least roughly, to trace the network of the itineraries by which our knowledge 
of the continent has been enlarged. During the last hundred years — that is, since 
the foundation in 1788 of the English Societj^ for the exploration of Africa, whose 
first heroes and victims were Mungo Park and Hornemann — the whole continent 
has been several times crossed from sea to sea. Livingstone, Cameron, Stanley, 
Serpa Pinto, Massari, "Wissmann, Buonfanti, have all performed this exploit, while 
scores of other less distinguished explorers have penetrated in some directions 
thousands of miles from the seaboard. Nor is mere distance always a measure of 
the importance of these expeditions, and many trips of short duration deserve to 
find a place in the records of African discovery. Sufficient data have already 
been obtained to prepare complete maps of certain coastlands, such as the Cape, 
the Nile Delta, Tunis, Algeria, while the list of positions astronomically determined 
comprises several thousand names, and is daQy increasing. Scarcely a week passes 
without bringing the news of some fresh geographical conquest. The routes of 
explorers are so interlaced, and overlap each other at so many points, that few 
blank spaces of great extent remain to be filled up ; and even in the unexplored 
regions enough is known of the general trend of rivers, valleys, and mountain 
ranges to at least facilitate the work of future expeditions. 

At present the greatest extent of terra iiicoffiiita lies parallel with the equator 
north of the Ogowe and Congo, stretching from the Crystal Mountains and those 
of Mfumbiro and Gambaragara, between the Nile and Congo basins. It comprises 
an area of at least 400,000 square miles, or about the thirtieth part of the whole 
continent. But it is already being approached from several jjoints aroimd its peri- 
phery, and so recently as December, 1883, the last link was completed of the 
permanent stations reaching by the Congo route from the Atlantic to the Indian 
Ocean. The continent is now traversed from shore to shore by a continuous line 
of exploration. 

The whole of Africa might perhaps have already been discovered had aU 
the white explorers made the way easy for their successors by considerate treat- 
ment of the natives. By their humane conduct men like Speke, Livingstone, 
Barth, Piaggia, Gessi, Schweinfurth, Emin-Bej', ward off dangers from those 
following in their footsteps; but, on the other hand, many needless obstacles have 
been created by the threats and violence of less sympathetic pioneers. At the 
same time it must be confessed that whatever policy they may adopt, all alike are 
mistrusted by the aborigines, who have too often good reason for regarding them 
as forerunners of warlike expeditions. Thus even the best of Europeans are in 
some respects necessarily considered as hostile, their very success inviting the 
presence of less scrupulous followers. How often must the humane explorer, 
while accepting the hospitality of some native chief, reflect with feelings akin to 
remorse on the future which he is preparing for his generous hosts ! However 
unintentionallj-, he leads the way for the trader and the soldier, thereby insuring 
the ruin of his friendly entertainers. To justify himself in his own eyes, he is 



30 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

fain to reflect that wars and conquests and violent annexations are the inevitable 
preliminaries of universal peace and brotherhood. 

Most of the African seaboard has already been seized by various European 
states, and every fresh discovery in the interior enables their officials, troops, and 
collectors to penetrate farther inland. Trade also expands from year to year, and 
the foreign exchanges of Egypt alone now exceed those of the whole continent 
during the last generation, which in 1860 were estimated at about £38,000,000. 
Highways are being constructed from the coasts towards the inland plateaux, 
whereby future expeditions must be greatly facilitated. Lines of railway have 
even begun to wind their way from a few seaports along the neighbouring valleys, 
here and there scaling the escarpments, and slowly moving towards the centre of 
the continent, where they must one day converge. To these first links, starting 
from the coasts of Egypt, Tunis, Algeria, Senegambia, the Cape, and Xatal, others 
will soon be added, resembling the trenches cut by a bosiegiag force round the 
ramparts of some formidable stronghold. The whole of Africa may thus be 
compared to a vast citadel, whose disunited garrison of some two hundred million 
men, acting without unity or concert, must sooner or later open their gates and 
capitulate to their European conquerors or patrons. For the possession of the 
interior must iaevitably fall ultimately to the masters of the sea and surrounding 
coastlands. Even were any of the central states temporarily to acquire command 
of the seaboard, they would be compelled to treat with some maritime European 
power, and thus prepare the way for the invasion of their territories. Thus, 
although not yet completely discovered, Africa is none the less, from the political 
standpoint, already a mere dependence of Europe. By the opening of the Suez 
Canal it has been doubly severed from Asia. To the European States thus belongs 
the exclusive privilege of introducing a new civilisation into the Dark Continent, 
and restoring to the inhabitants, under another form, the very culture which 
Europe herself received from the people of the Nile Yalley. 




CHAPTER II. 




THE NILE BASDf. 
TlIE RiVEK. 

ESCEXDIXG from the south to the north, and in its lower course 
traversing broad open plains, the Nile gives, as It were, a general 
inclination to the whole of Xorth-East Africa towards the ilediter- 
ranean basin. Notwithstanding a difference of outline, its delta 
corresponds to another opening at once maritime and fluvial, that of 
the Dardanelles and Bosphorus, through which the regions watered by the streams 
of East Europe also slope towards the ilediterranean. Thus like an inner within 
an outer circle, there is developed in the centre of the Old TVorld a zone of riverain 
lands, forming, so to say, a little world apart, and comprising such famous 
historical cities as ilemphis, Alexandria, Jerusalem, TjTe, Antioch, Ephesus, 
Jliletus, Smyrna, Athens, and Constantinople. 

In the length of its course the Xile is one of the great rivers of the world, and 
by manj- of the tribes along its banks the earth is supposed to be divided into two 
parts by this mysterious stream, coiled like a snake round the globe and grasping 
its tail in its mouth. It certainly exceeds all the other rivers of the eastern 
hemisphere, not excepting the Yangtze-Kiang or the three great Siberian arteries. 
In this respect it even surpasses the Amazon itself, and probably yields to the 
Missouri-ilississippi alone. Yet the chief river falling into the Victoria Xyanza, 
and thus forming the true upper course of the Xile, has not yet been determined 
with absolute certainty. It may even be larger than has been supposed, so that 
calculating from its farthest source south of the equator, the African river may 
possibly be superior in length to its Xorth American rival. But taking it from the 
Nyanza alone, it is at least 3,750 miles long, and in a straight line along the 
meridian from lake to sea the distance is thirty-one aud a half degrees of latitude, 
or about 2,100 miles.* But to reach the farthest headstreams of the XUe basin we 



• Length of the llissouri-Mississippi . 

,, Xile, with the Xranza headstream 
,, Amazon, with the Apurimac . 

Irtish-Oh 

,, Selenga-Angara-Tenisei . 

,, Yitim-Lena .... 

„ Tangtze-Kiang 



4,230 miles. 

4,200 ,, 

3,600 ,, 

3,410 „ 

3,300 ., 

3,280 „ 

2,790 „ 



32 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

should perhaps descend over five degrees to the south of the equator aud two to 
the east of the emissary from the great lake. The winding of its bed lengthens 
its whole course by over three-fourths. 

In superficial area the Nile basin is inferior both to the Amazon and the Mis- 
sissippi, aud apparently about equal to the Congo.* Except in its middle course, 
between the Makrara territory and Abyssinia, the lateral river valleys are of slight 
extent, and owing to the arid character of most of its basin, it cannot compare in 
volume to any of the other great rivers of the world. According to recent esti- 
mates, the Atrato, which falls into the Carribean Sea near the Isthmus of Panama, 
has a greater discharge, although its basin is nearly a hundred times smaller than 
that of the Nile. 

The general tilt of the land from the central plateaux to the shores of the 
Mediterranean coincides with the Nile Valley. Nevertheless to its main flu\-ial 
arteries the whole of this region is exclusively indebted for its geographical unity. 
The lacustrine uplands of the interior, the marshy tracts where its chief affluents 
join the White Nile from the south-west, the isolated Abyssinian highlands, the 
Kordofan uplands encircled hj solitudes, the Nubian deserts, the narrow winding 
valley of Upper Egypt, lastly the smiling plains through which the main stream 
ramifies as it approaches the Mediterranean, are all so many distinct geographical 
domains, which must have had a purely local development but for the unity 
imparted to them by the hj-drographic system of the Nile. Thanks to the facilities 
for communication afforded by this great water highway, its lower reaches were 
peopled by Nubian colonies from remote times; the old Eg}'ptian culture 
advanced uj) to Mcroe, aud even farther south ; frequent wars were waged between 
the Ethiopians and the lowlanders for the command of the stream ; and for centuries 
Egyptian viceroys have made incessant efforts to extend their possessions to the 
whole of the Tipper Nile basin as far as the equatorial lakes and the " Great Divide." 
Along this main highway of North-East Africa the natural divisions between the 
riverain populations are marked by the obstructing cataracts and the confluences of 
the great affluents. Hence the study of the stream to which the surrounding lands 
owe their historic evolution claims our first attention. 

The ancients asserted that the Nile had its source in the " Mountains of the 
Moon," and it is noteworthy that the southernmost affluents of the lacustrine 
system whence it escapes were met bj' Speke in the "Land of the Moon." But 
amongst these affluents is there one copious and large enough to be regarded as the 
main upper stream? This "head of the Nile " is still being sought, and as in the 
time of Lucan, no one can yet boast of having seen the farthest source of the Nile. 
According to the maps prepared from the itineraries of Stanley, Smith, Pearson, and 
the French missionaries, the Mwaru (Liwumba, Luwambe), which rises beyond 
the fifth degree of southern latitude, and flows north and north-west towards the 

* Approximate area of the great river basins: — 

Amazon 2,800,000 square miles. 

Mississippi 1,390,000 

Nile 1,340,000 ,, 

Congo 1,280,000 „ „ 



THE NILE BASIN. 33 

Nyanza, would appear to be the true " Nile of the Moon," at least iu the Icugth of 
its course. Eut if the barometric altitudes taken by Pearson can be trusted, this 
stream cannot possibly reach the lacustrine basin, for it flows at a lower level. On 
the other hand, it cannot trend westwards in the direction of Lake Tanganyka, from 
which it is se2)aratcd by ridges some 500 feet high.* Hence it probably runs out 
m some landlocked basin. 

Speke was informed by the natives that this region, comprised between the great 
lake and the lofty coast ranges, is studded with lakes and salines, like those heapd 
of bj^ Denhardt, Erhard, and "Wakefield as 13'ing farther north. Till recently 
copious streams might still be supposed to flow from the western slope of Kilima- 
Njaro, the giant of African mountains, whose two snowy peaks rise some 240 
miles to the east of Nyanza. But the waters escajjing from the gorges of this 
volcano flow mainly east and south to the Indian Ocean, while the rivulets descend- 
ing from its west side lose themselves in the depressions of the plateau. None of 
the watercourses observed by Stanley and other travellers on the east side of Nyanza 
are of considerable size, and all of them rise at some distance from Kilima-Njaro. 

The water-parting between the Indian Ocean and the Nile is lower than the 
eastern ranges, and has rather the appearance of an elevated cliff terminating 
abruptly eastwards, and sloping gently towards the west. Above it at intervals 
rise volcanic cones, and the statement of the Arabs, that several of them still show 
signs of activity, has been recently confirmed by the evidence of the traveller 
Fischer. Erruptions are even said to occur, and two of the cones take the name of 
Dunye-M'buro, or "Smoky Mountain." Another is known as the Dunye-Ngai, 
or " Ileavenlj' Mountain," and copious thermal streams flow from the fissures. The 
foot of the eastern escarpments, some 4,320 feet high, is skirted by a thermal lake, 
which is continued by swampy tracts where soda is deposited. In this district the 
chain of volcanoes is separated by a deep depression from Kilima-Njaro, and the 
lake itself is little over 2,000 feet above sea-level. 

Of all the affluents of Lake Nyanza, the Kagera (Tangure or river of Kitaugule), 
which joins it from the west, has the best claim to be considered as the maiu head- 
stream of the basin, at least so far as regards its volume. This river, which by its 
first exjjlorers was named the Alexandra Nile, rises in a highland region some 60 
miles south of the equator, and nearly 2,340 miles in a straight line from the Medi- 
terranean. After collecting the torrents from Moimt Mfunibiro it takes a normal 
north-easterly course towards Nyanza. Stanlej^ penetrated into the valley of this 
Upper Nile below its confluence with the emissary of Lake Akanyaru, which had 
also received the name of Lake Alexandra even before it had been actually visited 
hj any European. In the district exi^lored by Stanley the Kagera traverses several 
lakes and receives the overflow from other lacustriae basins, flooding the surround- 
ing depressions. It has a mean depth of fifty feet, and the horizon is completely 
shut out by the tall masses of papyrus fringing its banks. Speke and Grant, who 
were the first to visit this Upper Nile, crossed it much lower down, below the 
Morongo Fall, one or two days' march from its confluence with Nyanza. 

* E. G. EaYcnstein, "Map of Eastern Equatorial Africa." 
VOL. X. D 



34 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



The Kagera is evidently a verj' copious stream, whicli during the rainy season 
overflows its banks for several miles, in a way that reminded Grant of the Hugli 
between Calcutta and Chandernagor. When Speke crossed it in January, 1862, 
that is, at low water, it was onl}^ 2o0 feet wide ; but here it resembled a canal cut 
through dense masses of reeds, and was too deep for the boatmen to emploj' their 
poles. Its current is very rapid, running at least 3| miles an hour and at its 
mouth forming a large estuary over 430 feet wide, and varying in depth from 80 
to 130 feet. For several miles from the shore its dark gre}- stream continues to flow 
in a separate channel without intermingling with the blue waters of the lake. 

The natives have a great veneration for their river, and one of the titles they 
give it seems to justify the hypothesis that it is really the main headstream of the 
Nile. According to Stanley they call it the " mother " of the " Stony Current," 
that is, of the emissary of Lake Nyanza in Uganda, At its north-west angle the 
lake is joined by the Kalonga, another copious river rising in the west in the neigh- 
bourhood of Lake Mwutan-Nzige. Although it has a course of over 120 miles, its 
volume is certainly inferior to that of the Kagera. 



Lake Victoria Nyaxza. 

The Nyanza, that is " lake " in a pre-eminent sense, knoiSTi also as the 
Ukerewe, and now as the Victoria Nyanza, is the largest lacustrine basin in Africa. 
According to Stanley's provisional map, which will soon be superseded by the more 
matured work of Mackay, it is exceeded in superficial area only by one other lake — 
Superior, in North America.* Both Michigan and Huron are smaller by several 
thousand square miles ; and Aral itself, although generally designated by the name 
of " Sea," appears to yield in extent to Nyanza. 

In the depth of its waters also this vast basin rivals the great lacustrine cavities 
of the world. In the immediate neighbourhood of the east coast, and close to some 
islands and islets, the sounding line recorded a depth, of 590 feet, which may pro- 
bably be exceeded in the middle of the lake. Should this prove to be the case, 
Nyanza will take the first place amongst fresh-water basins for the volume of its 
liquid contents. Its altitude above the sea has been variously estimated by 
different observers, but 4,000 feet has been provisionally adopted as not far from 
the truth. 

By Speke, who discovered it in 1858, this great inland sea has been named the 
Victoria Nyanza, in honour of the Queen of England. But every tribe along its 
shores gives it a different name, while the Swaheli of Zanzibar know it as the 
Bahari-ya-Pila, or " Second Sea." Many other names also occur in history which 
evidently have reference to this sheet of water. The title of Kerewe is taken from 
Ukerewe, the largest island on the south coast, which is separated from the main- 
land by the narrow strait of Rugeshi, a mere ditch almost completely choked by 



* Area of the chief lakes of the world :— Superior, 33, .500 square miles ; Nyanza, 26,600 ; Ar.il, 20,300 ; 
Huron, 24,500 ; Michigan, 23,600 ; Eric, 11,300. 



LAKE YICTORLi. XTANZA. 



35 



the papyrus and other aquatic plants. But according to Wilson the most general 
appelation is simply Xranza, that is, the "lake" in a superlative sense. 

South of TTkerewe a large bay peneti-ating far inland has by Stanley been named 
after Speke, his precursor in the exploration of equatorial Africa. The stagnant 
pools and lagoons fringing this inlet are infested by crocodiles of enormous size. 
Others, which frequent the reedy banks of the Tangure, are by the natives regarded 
as demi-gods, personifying the tutelar deity of the stream. Some of the islands are 
in the imdisputed possession of fierce hippopotami, grouped in regular tribes 
and families, which tolerate the presence of no other large animals in their respec- 



Fig. 10. — SorKCES of the Xile axd Xyanza Plateau. 
Scale 1 : 7,200,000. 











.,4 




f,' r.- -VZ-^-. i( £ A s^^c. 



•"■JONDQ' *^a»^ii 




110 Miles. 



tive territories. For the capture of these monsters the natives have constructed 
boats of a peculiar bmld ; but such hunting expeditions are always attended with 
great risk. 

The coastlands, which apart from a thousand small indentations have a circum- 
ference of over 720 miles, present an endless variety of landscape. Along the 
rocky shores the prevailing formations are everywhere gneiss, granite, or basalts. 
But in some places the riverain tracts spread out in level, treeless plains, while 
elsewhere the margin of the lake is skirted by high hiUs and even mountains 
diversified with patches of verdure and enlivened by groups of villages. Between 

D 2 



36 NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 

the Kiilonga and Tangure rivers the coast is generally low, and here the shallow 
water nowhere exceeds a few feet in dej^th for two or three miles from the land. 
But farther south the shore is fringed by bare cliffs, varied with strips of red or 
orano-c lichens, giving them the appearance of blocks of iron, and several have in 
fact been found to consist of ferruginous ores. 

The most charming prospects are displayed towards the north-west in the 
territory of U-Ganda. Here the inlets along the coast appear to be divided by the 
intervening wooded headlands into lakelets of imequal size. Limpid streams are 
everywhere seen sparkling amid the dense masses of verdure ; down every dell 
flows a silvery rivulet fringed with tall grasses or shrubs, above which are inter- 
laced the branches of forest trees. Probably no other region in Central Africa 
enjoys a more equable climate or a richer soil than this land of U-Ganda. The 
I^lants of the temperate zone recently introduced by Europeans thrive well. 

Off the coast of U-Ganda an archipelago of four himdred islands, of which the 
largest group bears the name of Sesse, stretches in a continuous chain between the 
hi"-h sea and the creeks along the shore. The scenery of this insular world is even 
more diversified and its vegetation more exuberant than on the opposite mainland. 
Here magnificent timber clothes the slopes of the hills down to the beach, which is 
everywhere bordered by masses of papyrus. Towards the west the basalt island of 
Bukerebe, Stanley's Alice Island, raises its blackish walls over 300 feet above the 
lake. But of all the insular masses lining the shores of Nyanza, the most remark- 
able is that to which Stanley has given the name of " Bridge Island." This rock, 
which lies not far from the north-east corner of the lake, consists of two basaltic 
columns connected by an irregular elliptical arch with a spring of about twenty- four 
and a depth of twelve feet. Trees have struck their roots deep into the interstices 
of the rocks, which, overgrown with brushwood and tall grass, leave nothing 
visible except two columnar masses of verdure hanging in graceful festoons down 
to the water. Through this archway of tropical vegetation a glimpse is afforded 
of the hazy coast-range bomiding the horizon on the opposite mainland. 

The beauty of the Nyanza scenery is enhanced bj' the native craft which en- 
liven its -waters, and which are at times grouped in large fleets. Some of the 
surrounding communities have sailing-boats ; the traders have launched vessels of 
considerable size, resembling the dhows of the Zanzibari Arabs, and the European 
missionaries have constructed sloops on the English model. But most of the skiffs 
are still of a primitive type, mere barges with round sterns sunk deep in the water, 
and sharp prows projecting clean above the surface and adorned with two antelope 
horns and a bunch of feathers. From a distance the}' present the apiDcarance of an 
animal raising its neck above the water in search of pre}'. These boats, manned 
by crews of from ten to forty-eight hands, carry neither mast nor sail, and are pro- 
pelled only by the paddle. Eudcly constructed of trunks of trees lashed together 
with flexible branches, and caulked with a mixture of bark and mud, the}- offer 
but a slight resistance to the waves ; hence accidents are frequent, although they 
seldom venture far from the shore. 

Before the ai'rival of the Eurojoeans the fleets of the king of U-Ganda seldom 




O 

a 

o 



c 

W 

t 
g 



LIBRARY 

OF THE 

UNIVERSITY of ILUNOIS. 



THE SOMEBSET NILE. 37 

dared to approach tlie island of U-"\'uma. The islanders, armed with nothing but 
a knife, would swim towards the boats, dive under the keels, and sever the connect- 
ing wooden ropes. Presentl_y the frail craft were swamped and their crews 
struijwlins: in the water. These and other dangers of the naviiyation insure for 
the diviaities of the lake the respect of all the surrounding populations. The 
water-gods, who dwell on the islands, condescend to communicate with mortals only 
through their envoys, who dare not be approached by empty-handed votaries. 
But the steam launches must ere long deprive these local deities of their prestige 
and reduce them to the level of ordinary mortals. AVheu the American Chaille- 
Long wanted to embark on the lake, the king of U-Ganda struck off the heads 
of seven wizards who had hitherto been both worshipped and hated as the evil 
genii of Xyanza. By this summary process he hojDed to ensure the safety of his 
guest. Storms and waterspouts are frequent on the lake. Wilson has also deter- 
mined the existence of a current, which sets steadily from Speke Bay parallel with 
the coast westwards. It is caused by the south-east trade winds, which prevail 
throughout the greater part of the year. 

The superfluous waters of the inland sea flow gently through a broad opening 
on the north coast over against the island of U-Yuma. This emissary, forming the 
head of the Nile properly so called, gradually narrows its banks to the proportions 
of a river, when its liquid contents are procij)itated over a tremendous cascade, to 
which Speke has given the name of the Rijjon Falls. A group of boulders, on 
which a few trees have taken root, stands nearly in the centre of the stream, which 
is here about 1,300 feet broad. Other less elevated blocks divide the current 
right and left, which lower down is studded with other reefs and rocks scarcely 
rising above the surface of the seething waters. Hence the expression Jiuja, or 
" Stones," applied by the natives to these falls. Although they have a vertical 
height of 13 feet, hundreds of fishes crowding the lower reach are able to leap the 
rapids and pass to the upper stream, which a short distance higher up is gentle 
enough to be crossed by a ferry. Here the view of the lake is to a great extent 
concealed by a wooded headland, while the line of separation between the gulf 
and the course of the river is marked by a low peninsula crowned with a clump of 
palms. The hills of the mainland merge farther on in the verdant isles of the 
lake. 

The Somerset Nile. 

According to Stanley, the Kivira, as the Nile is here called, is about a third 
larger than the Tangure, the chief afliuent of Nyanza. It flows with a mean 
breadth of 550 yards, at first towards the north-west, and after passing a few 
smaller rapids, spreads out right and left in vast reedy lagoons. But even here its 
normal depth is maintained, and some 60 miles below the falls it enters the Gita- 
Nzige, another lake, to which the name of Ibrahim has been given by Chaille- 
Long, who discovered it in 1875. Compared with the other equatorial basins, it is 
of small extent, having an area of probably not more than 200 square mUes. In 
this region the Nile receives a number of tributaries, including the Luajcrri, which 



38 



NOETH-EAST APEICA. 



rises in tlic U-Gaiula hills uear the shores of ^s^yauza, and which was suiDposed by 
Speke to flow from the lake itself. On his map he sketched a third emissary, the 
Kafu, which after a course of about 120 miles joined the Nile lower down. But 
such a phenomenon as three rivers flowing from the same lake and meeting again 
after traversing a hilly region would indeed be remarkable. In point of fact the 
Kafu, like the Luajerri, rises not in, but near the lake, with which it has no 
communication. 

Soon after leaving Lake Ibrahim the Nile is described by Chaille-Long as 
again expanding into a vast morass covered with vegetation, and with a mean 
depth of scarcely more than 10 or 12 feet. This is the Kioja or Kapeki lagoon, 
■which was discovered by the Italian explorer Piaggia, and a short distance below 
which the Nile is joined bj- the navigable river Kafu. Farther on it describes a 
bend towards the east and north, after which it trends abruj^tly westwards to its 
confluence with the great lake Mwiitan-Nzige, or Albert Nyanza. Thi-oughout 
this section of its course the Nile is usually designated on English majjs by the 
name of Somerset. 

The river, which has here a mean breadth of over 1,300 feet, would be perfectly 
navigable but for its precipitous incline. According to the approximate measure- 
ments taken by travellers, the total fall in this distance of about 90 miles appears 
to be 2,310 feet, or about 1 in 205 feet. The Kuruma, the first fall occurring in 
this part of the Nile, is rather a rapid, where the water, confined between walls of 
syenite, escapes in sheets of foam down a total incline of about 10 feet. But this 
is followed by the Tada, Nakoni, Assaka, Kadia, Wade, and Ketutu Falls, forming 
the chief barriers to the Nile on its descent from the high plateaux. In a space of 
18 miles it passes from gorge to gorge, rushing over rocky boulders, filling the 
atmosphere with vapours, which are precipitated as rain on the trees lining its 
banks. The action of the stream has, so to saj', sawn through its stony walls, 
while graduallj' lowering its level. On the south bank the cliffs rise to a vertical 
height of from 140 to 160 feet above the boiling waters. 

This boisterous course of the Somerset Nile terminates in a magnificent fall. 
For about 12 miles above it, the bed of the river is so steep that rapids follow in 
quick succession, with a mean incline of at least 10 in 1,000 yards. Suddenly the 
current, contracted to a width of scarcely more than 160 feet, is precipitated over a 
ledge between two black cliffs, plunging from a height of 115 feet into a cauldron 
of seething waters, above which floats an iridescent haze quivering in the breeze. 
Some 300 feet above the ever-restless flood the cliffs are fringed with the waving 
branches of the feathery jJalm. To this cataract Baker, its discoverer, gave the 
name of the Murchisou Falls, in honour of the learned jDresident of the English 
Geographical SocietJ^ Almost immediately below its last eddies the water 
becomes quite still, expanding to a breadth of from 500 to 800 feet without any 
perceptible current, and resembling a backwater of Lake Albert Nyanza rather than 
the continuation of a rapid stream. This phenomenon is said to be due to a lateral 
affluent flowing north-west to the Lower Nile without traversing the lake, and 
constituting the real main stream. 



LAEE ALBERT NYANZA. 39 

Lake Albert Nyaxza. 

The lake discovered b}- Baker, and by him named the Albert Nyanza, is known 
to the people on its east bank as the Mwutan-Nzige, or " Grasshopper Sea." 
Others call it the " Great "\Yater," although far inferior in extent to the Victoria 
Nyanza. It stretches south-west and north-cast for a distance of about 90 miles, 
with a mean breadth of over 18 miles. According to Mason's rough sui-vej^ it has 
a superficial area of 1,850 square miles, and stands at an altitude of 2,800 feet. 
From the Victoria to this lower basin the Nile has consequently descended nearly 
half of the entire elevation of the continent between the plateaux and the 
Mediterranean. Like the Dead Sea, the Mwiitan-Nzigi? seems to fill a fissure in 
the earth's crust. It is enclosed right and left by steep mountains, whereas at its 
northern and southern extremities it terminates in gentlj' shoaling bays and low- 
lying beaches. The high cliffs on the east side, consisting of granite, gneiss, and 
red porphyry, form a first stage in the ascent towards the U-Nyoro and U-Gauda 
plateaux. The streams flowing from the swamps on these uplands have not yet 
completed their work of erosion by furrowing regular channels across the outer 
scarps of the plateau. Hence, like the Nile at Murchison Falls, they have all still 
to make their way through cataracts, where the volume of water is less but the 
fall much greater, being approximately estimated for most of them at about 
320 feet. 

Livingstone and other explorers of Central Africa supposed that Lake 
Tanganyka belonged to the Nile basin, sending its overflow north-eastwards to the 
Albert Nyanza. But subsequent investigation has shown that the two lakes have 
no communication with each other. During their trips round the latter, both 
Gessi and Mason ascertained that from the south it receives no affluent except a 
shallow, sluggish stream, almost choked with vegetation. In this marshy district 
it is covered with a floating or half -submerged forest of ambach (ambaj), a 
leguminous i^lant {lierminiera ekiphroryloii), 18 or 20 feet high, with star-shaped 
leaves and golden yellow flowers like those of the broom. Its wood, which 
resembles cork in appearance, is the lightest knoT^Ti to botanists, so light that a raft 
strong enough to support eight persons forms the load of a single porter. It 
grows so densely that the native boats are imable to penetrate the tangled masses 
of vegetation springing from the muddy bottom of the lake. Beyond this aquatic 
forest Gessi beheld a vast prairie rolling away between two steep mountains, which 
formed a southern continuation of the coast ranges. 

Lake Albert, continually renewed by contributions from the Nile, is everywhere 
sweet and pure, except in the southern shallows, where the water is turbid and 
brackish, and in some places on the east side, where it mingles with saline si^rings, 
utilised by the people of U-Nyoro. Although no distinct imdercurrents have 
been observed, the navigation is rendered very dangerous by the sudden squalls 
sweejjing roimd the headlands and do^vn the moimtain gorges. "When embarking 
on their frail craft the natives never fail to cast some valued object into the lake 
as a propitiatory offering to the water-gods. A chief, one of Baker's friends, 



40 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

obtained from him a quantity of glass trinkets for the purjjose of insuring the 
stranger's safety by employing them in this way. But since those first visits Lake 
Albert, already temporarily annexed to the Khedive's possessions, has been 
navigated in every direction by two steamers, which to pass the Xile cataracts 
had to be taken to pieces and put together again above the last portages. The 
transport of the Khcdice required no less than 4,800 hands, of which 600 were 
needed to haul the boiler across the swamps, through the woods, and over the hills. 
The escarpments along the east coast are far more elevated than those on the 
opposite side. 

It is sometimes asserted that the Nile traverses Lake Albert without mingling 
with the surrounding waters. But recent inquiry has shcmi that such is not the 
case. According to the varj'ing temj)eratures, the warmer fluvial current sjjreads 
in a thin layer over the surface of the lake, gradually blending with it under the 
influence of the winds. But when the stream is colder it descends to the lower 
depths of the lacustrine cavit}-, where it replaces the lighter fluid. Hence, 
although the inflow is distant scarcely 12 miles from the outflow, the Somerset 
Nile becomes lost in the great lake, whose superfluous waters must be regarded as 
the main feeder of the emissarj\ 

The "White Nile. 

This emissarj', variously known as the Kir, the Meri, the Bahr-el-Jebel, or 
" Mountain River," and by other names according to the dialects of the riverain 
j)opulations, flows normally north and north-east in a tranquil stream winding at a 
width of from 2,000 to 6,500 feet between its verdant banks. In the middle of the 
channel the depth varies from 16 to 40 feet, so that throughout the year it is 
accessible to large vessels for 120 miles below the lake. The shores are fringed 
with wooded islands and islets, while large masses of tangled vegetation drift with 
the current, especially at the beginning of the floods. These floating islands 
consist of a substratum of decomposed foliage and reeds strong enough to support 
an upper laj'er of living vegetation, by whose roots and tendrils the whole mass 
becomes solidly matted together. During the course of five or six years the flora 
becomes renewed, the surface growth decomposing in its turn, and causing the 
aquatic garden to break up and float away in smaller sections with the stream. 
But it often hajipens that the vegetable refuse accumulates in sufficiently large 
quantities to enable these floating islands to strike root here and there in the bed of 
the stream, and in the Nile basin whole rivers have sometimes been covered with 
such buoyant masses, firm enough to bear even the weight of caravans. Owing to 
the rapid development of this rank vegetation, the Nile has frequently been choked 
in its upper reaches and compelled to cut new channels in the surrounding alluvia. 
On the plains stretching west of the present Nile traces are seen in many places of 
these old beds, or " false rivers," as they are called. The low chain of hills skirting 
this plain on the west, and forming the water-parting between the Nile and Congo 
basins, might not inaptly be named the " Explorers' Range." The crests following 



: 



THE WHITE NILE. 41 

from south to north bear the names of Schweinf urth, Junker, Chippendall, Speke, 
Emin, Baker, Gordon, and Gessi. 

The great bend described by the Nile below the Dufli station, at an elevation of 
about 2,100 feet above the sea, marks a very important point in the hydrography of 
its basin. Ilere it is joined by several copious afHuents, including the Asua or 
Asha, supposed hj some geographers to flow from Lake Mbaringo (Baringo, Bahr 
Ingo), which Speke at one time identified with a north-east inlet of Victoria 
Nyanza, and whose very existence has since been questioned. But the question 
has been practically settled by Thomson, who visited the district in 1884, and who 
determined the existence of Baringo and another large lake farther south. 

The Asua, however, rises not in a lake, but in a hilly region east of the 
Somerset Xile, while the JIbaringo is a landlocked basin without any outflow. 
At their junction both the Nile and the Asua, skirted right and left by hiUs, 
are obstructed by reefs, and even above the confluence the navigation of the main 
stream is completely obstructed by the Fola Rapids, which "Wilson has named 
the " Eighth " Cataract. Here all vessels on the T7pper Nile have to stop and 
tranship their cargoes, an inconvenience which has caused the Nile route to be 
almost abandoned above the rapids. After leaving the bend at Dufli, caravans for 
Victoria Nyanza strike south-eastwards, rejoining the Somerset Nile at Foweira, 
above the Karuma Rapids. This route, which has also been taken by the recent 
militarj^ expeditions from Egypt, is twice as short as that by the winding valley 
of the river. 

Below the Asua confluence the Nile is still obstructed here and there by rocky 
ledges, as at Yerbora, where it rushes between huge boulders, at Makedo, where it 
develops two falls over six feet high, and at Teremo-Garbo and Jenkoli-Garbo, 
where other rapids occur. But all of these impediments may be passed during the 
floods. Steamers freely ascend for nine months in the year as far as Ragat or 
Rejaf, and to the winding at Bedden below the falls forming the " Seventh " 
Cataract. But during low water they are unable to get beyond the famous station 
of Gondokoro, or IsmaUiya, which was long the capital of Upper Egyptian Sudan. 
The head of the navigation for large vessels is indicated by the sandstone eminence 
of Rejaf, a perfectly regular cone of volcanic appearance terminating in a tower- 
shaped rock, which rises over 330 feet above the surrounding plain. 

At this point the Nile, according to the estimates of Dovyak and Peney, has a 
normal discharge of about 20,000 cubic feet, oscillating between 10,000 at low and 
30,000 at high water. During the floods it presents an imjDosing appearance at 
Gondokoro and Lado (Lardo), the new capital of the province of the equator. 
But flowing through an almost level plain, it soon ramifies into numerous lateral 
channels, while other secondary streams, intermingled with marshes and lagoons, 
wind right and left of the Bahr-el-Jebel, or Kir, as this section of the Nile is 
called by the Dinkas. The main stream itself branches off completely, the Nile 
proper continuing its north-westerly course, while the Bahr-ez-Zaraf, or " Giraffe 
River," winds for 180 miles through swamps and prairies northwards to a point 
where the two branches again unite. The Zaraf is described by ilarno not as a 



42 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



Fig. 11.. 



-From Dufii,£ to Lado. 
Scale 1 : 1,500,000. 



river iii the proper sense, but merely a hhor or -svatereoui-se, whicli is becoming 
yearly less na^•igable, and already inaccessible to boats except for a short time 
during the floods. The whole low-lying region at jiresent intersected by the 
Bahr-el-Jebel, the Zaraf and all their countless affluents, channels, and branches 
was evidentlj' at one time a vast lake, that has been gradually filled u^j by the 

alluvia of these rivers. Its northern 
margin is indicated by the abrupt 
change in the coui'se of the ]Vile at the 
confluence of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, or 
"Gazelle Eiver." At this point the 
whole system of waters is collected in 
a single channel, which is deflected 
eastwards along the escarpment of the 
upland Xordofan plains. A cavity of 
the old depression is still flooded by a 
remnant of the lake called the No, Ku, 
or Birket-el-Ghazal, which, however, 
under the action of the currents and 
periodical floods, is continually over- 
flowing its marshy banks, shifting its 
place and modifying its outlines. 

Ivowhere else is the Nile more 
obstructed by vegetable refuse as along 
this section of its course. The floating 
islands drifting with the current being 
arrested by the abrupt winding of the 
stream are collected together, and 
stretch at some points right across the 
channel, which thus becomes displaced. 
But the new channel is soon blocked 
by fresh masses of &cdd, as it is called, 
which in many places covers a space 
of twelve miles. This sedd often 
acquires great consistency^, supporting 
a den.se growth of papja-us, and even 
of arborescent vegetation, beneath 
which the main stream continues its 
sluggish course. Numerous families 
of the Nuer tribe pitch their tents on the verdant surface, living exclusively on 
fish caught by piercing the foundations of their dwellings, and on the grain of 
various species of nympha^acese. In certain places along the banks of the river 
and surrounding swamjjs are seen myriads of oarth-moxmds, all raised above the 
highest level of the inundations by their architects, the termites, who ascend and 
descend from story to story with the flowing and ebbing stream. One of the most 




3l°30 



32°I5- 



C Perron 



. 30 Miles. 



THE WHITE NILE. 



43 



remarkable inliabitants of this waterj' region is the halceniccps rcr, a curious loug- 
legged aquatic bird with grej' plumage, which when perched on a termite's hillock 
looks from a distance like a Nuer fisherman. 

From the time when the envoj's of Nero failed to penetrate the sea of floating 
vegetation, explorers of the 

Nile have been frequentlj' ar- Fig. 12.— Eegion of the "Sud." 

rested by this obstacle. Dur- sck i : 2,000,000. 

ing the latter half of the 
present century most of them 
have had to force their way 
through the tangled masses, 
and one of the channels thus 
formed by Miss Tinne's steamer 
still bears the name of Maya 
Signora. During the seven 
years from 1870 to 1877 the 
river was completely blocked, 
obliging all travellers to con- 
tinue their journey by the 
Bahr-ez-Zaraf . Many were de- 
tained for weeks and months 
on these pestiferous waters, 
over which hover dense clouds 
of mosquitoes. Here Gessi 
was arrested in 1880 with five 
hundred soldiers and a large 
number of liberated slaves, and 
three months elapsed before 
an Egyi^tian flotilla, under 
Marno, was able to rescue 
them by opening a passage 
from below. Devoured by the 
insects, wasted by fever, and 
reduced to live on wild herbs 
and the dead bodies of their 
unfortunate comrades, most 
of the captives found a grave 
in the surrounding swamj)s, 
and nearly all the survivors 
perished of exhaustion soon 
after. Gessi himself outlived 
the disaster only a few 
months. To the lajjoon of No must be attributed those " green waters " noticed at 




30 Milea. 



Cairo during 



the early days of June, when the stream, charged with vegetable 



44 



NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 



cellules, acquires a marsliy taste and becomes unwholesome. But all this refuse is 
swept away or destroyed bj' the first floods from the Abyssinian rivers, which thus 
restore to the Nile water its excellent properties. 

The "Gazelle," which joins the main stream in the Xo basin, is a "bahr," 
that is, a considerable river, flowing from the west, and during the floods bringing 
sufficient water to sweep away the temjDorary obstructions. In its channel are 
collected a hundred other rivers, whose numbers and copiousness form a striking 
contrast to the poverty or total absence of running waters characteristic of the 
Nile basin farther north. Altogether the affluents of the great river are dis- 

^ Fia;. 13. — The Nile at Khaktim. 




tributed very irregularly, thus illustrating, as it were, the discrepancies of the 
climate. In the region of the plateaux the Victoria Nyanza and Somerset Nile 
receive feeders both from east and west, for the rainfall is here sufficientlj' heavj' 
to cause watercourses to converge from all directions in the great lacustrine 
reservoir. But north of the Albert Nj'anza the aflluents occur alternately now on 
one now on the other bank of the Nile. In the section of its course terminating 
in the No lagoons it receives contributions oidj' from the west, and farther north 
only from the Abyssinian highlands lying to the east. Then for a distance of 
1,500 miles no more permanent tributaries reach its banks either from the right or 
tlio loft. Even during the rainy season the gorges opening on its valley send 




t3 

H 

<! 
M 
M 

O 

&^ 

> 

o 



• . LIBRA;-; ^ 

OF THE 

DNlVtRSITY '" 



THE AVHITE NILE. 45 

down very little water, and none at all for the rest of the year. Unique in this 
resjject among the great rivers of the globe, the Nile seems for the greater part 
of its course to be a river destitute of tributary basins. On its west bank nothing 
occurs for 2,200 miles from its mouth except some wadies flushed during the 
rains. 

But then follows a sudden and remarkable contrast, due to the changed climatic 
conditions. All the triangular region comprised between the Bahr-el-Jebcl, the 
Xile, and Congo water-parting, and the Dar-For uplands, is intersected by 
numerous perennial streams nearly converging in the direction of the old 
lacustrine basin now filled with alluvia and vegetable refuse. With their minor 
headstreams and aflluents they form a vast and intricate hydrographic system, 
extremely difficult accurately to survej^ esjieciallj- owing to the varied and shifting 
nomenclature. Like the Xile itself, ever}- secondarj- branch bears as manj- names 
as there are tribes in its valley or neighbourhood. The most important appear to 
be the Tei, which is lost in the swamps bordering the left bank of the Nile ; the 
Rol, flowing to the Bahr-el-Ghazal ; the Boa and Tonj, whose united waters form 
the Apabu ; the Dim-, which reaches the Bahr-el-Ghazal near Aleshra-er-Bek, and 
which is the most copious of its many affluents ; the Pango, a branch of the Diur ; 
lastly the Famikam, better known as the Bahr-el-Arab, which forms the northern 
limit of the whole region, and which, after its junction with the Ghazal, deflects 
the Xile eastwards. 

Most of these streams have a very gentle incline, the most rapid being those 
that take their rise in the mountains near lake Albert Nyanza. Some have their 
source altogether in the jjlains, offering an almost imperceptible transition to the 
basin of the Congo. In their lower course the Rol, Diur, and some others have 
too slight a fall to scour their beds of the vegetation constantly accumulating. 
The consequence is that, like the Xile, they overflow their banks, during the 
floods converting the whole country for some thousands of square miles into an 
impassable morass. A large portion of the rainfall in this part of the Xile basin 
evaporates before reaching the main stream. Here the annual rains represent a 
volume greater than the whole discharge of the Nile at Cairo. 

At the point where it resumes its normal northerly course beyond the region 
of sedd, the X'ile is joined on its east bank bj- the Sobat, which is also known by a 
great variety of names.* The Sobat, which drains a very large area, and which 

• Xomenclature of the Upper Nile and its affluents : — 

Kite : Kivira, Somerset (between lakes Victoria and Albert) ; Meri (in the Madi country) ; Karre (by 
the Bari people) ; Kir (by the Denkas) ; Yer (by the Nuer) ; Bahr-el-Jebel (by the Arabs between Lakes 
Albert and No) ; Bahr-el-Abiad, or ""White Kiver" (by the Arabs below the Sobat). 

Yei: Ayi, Doghurguru, Jemid, Eodi, Babr-Lau. 

Eol: Nam-Pol, Ferial, WeUi, Tabo, Nam-Gel. 

Roa : Meriddi, Bahr-jau. 

Tonj: Tondy, Lessi, Doggoru, Kuan. 

Diur : Here, Nyenam, Bahr-Wau, Ugul, Eelaba. 

Paiiffo : Ji, Dishi, TJgakaer, Bahr-el-Homr. 

Famikam : Bahr-el-Arab, Lialui, Lol. Lollo, Konikom. 

Sobat : Bahr-el-Mogate, 'Waik, Telfiu, Wah, or Tah (by the Shiluks), Pinyin, or Tilfi (by the Nuer), 
Biel, Kieti, Kidi, or Kiradid (by the Dinkas.) 



46 



NOETH-EAST APEICA. 



Russegger mistook for the Nile itself, is the first affluent that receives any 
contributions from the Ethiopian highlands. It frequently sends down a greater 
volume than the main stream, whose waters during the floods are stemmed and 
driven hack by its current. To judge from its whitish fluid contents, in which the 
blackish Xile water disappears, the Sobat has the best claim to the title of Bahr- 
el-Abiad, or " "White River." Some of its affluents rise on the low-lying plains 
stretching east of the Nile ; but the most important has its source much farther 
east, in the upland valleys of the Ghesha range, which forms the water-parting 
between the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean basins. The Baro, which is one of 
the dozen different names of this affluent, on entering the plain traverses the 



Fig. U. — Meshra-er-Rek in the Zariba Eegiox. 
gcale 1 : ?,200,no0. 



• Mayendout 




i^9° E . of ureenwich 



C.Pe 



. 30 MUes. 



marshy Lake Behair of the Arabs, or " Sea of Haarlem," as it has been renamed 
by the Dutch explorer Schuver. During the rainy season the Sobat sends down a 
vast quantity of water, on June 15, 1862, estimated by Pruyssenaerc, 70 miles 
above the confluence, at 42,000 cubic feet per second. Hence during the floods the 
whole of its lower course is easily navigated ; but if large craft linger too long on 
its treacherous flood they run the risk of being landed high and diy on some 
shifting sandbank, as happened to the trader Andrea Debono, who was recently 
detained in the river for eleven months. 

It is below the Sobat that the Nile takes currently the Arab name of Bahr-el- 
Abiad, or " White River," by which it is generally known to Europeans above 



THE BLUE NILE. 47 

Khartum, where it is joined b}' the other Nile, called the Bahr-el-Azraq, or " Blue 
River." The contrast is certainly striking between the two currents, the former 
being charged with organic remains, turbid, and muddy, while the latter, flowing 
from a rocky region, is generally much more limpid. But a greater contrast is 
presented bj- the variations in their respective volumes according to the seasons. 
The western branch, which is by far the longest, the distance from Khartum to its 
still undetermined source being even greater than from that place to the Mediter- 
ranean, has also the most uniform discharge. Begidated by the great equatorial 
lakes, and again by the swampy depressions about Lake No, its contents present 
comparatively less discrepancies from season to season. But the impetuous Bahr- 
el-Azraq partakes rather of the nature of a torrent. As soon as the tropical 
downpours begin to fall on the Abyssinian plateaux, the effect is felt m its rocky 
channel. Then its discharge exceeds that of its rival, and it was on this ground 
that Bruce and many subsequent explorers claimed the first rank for the Abyssinian 
branch. But since the discoveries of Speke, Grant and Baker, it can be regarded 
only as an important tributary of the Bahr-el-Abiad. Its mean volume is less 
considerable, nor is it navigable at low water. 



The Blue Nile. 

On the other hand, if it is the White Nile that maintains the perennial stream, 
to the Blue Nile is due its fertilising properties. Without the fii'st there would be 
no Egypt ; but for the second the soil of this region would lack its inexhaustible 
fertility. Not only do the Abyssinians send down their quickening waters to the 
Nile delta, but they also supply it with the sedimentary matter by which the land 
is incessantly renewed, and the never-failing return of bountiful harvests insured. 
In the Ethiopian highlands is solved the mystery of the Egyptian stream, yearly 
overflowing its banks without apparent cause, and then retiring to its bed after 
accomplishing its beneficent work. It is to be regretted that the discharge of both 
rivers has not been accurately determined, the Nilometer at Khartum serving to 
estimate that of the Blue Nile alone.* 

At the confluence we at once enter regions known to the ancients. The Bahr- 
el-Azraq is the Astapus of Ptolemy, whose source was possibly known to the 
Romans. At least they make it rise in a lake, the Coloe Palus, although placing 
this lake some twelve degrees south of its actual position. Lake Tana (Tsana) is 
regarded as the reservoir giving rise to the Abai, which is usually taken as the 
upper course of the Blue Nile. But if length of course alone be taken into con- 
sideration, this honour should rather be awarded to the Beshto, which has its origin 
some 150 miles farther east. The Tana emissary, however, has the advantage of 
being much more constant in its discharge, thanks to the controlling action of the 

* Approximate estimate of tie discharge of the two Kiles at Khartum per second : — 



Bahr-el-Abiad. 
High -water . . 175,000 cuhic feet. 
Low water . . 10,000 „ ,, 



Bahr-el-Azraq. 
High water . . 213,000 cubic feet. 
Low water . , o.oOO ,, ,, 



48 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

lake, which rises slowly duriug the floods, and falls imperceptibly during the dry 
season. The j'early discrepancy between the levels of the lake scarcely exceeds 
forty inches. 

The Abai, its largest affluent, rises at Gisli Abai, near the north-east foot of 
Mount Denguiya, some GO miles from the lake. The Portuguese colonj' settled in 
this region towards the end of the sixteenth century certainly visited the sources 
of the Abai ; but they were first described by the Jesuit Paez, who tells us that 
the water, oozing from a marshj^ field, is collected in a limpid lake, supposed by the 
natives to be " unfathomable " because they cannot reach the bottom with their 
spears. Thence trickles a rivulet, whose course can be traced onlj- by a surface 
growth of waving grasses, but which over a mile lower down emerges in the open. 
This is the brook to which both the Portuguese and Bruce gave the name of the 
Nile. The fiery exhalations often seen flitting about its soui'ce, doubtless will-o'- 
the-wisps, have earned for the Abai the veneration of the natives, who still 
sacrifice animals to the local river genius. The stream has a width of over 30 feet 
where it reaches the south-west inlet of the lake, and where its turbid waters have 
developed an alluvial delta of considerable size. But the outlet, which retains the 
name of Abai, is a limpid blue current fully entitled to its Arabic designation of 
Bahr-el-Azraq. Like most other rivers which are at once affluents and emissaries of 
lacustrine basins, the Abai is constantly said to traverse lake Tsana without mingling 
with its water. But although such a phenomenon is well-nigh impossible, a 
perceptible current certainly appears to set steadily from the mouth of the affluent 
to that of the outflow. 

Tsana cannot be compared for size to the great equatorial lakes. According to 
Stecker's survey, it has a superficial area of scarcely 1,200 square miles, or less than 
the twentieth part of Victoria Nyanza. But it must have formerly been more 
extensive than at present, as is evident from some alluvial plains found especially 
on the north side. It has the general form of a crater, except towards the south, 
where it develops into a gulf in the direction of its outlet. Hence the hypothesis 
advanced by several authors that it maj' have originally been a vast volcanic cone, 
and certainly some of the rounded islets in the neighbouring waters look like 
extinct craters, while the surrounding shores are diversified with bold basaltic 
headlands. The central part of the basin is pi-obably very deep, for even in the 
southern inlet Stecker recorded a depth of 240 feet. The water is exti-emely pure, 
and as pleasant to the taste as that of the Nile. Towards the south-west the shore 
is fringed with dense masses of a long light reed (aruiido doiiax), with which the 
natives construct their tankuas, frail skiffs or rafts propelled by two or four oars, 
and provided with raised benches to keep the cargo dry. But very little traffic is 
carried on from coast to coast. Through the foliage which encircles this lovely 
sheet of water, little is visible except the distant hills and the conic islets rising 
above the sparkling surface. Herds of hippopotami are often seen on the shores, 
but there are no crocodiles in the lake, although the Abai below the cataract is 
infested by these reptiles. Nor has any European traveller seen the aila, a small 
sjoecies of manatee said by the natives to inhabit its waters ; which, however, abound 



THE BLUE XLLE. 49 

in fish, chiefly cyprides of a different species from those of the Xile. A kind of 
bivalve also occurs, resembling the oyster in appearance and flavour. 

Issuing from the lake at an altitude of 6,200 feet, the Abai flows at first towards 
the south-east, foi-ming a first fall near "Woreb, 5 miles below the outlet. Expanding 
lower down to a width of about 650 feet, it winds along through shady fields to the 
Tis-Esat, or Alata Falls, where it is suddenly precipitated from a height of over 80 
feet into a yawning chasm shrouded in vapour. In the centre of the cascade stands 
a pyramidal rock surmounted by a solitary tree constantly agitated by the breeze. 
Immediately below this spot the Abai plunges into a winding gorge, at one point 
scarcely 8 or 10 feet wide, crossed by a bridge of Portuguese construction. Some 
30 miles farther on it is crossed by another bridge, the central arch of which has 
given wav, its broken fragments forming a reef amid the tumultuous waters under- 
neath. The whole distance between these two bridges is little more than a succes- 
sion of falls and rapids, with a total descent of at least 2,000 feet. Alpine masses 
tower to the right and left above the gorge, which seems to have no outlet. But 
after describing a complete semicircle rotmd the Abyssioian plateau, the Abai 
emerges on the plain in a north-westerly direction. The fall in this vast circuit is 
altogether over 4,000 feet, while throughout its lower course, terminating at the 
Khartum confluence, the incline is scarcely perceptible. Here it winds in gentle 
meanders between its alluvial banks, which are constantly yielding to the erosive 
action of the stream. 

During the dry season the Bahr-el-Azraq diminishes in volume downwards, and 
in many places may be easily forded. For more than half the year the Tabus and 
Tumat, its chief tributaries from the south, are apparently merely di"ied-up wadies, 
although the water still percolates beneath the sands. The Eahad, or Abu-Ahraz, 
also one of its large eastern affluents, which rises on the west slope of the Abyssinian 
border range, is completely exhausted for a long way above the confluence before 
the wet season. But from June to the middle of September, when the rain falls in 
torrents on the mountain slopes, its vast bed overflows its banks, supph-ing abimdant 
water to the cultivated riverain tracts. The Dender, however, another river rising 
in Abyssinia, appears to be perennial. Xowhere else would it be more useful or 
more easy to construct reservoirs and control the discharge than in this hydro- 
graphic basin, which at the confluence of the two great arteries at Khartum 
stands at an altitude variously estimated at from l,"2o0 to 1,450 feet above sea- 
level. 

The northern as well as the southern section of the Abyssinian plateau is also 
comprised in the Xile basin. . But here the affluents of the great river rise, not on 
the western slope, but in the very heart of the highlands, close to the range forming 
the water-parting between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The Takkaze, 
main headstream of the whole Atbara hydi-ographic system, has its source at an 
elevation of nearly 7,000 feet, and flows at first westwards, as if to fall into Lake 
Tsana. But the gorge through which it descends between its crystalline schist 
walls rapidly attains a level far lower than that of the Ethiopian uplands. At the 
point where the river trends northwards it has already fallen to an altitude of con- 

VOL. X. E 



50 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

siderably less than 4,000 feet, and here its banks begin to be fringed by a tropical 
vegetation. On descending from the surrounding mountains, which are swept by 
cold winds, the sensation is like that felt on entering a hothouse. 

The Atbara. 

After its escajDe from the region of the plateaux, the Tukkaze resumes its 
westerly course, and at last reaches the plain through a series of rugged gorges. 
Here it takes the name of the Setit, and is joined by the Atbara, which is much 
less iu volume and hardly half its length ; but the mean direction of its valley, 
beginning immediately west of Lake Tsana, is the same as that of the united 
streams. The Atbara, IHie the Mississippi on joining the yellow and turbid waters 
of the powerful Missouri, gives its name to the hydrograi^hic system ; the Goang, 
one of the tributaries of the Takkaze, rises in the north in the depression of Lake 
Tsana, from which it is separated only by a ridge 165 feet high. Below the 
confluence the Atbara, which retains the ancient name given it by Ptolemy under 
the form of Astaboras, gradually diminishes in volume, as does also its former 
affluent, the Mareb, which in its iipper course describes one of those large semi- 
circular curves so characteristic of the Abyssinian rivers. In fact, the Mareb, or the 
" E,iver of the West," as it is called by the Ab}'ssinians from the direction of its 
course, may be said to have ceased to be an afiluent of the Atbara. Called the 
" Sona " in its middle and "Gash " in its lower course, where it is onlj^ an inter- 
mittent stream, it flows northwards parallel with the Atbara, and runs out in the 
alluvial lands before reaching its former outlet, called by the Hadendoa nomads 
" Gash-da," i.e. " Mouth of the Gash." On visiting the country in 1864, Mun- 
zinger found that its bed had not been once flooded for twenty years. Tliis change 
in the local hydrography doubtless arises from the irrigation works constructed on 
the left bank of the Gash. Embanked on this side, the river flows to the right, 
eating away its eastern and highest cliffs. Its course, formerly at right angles, 
now becomes parallel to the Atbara ; but as it flows northwards it finally runs dry 
in the sands. In 1840, Ahmed Pasha, the Egyptian conqueror, tried again to 
divert the Gash westwards into the Atbara, but his embankment was imdermined 
by the riverain population of the lower plain. Till recently the river Barka, or 
Baraka, flowing into the swamps on the Red Sea coast not far from Suakin, was 
also supposed to belong to the Nile basin through a branch of the Mareb. This 
tradition differs little from that related by Strabo, according to which a branch of 
the Astaboras flowed to the Red Sea. The hypothesis may perhaps be partly due 
to a confusion of names, for the plain stretching east of the Mareb towards the 
Atbara is called Barka, or Baraka, a term also applied to the channel flowing east- 
wards. However this be, the Axumite Ethiopians, and after them the Abyssinians, 
who long identified the true NUe with their Takkaze, fancied for centuries that it 
would be easy to divert their river into the sea and thus deprive Egypt of the water 
required for its crops. This illusion, however, was also entertained by foreigners, 
and is referred to by Ariosto in his "Orlando Furioso." Repeating the threat of 



THE ATBAEA. 



51 



Albuquerque, who asked the King of Portugal to send him workmen from Madeira 
to assist him in making a new bed for the HHe to the Red Sea, Theodore, " king of 



Fig:. 15. — Basix of the Xile AFFivE>"r3. 
Scae 1 : 1S,300.0CIO. 




O: o^eef^vv zn 



C Perron 



> Miles. 



kin 0-5," boasted that he would divert the llareb into the Barka, ia order to create 
a famine in Egypt and compel the Khedive to capitulate. 

During the dry season, the Atbara, unlike the Blue Xile, fails to reach the main 
stream. Its bed, 440 yards broad, is completely dry ; "a desert within a desert," 
it is merelv a waste of shimmering sands, to which the distant mirage gives the 

E 2 



62 ' NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

appearance of sparkling water. But in the lower bed of the Atbara a few pools 
are scattered here and there. They owe their existence partly to the hollows that 
the eddies have excavated many j'ards below the normal bed, and partly to the trees 
that line the bank preventing the water from evaporating. In these pools, some 
more than half a mile in length, others reduced to an extent of a few square yards, 
are crowded together, in a space much too small for their mutual ease and safety, 
all the river fauna — fishes, turtles, crocodiles, and even the hipjooj^otamus ; the wild 
animals resort likewise to these pools teeming with life, and every pabn and every 
thicket along the bank has its colony of birds. In most of the rivers on the plain 
the water brought back with the rainy season returns gently into its channel. 
Preceded by a current of air, which causes the foliage along its banks to thrill with 
life, it advances with a soimd like the rustling of silk. The first sheet of water is a 
mere mass of yellowish foam mixed with debris of all sorts ; following this mixture 
of mud and water comes a second wave, the true fluvial stream ; then appears the 
normal current, towards which the animals rush to quench their thirst. But the 
powerfid volume of the Atbara rushes on like an avalanche ; when it again fiUs its 
bed, it is not by a .slight and gradual advance, but by a sudden rush of water 
sweeping everything before it. The traveller sleeping on its sandy bed is suddenly 
awakened by the trembling of the earth, and by an approaching roar like that of 
thunder. " El Bahr ! el Bahr ! " shout the Arabs, and there is scarcely time to 
rush to the bank to escape the advancing flood, driving before it a mass of mud, 
and bearing on its first waves reeds, bamboos, and a thousand other spoils torn from 
its banks. Presently the river bed is completely flooded, a quarter of a mile broad, 
and from 18 to 40 feet deep, flowing on as calmly as if its current had never been 
rufiled. Lilce the Blue Nile, the Atbara, called also by the Arabs the Bahr-el- 
Oswad, or " Black River," flows into the Nile, and running with it from cataract 
to cataract, sends down to the lower reaches that muddy sediment by which the 
fertility of the soil is ever renewed. 

The Nubian Nile. 

Below the junction of the two Niles, north of Khartum, the river has no more 
visible affluents during the dry season, the lower bed of the Atbara itself being 
quite exhausted. But it probably receives hidden streams, for through evaporation, 
lateral filtrations, and the loss sustained in irrigating the riverain plains, the stream 
is diminished only b}' a seventh according to Lombardini, and by a fifth according 
to Gothberg, in the entire section of 1,620 miles between Khartum and Cairo. In 
the great bend that it describes in its course through Nubia it is diminished verj^ 
slowlj^ ; but to the ej^es of the traveller its volume does not appear to be modified 
dui'ing this long course over a considerable portion of the earth's circumference. 
As the Nile discharges a quantity of water equal to four times that of the Loire, 
or seven times that of the Seine, merchant vessels might penetrate through this 
highway to the centre of the continent, were it not obstructed at intervals by 
numerous rocky barriers. The Nubian Nile is thus divided h\ six natural barriers 



THE NUBIAN NILE. 



53 



into seven navigable reaches ; nor can vessels pass from one to the other except 
at high water, or without the aid of hundreds of hands to haul them over the rapids 
or check their downward course. Were the waters of the Nile not retained 
by these obstructions, and were the stream allowed to flow freely during the 
dry season, the question may be asked whether there would be sufficient water 
for the whole year ; would a delta have ever been developed or an Egypt created 'i 
Preceded, between Tamaniat and the Jebel Melekhat, by two steep rapids and 



Fig. 16. C.ITARACT OF H.AJSNEK. 

Scale 1 : 30,000. 







50 i5 



:5 ^ ^ O t . of Ij r 



l,liX) \axis. 



a gorge commanded by two basaltic columns, the sixth and most southern cataract 
between Khartum and the mouth of the Atbara would hardly be thought worthy 
of the name on such rivers as those of Canada and Scandinavia, where the still- 
undeveloped valleys have preserved theii* abrupt declivities notwithstanding the 
constant erosive action of the runnin» waters. This cataract of Garri is rather a 
rapid caused by the presence of granite reefs at this point ; still it suffices to 
interrupt the navigation for the greater part of the year. When the railway. 



54 



NOETH-EAST APEICA. 



destined to become the commercial outlet of the whole Ujiper Nile basin, shall 
connect the Red Sea coast with the Atbara and Nile confluence, this line will have 
to be extended up stream as far as the cataract of Garri to allow of uninterrupted 
traffic. The fifth cataract, which is followed by the rapids of Gerasheb, Mograt, 
and others between Berber and Abu-llamed, obstructs the navigation only at low 
water ; but farther down occur more serious natural impediments. Most travellers 
crossing Nubia between Sudan and Egji^t follow the land route from Abu-Hamed 
to Xorosko, not merely because of the vast semicircle described westwards by the 
Nile in this part of its course, but also because its bed is here obstructed by three 



Fig. 17. — Kaibae Cataract. 
Scale 1 : 19,000. 





.'9' 
--5 
-0- 



50*47 40' 



L . of iT-eenwich 



50-4«-20.- 



C Perron 



' 1,050 Yards. 



series of cataracts. One of these groups of -rapids, known as the "fourth cataract," 
is of considerable length, and is divided into many stages like a series of sluices. 
First comes Dulga Island, a high rock cro\vned by a ruined fortress ; then follow 
other granite boulders visible above the water, but without interrupting the 
navigation. This first barrier is succeeded bj- islands and sandbanks, followed by 
more rocks, dividing the river into steep channels, and the gorge ends near 
Gerendid, in a sort of gateway formed by two rocks covered with the ruins of 
fortresses. Here are no trees like those on the fifth or the third cataract situated 
below New Dongola, not a patch of verdure on the bank to soften the wild grandeur 



THE NUBIAN NILE. 55 

of the sceneiy. Notliiug meets the gaze except water, rock, sand, and sky, until 
it is arrested farther down bj^ the hold headland of Mount Barkal. 

The " third " cataract, like the others, comprises several partial falls, below 
an ancient islaud-studded lake, where the river expands to a width of some seven 
miles between its two banks. At the first granite reef, that of Ilannek, so called 
from a Jfubian castle on its left bank, the stream, divided into a thousand foaming 
channels, presents a more decided fall. Here blackish rocks of hornblende and 
feldspar project from twenty-foiu' to twentj'-six feet above low water. The river- 
craft do not venture amid the openings of this irregular barrier ; but under the 
right bank runs a channel broad enough to allow two boats to pass abreast. At 
the entrance of the cataract a few trees festooned with creepers overhang, in dense 
arches, reefs which are carefully avoided on account of the venomous snakes which 
infest them. Lower down more islands are scattered in mid- stream, their verdure 
contrasting vividly with the black rocks. The Hannek rapids have a total length 
of 4 miles, and the difference of level between the two extreme points varies 
from 18 feet at low water to 10 feet dui-iag the floods. It is thus evident 
that the fall is here comparatively slight, as is the case in most of the other 
cataracts. 

Below Hannek the Nile trends sharjaly east and north towards the Kaibar or 
Kajbar bank, which dui-ing the drj' season seems to completely obstruct the stream. 
It has the appearance of an artificial dj-ke, which by a peculiar optical illusion, due 
to the contrast between the dark rock and the greyish water, seems to rise to a 
considerable height. The rock must be ai^proached quite closely to find the 
tortuous outlets through which the foaming channels of the NUe escape. During 
the floods the Kaibar barrier is entirelj^ concealed, leaving free passage to the stream 
between its banks. The "Wadi-Halfa, or " second cataract," is the point where 
most European and American travellers making the " tour of the Nile " bring their 
journey to a close. The rock of Abu-Sii-, which commands its tumultuous waters 
and aflords a magnificent uninterrupted \iew of the southern horizon, is scrawled 
aU over with the names of adventurous tourists, proud of having penetrated so far 
up the mysterious river. Although this cataract stretches over a space of more 
than fifteen miles, it forms merely the lower portion of the series of rapids known 
as the Batn-el-Hagar, which have a total length of about eighty miles. The river 
presents everywhere the same aspect throughout the whole of this section. Its 
broad bed is strewn with boulders, most of them rounded off like stones jDolished 
by glacial action ; whilst others are disposed vertically like basalt columns, or else 
cut up into jagged crests, bristling with sharp and needle-like sjjines. Between 
these reefs rush the winding channels, each forming a separate cascade ; elsewhere 
occur landlocked basins, in which the whirling waters seem completelj' arrested. 
To these succeed other rapids, faUs, and eddies, the cataract thus breaking up into 
a thousand partial falls. But at low water these minute thread-like streams are 
scarcely visible, being lost in the vast maze of shoals and channels. Excluding 
the reefs, the archipelago consists of three himdred and fifty-three islands and 
islets, each with its Nubian name, more than fifty of them being iahabited and 



56 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

cultivated. Farther north the right bank is skirted by a chaos of extinct 
volcanoes forming a continuation to the rocks of the cataract. Cones, craters, 
rugged crags, mounds of indurated ashes, hillocks of lava, stand out with their 
thousand varied forms against the horizon of the Libyan desert. 

The " first " cataract, that of Asuuu, is neither so long nor so uniform as that 
of Wadi- Haifa, nor does it present the same desolate appearance, but it none the 
less deserves the name bequeathed to us bj' the ancients. It also consists of a 
series of rapids endlessly ramifying amid the granite rocks of divers forms and 
colours, mostly destitute of vegetation, but offering here and there grand or channiug 
pictures with their piled up rocks amid the foaming waters, and their picturesque 
groups of palms, tamarinds, or thickets festooned with lianas. The approaches of 
the cataract are guarded above hj the island of Philee, at once a temple and a 
garden ; and below by Elephantine, the " Island of Flowers," whose beauties are 
mirrored in the waters of the stream. Their historical memories and associations 
also contribute to render the sight of these rapids one of those spectacles that 
challenge the attention of the observer m the highest degree, and that leave an 
indelible impression on the memory. Here is the " gate " of Egypt ; here, since 
the commencement of recorded history, we trace, as it were, a visible boundary 
between two worlds. By a remarkable coincidence this boundary is almost 
indicated by the Tropic of Cancer, for it was close to Asuan that for the first time 
astronomers saw, at the summer solstice, the sundials deprived of their shadow and 
the wells pierced to the bottom by the solar rays. Another world began for them 
beyond this ideal line ; it seemed to them as if in the torrid everything must 
contrast with the phenomena of the temperate zone. Even at the present day we 
are easily led to exaggerate aU the local differences between the regions stretching 
on either side of the cataract and the populations inhabitiag them. 

At high water the navigation is not arrested along this so-called cataract. 
Boatmen pass with safety up and down ; but at low water the passage either way 
on the thousand arms of " Neptune's vast staircase" is only to be accomplished by 
the aid of the " chellala," or " men of the cataract," who tow or check the boats 
by means of hawsers. About fifty large dhahabiye, engaged by the tourists, yearly 
brave the dangers of the falls, and thanks to the experienced pilots emjjloyed, 
accidents are rare. The skill of the boatmen in descending the cataracts displays 
itself in keeping the boat on the central crest formed by the stream, at tunes rising 
six or even more feet above the maia body of water skirting the rocks ; from the 
top of this mo^'ing hUl the pilot commands the foaming rapids. The moment the 
boat swerves right or left from the crest of the wave the danger begins ; if the 
sailors are unable to redirect it into the cm-rent hj oar or rudder, it is inevitably 
dragged into the eddies at the sides and exposed to the rocks, compared by the Arabs 
to monsters who " bite " it to pieces as it is boi-ne along. 

At the sight of these rapids it may be asked, while allowing for the poetical 
exaggeration of the ancient descriptions, whether the obstructing reefs were not 
much higher two thousand years ago, and whether the Nile did not at that period 
form a veritable fall. In fact, it is probable that the river then fell in a cascade 







o 
o 

w 
m 

H 

H 



W 



ji'ilVLniHT Ot !LL1MU12. 



THE LOWER XILE. 57 

over a lofty granite ledge. The desert east of the rapids is intersected by au old 
branch of the river running at several yards above the present high-water level. 
Even the most superficial observer of natural phenomena cannot fail to perceive 
that he is travelling in a now abandoned watercourse. He still perceives the 
windings of the stream between rocks covered with hieroglyphic inscriptions ; 
he observes its old cliffs and banks, and here and there the alluvia are still revealed 
imder the billows of sand drifting before the winds from the desert. The records 
deciphered by archfcologists describe the march of armies along this old river bed, 
from the times of Thotmes and Eameses down to the present day. According to 
the observations made by Lepsius at Semne above the second cataract, it is probable 
that, from the beginning of Egj'ptian history, this dried-up channel was once 
flooded by a branch of the Xile. During the reign of Amcnemha III., some 
4,700 years ago, the watermarks engraved on the rocks at this place show that the 
flood level exceeded by many yards that of the present time : the highest water- 
mark exceeds by 25 feet, the lowest by 13 feet, the corresponding levels of 
modern days. On the right bank of the Hannek cataract also ^I. de Gottberg 
has found alluvial deposits 10 feet above the level of the highest modern floods. 
May not the waters have been thus arrested by the cataracts, and forced to flow 
into the now dried-up valley which serves as a highway between Egypt and 
Kubia ? Above the Batn-el-Hagar rapids are to be seen manj' tracts formerly 
cultivated but now quite sterile, since the waters of the floods no longer reach 
them. Like all river valleys whose beds are regulated by the action of rimning 
waters, that of the Nile establishes its equilibrium by falling in Xubia and again 
rising in Lower Egypt. M. de Gottberg accoimts for the lowering of the water- 
level in Nubia through the disappearance of cataracts formerly existing between 
Wadi- Haifa and Asuan, traces of which are still visible. The rocks forming these 
cataracts consist of schists, which, unlike the crystaUine reefs, yielded to the 
destructive force of the stream. The granite rocks themselves also yield to the 
same action, but much more gradual!}-. 

The Lower Nile. 

Below the granite ledge washed by the waters of the first cataract, the cliffs 
lining the river bank are composed of layers of sandstone, succeeded farther on by 
limestone rocks. Historic Egypt begins at the foot of this rocky barrier, which is 
covered on either side by tertiary deposits. North of Asuan the banks of the river 
are at first separated only by a space of from two to three miles. The fields and 
plants hemmed in between the escarpments and the stream present on either side 
nothing but a narrow strip of verdure winding along the foot of the grey or yellow 
rocks, which tjlitter like bm-nished sold in the sim. The cultivated zone lies chieflv 
to the west, along the so-called " Libyan " bank, which is most exposed to the solar 
rays. Like most other rivers of the northern hemisphere, the Nile bears chiefly 
towards its right bank, the current skirting the foot of the rocks, which at some 
points rise sheer above the stream. The towns stand mostly on the left bank, 



58 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



although several left high and dry by the retreating waters have frequently 
had to shift their sites in order to maintain their communication with the river. 

At the defile of Silsile, or the " Chain," where the valley, 4,000 feet across, 
appears to have formerly been barred bj- an iron chain, the landing-stages adjoin the 
old quarries which sui^plied blocks of stoneaud statues for thepalacesof the Pharaohs. 
A sphinx's head is still to be seen here not yet detached from the rock. From this 
point the mountains begin to diverge on both sides, the river winding in a plain 
about 9 miles broad, the first below the cataract that affords sufficient space for the 
site of a large town. Here formerly stood Thebes of the hundred gates. Farther 
on the valley becomes wider, the distance from mountain to mountain varying from 



Fig. 18. — The Keneh Valley on the Eovte to Koseir. 
Scale 1 : 650.000. 



_tKENEH ""Sm 




'^H 










i^^^ 



50- 



E of Greeniv ch i2°'^0 



J?°IO 



C Fe 



12 Miles. 



12 to 15 miles ; but in this jjart of its course, as well as above Thebes, the river bears 
chiefly towards its right bank, eroding the base of the cliffs of the Arabian range. 
On the left side the hills are mere sandy dunes shifting and modifying their form 
with every gust of wind. The cultivated tracts are here invaded bj- the Libj-an 
desert, an extensive view of whose dreary wastes may be obtained from the crests of 
the western range. 

Near Keneh, 36 miles below Thebes, the Nile describes that great curve which 
brings it nearest to the Eed Sea. At this point it is distant from the coast, in a 
straight line, not more than 60 miles. Precisely in this direction the eastern range 
is broken by one of the deepest transverse ravines occurring throughout its whole 
course, and it may be asked whether, in some remote geological epoch, the Nile 



THE LOWER ^^I.E. 



69 



may not have flowed througli this breach towards the Eed Sea. Beaches of rolled 
pebbles, which could only haye been deposited by running waters, are found in this 
gorge both on the slope of the Jsile and on that of the sea. It is probably these 
traces of a former channel that haye suggested to the yiyid imagination of the 



Fig. 19. — Head of the iBRAHistrEH C.\xal. 
Scale 1 : 425 000. 



|P7- 
[40 




of Ijreenw^c^ 



5:=iO' 



6 lliles. 



Arabs the idea that it would be easy to diyert the Xile into its former bed, always 
supposing that this rayine did once receiye the waters of the riyer. But if the 
course of the SJle cannot be deflected into this lateral gully, it would at least be 
easy to construct a railway through it, which would make the port of Koseir the 



60 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

chief commercial outlet of all Upper Egypt. Over fifty years ago the English 
already sank wells at intervals along this gorge, with the view of utilising it for 
the overland route to India. 

After flowing westwards below the great bend of Keneh, the Xile trends north- 
west and north ; but in this part of its course it bifurcates, one arm branching 
off and flowing parallel with it on the west side at a mean distance of seven 
miles. This is the Bahr-Yusef, or " Elver of Joseph," so called in memory of 
Pharaoh's minister mentioned in the Jewish traditions, or rather of a certain Joseph, 
minister of the Fatimites in the twelfth century. But it does not appear to have 
been excavated by the hand of man, although it has been frequently embanked, 
deflected, and directed into lateral channels, like all the rimning waters of the 
valley. Eccently the point of derivation has been disjilaced, and the canal named 
Ibrahimieh has been raised to the level of the high banks in order more easily to 
regulate the discharge of the flood waters. In the part where it has not been 
canalised the Bahr-Yusef, skirted along its left bank by the dunes drifting before 
the desert wind, is a winding stream like the Nile, having, like it, its islands, sand- 
banks, eroded cliffs, and network of watercourses and false rivers. Its mean breadth 
is about 330 feet, but through it very little of the Nile waters are distributed. 
Feeders from the main stream, in traversing the intermediate plain, replenish the 
River of Joseph at intervals, thus making good the losses caused by evaporation. 
This phenomenon, of two parallel streams in one and the same vallej% one the 
main stream discharging nearly the whole liquid mass, the other a small current 
winding through an ancient river bed, recurs in nearly all those valleys whose 
hydrographic system has not j'ct been completely changed by canalisation and 
drainage works. Several rivers skirted by embankments have also their Bahr- 
Yusef, like the Nile. Such in France is the Loire, skirted by the Cisse, by the 
waters derived from the Cher, the Indre, and the Vienne ; lastly by the river 
Authion, with its numerous ramifications. 

The Fayum Depression. 

About 300 miles from the point of bifurcation, the Bahr-Yusef penetrates into 
a lateral valley, where it ramifies in its turn. The eastern branch, which con- 
tinues the river properly so-caUed, penetrates north-eastwards through a breach 
in the Libyan range, beyond which it rejoins the Nile above its delta. But the 
western branch trends abruptly north-westwards to a rocky gorge, at the entrance 
of which its coui'se is regulated by a three-arched bridge built in the thirteenth 
century, and furnished with flood-gates allowing the stream to pass, or diverting 
it to the surrounding plains. Beyond the barrage the canal winds through a 
ravine about 6 miles long in the Libyan range, at the outlet of which it suddenly 
debouches in a valley of amphitheatral form, and nearly 110 miles in circum- 
ference. This is the Fayum depression, which is watered by an intricate system of 
canals, rills, and rivulets, ramifying like the veins and arteries in a living organism. 
At its lowest point this hiU-encircled basin is estimated at from 86 to 116 feet 



THE FATUM DEPRESSION. 



61 



below the level of the Mediterranean. Although apparently quite flat, it has a 
sufficient incline for the waters of the canal derived from the Bahr-Yusef to 
circulate throughout the whole area, imparting to the Fayum a fertility rivalling 
that of the Xile delta itself. The superfluous water is collected towards the south 
in the small Lake Gara'a, or the "Hollow," whence it formerlj- penetrated far into 
the TVady Eeyan. Towards the west the system of canalisation converges iii a 
large lake about 30 miles long from south-west to north-east. This reservoir, 



Fig. 20. — E.vm.iNCE of the Faycm. 
Scale 1 : 150,000. 







L . of breerivv 



, 3 Miles. 



known as the Birket-el-Kerun, is but slightly brackish, and quite drinkable by 
animals when it floods the whole western depression of the valley. But when 
reduced by evaporation it becomes saline, and the margin is then covered with 
crystalline efllorescences resembling snow at a distance. In some places the 
muddy ground, clothed like the Algerian sehkhas with a slight incrustation of 
salt, forms treacherous quagmires, dangerous to man and beast. 

Till recently the superfluous waters were supposed to escape through a rocky 
gorge in the hills north of the Fayum Yalley, to the depression known as the 



62 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



Batr-bela-ma, or "^Vaterless Sea." But this hypothesis has not been confirmed 
by the latest surveys, \\liich have failed to discover any alluvial deposits indicating 
the presence of the stream at this point. The planks and masts of Nile boats 
spoken of by the Arabs are the stems of petrified trees, such as occur in various 
parts of the desert. 

The Fayum, the Arslnoitidis of the ancients, has been the scene of some of the 
most remarkable hydraulic operations of the old Egj^ptian engineers. Before the 



Fig. 21.— Fayvm. 

Scale 1 : 475,000. 







50'40- 



5T L ■ cf breenwicK 



Rxiins of the dyke of Lake Moeris. 
6 Miles. 



interference of man the whole depression, which received all the waters of the 
Bahr-Yusef, formed an extensive inland sea. Ou this point tradition is imani- 
mous, and in any case the continuous inflow must have flooded the cavity to a 
level suflnciently high to establish an equilibrium between the discharge and the 
loss by evaporation. The very name of Fayum (Pioin, Pha'iom), is said to mean 
" flooded land " in the old Egyptian language, although the Arabic word fayyum 
itself gives the appropriate sense of " corn-bearer." But after the Bahr-Yusef 



THE FATUM DEPEESSIOX. • 63 

was dammed at its entrance into the gorge, the "sea" became gradually reduced 
to a semicircular morass, and would dry up altogether but for the sluices which 
admit the water required for irrigation purposes. It was no slight matter to 
have thus reclaimed an extensive district, where as many as one hxm^dred and 
fifty villages are said to have floui-ished. But according to the most j)robable 
supposition, supported by a careful survey of the whole region, the more elevated 
portion of the reclaimed land was converted into the famous Lake iloeris, which was 
one of the wonders of the old world, and which, centuries after its disappearance, 
must still be ranked amongst the most astounding works of man. The remains of 
embankments in some places 200 feet broad at their base, and 60 feet high, 
appear to represent on the east side the oiiter enclosures of the vast basin which 
during the floods received the discharge of the Bahr-Tusef, estimated at about the 
twenty-sixth part of the whole Xile. At the angles of the embankment are 
still visible the remains of pyramids recording the fame of Amenemha III., by 
whom this stupendous reservoir was created some forty- seven centuries before the 
opening of the Suez Canal. Herodotus, who may perhaps have seen though he 
did not measure it, gives it an enormous circumference, far greater in fact than 
that of the whole Fayum. According to Linant, it occupied an area of 120 square 
miles in the eastern portion of the Fayum, and at the end of the floods its volume 
must have exceeded 100,000,000 cubic feet. A small portion of this prodigious 
storage may have served to irrigate the western Fayum ; but nearly all the 
overflow taken from the Xile dxiring high water was distributed over the plains 
during the dry season, and sufficed to irrigate -150,000 acres of land. Xone of 
the great modern reservoirs can be compared with this great work, either for 
size or skiKul design, ilost of them are merely artificial lakes, which receive the 
whole fluvial discharge, and distribute the excess to the lower river basin. But 
the stream itself is continually sapping the foundations, and too often bursting 
the banks of its reservoir. It would, however, be difficult now to restore Lake 
Mceris, whose bed has been so greatly raised by alluvial deposits that the retain- 
ing walls and embankments would have to be carried several yards higher than 
formerly. 

The Bahr-Tusef is continued under diverse names to the delta, but in its 
lower course the discharge is very slight. Xearly all its feeders, as well as the 
other channels and watercourses, are gathered up by the main stream at the head 
of the delta, whence they again ramify in a thousand branches over the plains of 
Lower Egypt. Hence at this point the Xile presents much the same appearance 
as in Xubia, or stiU higher up at the Khartum confluence. It glides in a slow 
and regular current between its banks, reflecting in its stream the trees, gray mud 
villages, and here and there a few white buildings. Xothing sudden or abrupt 
in this vast and sleeping landscape, whose monotony is broken only by a few 
dhahahiye, or Xile boats, and above which is suspended an everlasting azure 
firmament. On either side the narrow plains, the cliffs, the ravines, and terraces 
succeed each other in endless im^iformity. In this land of simple outlines, little 
surprise is caused even by the regular forms of the pyramids skirting the western 



64 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



edge of tlie plateau, at dawn pink and hazy cones, like flames of fire dimly seen 
in the brighter sunshine, at sunset gloomy triangular masses standing out against 
a brazen sky. 

The Nile Delta. 

Below Cairo the two ranges of hills, confining the Nile as in a ditch, gradually 
retire as they merge in the plains, leaving the river to ramify and flow through 
divergent branches into the Mediterranean. The triangular disposition of this 
alluvial plain has caused the term delta* to be apislied to the whole region, and by 



Fig. 22. — EoRETTA Mouth. 
Scale 1 : 200.000. 




50'e5' 



L. . oT Greenwich 



30" 5 5 



otoie 

Feet 



16 to 32 

Feet. 



32 Feet .ami 
upwards. 



3 Miles. 



analogy to all districts of similar formation, however irregidar their contours. 
Spite of all the changes that have taken place in the local geography since it 
was first described by Herodotus two thousand five hundred j'ears ago, the 
Egyptian delta has remained a model of elegance in the harmonj^ of its divergent 
branches and the indentations of its contours. 

At the dawn of history the head of the delta lay more to the south, the 
hifurcation being situated some four miles below the present suburb of Bulak at 
Cairo. But the intermediate apex being unprotected by a sj'stem of embankments, 

• That is, the name of the triangular Greek letter A =: D. 



THE NILE DELTA. 65 

it yielded from year to year, from centiuy to century, to the incessant action of 
the stream. The -whole delta thus becomes displaced fi-om south to north, 
according as the river beds are raised and the mouths extended seawards by the 
accumulation of allu%"ial deposits. At present the Batn-el-Bagara fork is oyer 
12 miles from Cairo, following the windings of the island-studded stream, and 
has consequently been displaced at the annual rate of about 2-4 feet. Analogous 
changes have taken place throughout the whole of the delta, where the current 
has eaten its banks now to the right, now to the left, where simple channels have 
become broad watercourses, while copious streams have disappeared or shifted their 
beds. 

Under the influence of the mystic ideas prevalent regarding the value of 
numbers, the old ■m-iters imanimously agreed to reckon seven chief branches in 
the delta, all the others being regarded as " false mouths." At the same time the 
normal direction of the streams required for ii-rigation purposes was carefully 
maintained during peaceful epochs by incessant dredging, embankments, and works 
of canalisation. It is now, however, no longer possible to trace the coui-se of the 
seven ancient branches, which, left to themselves, resumed their erratic tendencies, 
shifting their beds with every fresh inimdation. But there is a general agree- 
ment regarding their main direction, and many doubtful points of the hydrolog}' 
of the Xile as described by Herodotus and Strabo have been cleared up bj- the 
naturalists of the French expedition to Egypt at the close of the last century. 

At present two main branches only are enumerated, and these are indicated on 
the convex curve of the seaboard by two points formed by the tongues of alluvial 
land advancing continuallj- seawards. They are the Eashid or Eosetta branch, 
identified with the Bolbitinis of the ancients, and that of Damietta, which 
formerly bore the names of Phatnetica and Bucolica. The Eosetta branch, some 14 
mUes the shorter of the two, but flowing in a bed from 30 to 50 inches lower, 
carries off the largest quantity of water, leaving not more than four-ninths to 
that of Damietta and the intermediate Menufieh channel.* Nevertheless the 
Damietta Eiver, thanks to its greater elevation, is much more available for 
irrigation purposes. The two branches, diverging like the radii of a circle, flow 
respectively north-west and north-east, advancing at their mouths some 5 miles 
beyond the normal coast-line. But, like all rivers falling into the Mediterranean, 
both are half closed by mud and sandbanks, barring the passage to large vessels. 
The western or Eosetta Eiver has two channels from 7 to 8 feet deep, whUe that 
of Damietta, being less open, has a depth of scarcely 65 inches at its entrance. At 
high water, when there is a discharge of 470,000 cubic feet per second, the bar 
is reduced not more than 4 or 5 inches, its elevation depending more on the action 

• Discharge of the Xile at low water in 1875, according to All Pasha Mubarek : — 

Cubic feet. 

Eosetta branch .■ 6,370 

Damietta , 8,-560 

Menufieh channel 670 

Total 1.5,600 

Mean 166,000 

VOL. X. F 



no 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



of the marine currents than on the inland floods. But if its height is little 
modified, its position is often shifted several miles. During the inmidations the 
current of the Nile is felt 3 miles seawards, and at times is strong enough to 
perceptibly reduce the violence of the waves, thus offering a temporary refuge to 
storm- tossed vessels. 

The face of the delta is gradually encroaching on the sea, but at a much slower 
rate than might be expected from the quantity of sedimentary matter brought 



Fig. 23. — Damietta Molth. 
Scale 1 : 200,000. 




jS 5 



L qT ureenwicn 



59"I5' 



n to 16 
Feet. 



!6 to 32 
Feet. 



32 Feet and 
upwards. 



3 Miles. 



down by the Nile. Even the estimate of 13 or 14 feet annually, as calculated by 
Elie de Beaimiont on a study of the old and mediaeval documents bearing on this 
point, seems to be excessive, slight though it be when compared with the growtli 
of even smaller deltas, such as those of the Rhine and Po. The charts prepared 
by the French expedition at the end of the last century, and by M. Larousse in 
1860, after the comjjletion of the preliminary works for the Suez Canal, give a 
yearly increase of 130 feet for the Rosetta and 40 for the Damietta mouth. But 
these are merely local changes, and with the displacement of the channels the 



I 



THE NILE DELTA. 67 

accunmlated allu^-ia are soon swept away and distributed along the coast by the 
marine cirrrents. In many places these encroachments of the sea have been clearly 
determined. A distinctly perceptible coast stream sets steadily from Alexandria 
eastwards to Port Said, here and there developing slight local counter currents, 
such as the ebb and flow between the Rosetta mouth and Abukir Point. The 
effect of this stream is to erode the headlands and fill in the intervening inlets, 
thus restoring the original parabolic curve of the coast. TVlierever an obstacle is 
met, it becomes attached to the mainland by a semicircidar strip of sand. Shoals 
have thus been accumulated at the western pier of Port Said, although not in 
sufiicient quantity to endanger the basins of the new port, especially as they may 
be easily reduced or removed by dredging. Altogether the annual growth of the 
delta cannot be estimated at more than 8 or 9 feet, so that since the time of 
Herodotus the mainland has encroached on the sea probably not much more than 
31 miles. 

There may even be a complete equilibrium between the fluvial deposits and 
the erosions of the marine currents. At least the geological aspect of the coast is 
that of an ancient seaboard forming a continuation of the small limestone ridge 
at Alexandria, which at present terminates at Abukir Point. In the shallow 
waters the waves take advantage of every rocky projection, islet, or headland to 
deposit sandbanks, and thus gradually transform the irregular marine inlets into 
landlocked lagoons. Before advancing beyond the mainland the 2v'ile had to fill 
up these lagoons, separated by strips of sand from the Mediterranean, and this 
work is not yet accomplished. It would appear to have even been delayed by a 
general subsidence of the land, such as has been recorded in Holland, on the coast 
of North Germany, at the mouth of the Po, in the Amazon estuary, and in so 
many other alluvial districts. Thus the-artificial caves formerly excavated near 
Alexandria at a certain elevation above sea-level are now submerged. These are 
the tombs known by the name of " Cleopatra's Baths."* To the same phenomenon 
shoidd perhaps be attributed the restoration of certain depressions, which after 
having long remained dry have again been partly flooded. 

But however this be, the lacustrine basins of the delta are now so shallow that 
thej- might easily be filled up. The eastern extremity of Lake Menzaleh, which is 
separated from the XHe basin by the embankments of the Suez Canal, has already 
become dry land, while the old bed of the Pelusimn branch has disappeared. 
Since Andreossy's survey at the end of the last century, Menzaleh itself has been 
much reduced, and has now a mean depth of scarcelj- 40 inches, although covering 
a superficial area of aboiit 500 square miles during the floods, when it communicates 
bv temporary channels both with the Nile and the sea. At low water it is so 
beset with shoals and islets that most of the navigation is suspended. 

Lake Burlos, which lies east of the Rosetta branch in the northern part of the 
delta, is scarcely less extensive than ilenzaleh, and like it rises and falls with the 
periodical floods. A sweet- water basin when fed by the Nile, it becomes brackish 
at other times, and communicates through a single permanent opening with the 

* Sir Ch. LyeU, "Antiquity of Man." 
F 2 



68 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



sea. Lake Mariut, close to Alexandria, has a circumference of at least 60 miles, 
and the steep cliffs towards the south and west give it the aspect of a true lake. 
Yet it was completely dry in 1799, when the English cut the emhankment 
separating it from the sea. Since then it is once more diminishing, the breach 
having again been repaired. "Whether the ancient Egj-ptians had also drained it 
by cutting off its seaward communications, or whether the mainland was then 



Fig. 24. — Branch of the Xile flowiko to Lake Mexzaleh. 
Scale 1 : 360,000. 




5IM0- 



51°50' 



L t Oi uneenwich 



. 9 Miles. 



more elevated than at present, Mareotis was certainlj' either altogether or partlj- 
dry at some remote epoch, for in its bed remains are found of old temples and 
statues. 

If it is difficult to estimate the encroachments of the Nile delta on the sea and 
the surrounding lakes, an equally intricate problem is presented by the gradual 
upheaval of the whole region subject to the annual inundations, for here account 
must also be taken of the sands brought by the wind, as well as of the sediment 
deposited by the stream. From the comparative observations made during the 
French expedition, Girard calculated that by the Nile alluvia the soil was raised 
on an average about 5 inches in a centurJ^ Hence, notwithstanding its slight 
encroachments seawards, the level of the delta would have been raised about ^0 
feet during the last five thousand years, that is, since the Egyptians had already 



i 




•a 

o 



o 



IS 

o 
1-1 
o 



LISRAKY 

OF THE 

INIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. 



VOLUME AXD PEEIODICAL EISIXG OF THE NILE. 69 

Lcgun their great works of canalisation. Doubtless most of the monuments 
erected near the river, such as the slabs of stone paring the great avenue of 
sphinxes at Kamak, the colossal statues of Memnon, and even a block bearing a 
comparatively recent Greek inscription, are now found bm-ied to some depth below 
the surface. But this is due not so much to change of level as to subsidence, such 
huge masses naturally sinking gradually in the alluvial soil of the riverain plains. 
In the same way the erratic boulders in Switzerland and the colonnades of the 
Eoman temples have sunk more and more below the surrounding surface. The 
kilometer discovered by Girard in Elephantine Island is perhaps one of those 
monuments whose foundations have thus given way. Hence although the present 
high-water mark may exceed the old measurement by 8 or 9 feet, it does not 
follow that the bed of the river and its banks have been raised to that extent. 
Such a phenomenon could not be reconciled with the drying up of the old bed east 
of Asuan, which has now been abandoned by the stream. 

YoLr^rE AXD Pekiodicai. Eisixg of the Xile. 

The yearly overflow of the Xile, which renews all nature, and which was 
celebrated by the Egyptians as the resurrection of a god, is of such regular 
occurrence that it was formerly compared with the revolutions of the heavenly 
orbs. How coidd the riverain populations refrain from worshipping this stream, 
" Creator of wheat and giver of barley," a stream but for which " the gods would 
fall prostrate and all men perish " ? " Hail, XUe ! " sang the priests of old, 
"Hail, thou that comest to give life to Egj-pt ! " According to its periodical 
return all things were and still are regulated — field operations, town work, civil 
and religious feasts. But at present it is easier to prepare for the rising waters, 
which are announced from Khartum thirty or forty days beforehand. They begin 
to appear nearly always on June 10th, at first " green " with vegetable refuse 
from the great lagoons of the upper basin. But the rise is very slight till about 
the middle of July, when the stream becomes suddenly swollen by the "red" 
waters from the Abyssinian highlands. Towards the end of August the Xile is 
nearly full, but continues to increase slightly tiU. October 7th, when it usually 
reaches its culminating point. After this date the subsidence sets in and continues 
very gradually till the return of the floods the following June. 

During the three months of high water the Xile sends seawards a liquid mass 
equal to about three-fourths of the whole annual discharge, or 3,150 billions cubic 
feet out of a total of 4,200 billions. High-water mark naturally diminishes down 
stream, falling from about 56 feet at Asuan to 24 or 25 at Cairo. Eelj-ing on 
some of the old texts, especially a much-disputed passage in Herodotus, some 
\^Titers suppose that the level of the floods has been considerably modified since 
the first centuries of Egyptian history, although sufiicient data are lacking to 
determine the point with certainty. In any case the mean elevation has under- 
gone no change since the end of the eighteenth century of the new era. The 
careful measurements taken at that time have since been maintained, and they are 



70 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



found to coincide with those published by the naturalists of the French expedition, 
and with the uninterrupted series of modem observations. At the same time the 
floods oscillate ■within certain extreme limits. Sometimes there is insufficient 
water to supply all the canals, while in other years the overflow is excessive, and 
on these occasions the land does not dry soon enough to insure good harvests. 

The rate of the land-tax generally varies according to the height and volume 
of tlie river. Hence the public crier appointed to proclaim the state of the 

Fig;. 25. — Yeakly Oscillations of the Nile. 




inundations has often been compelled by the Government to make false reports on 
this point. The day when the Nile reaches the proper level for cutting the dykes 
separating it from the irrigation canals is a day of rejoicing for all the riverain 
populations. Formerly a yoimg maiden was on this occasion borne with great 
pomp to the river and cast into the seething waters, in order to obtain abundant 
crops from the local divinity. Now her place is taken by a di-essed-up doll, which 
IS still offered by the public executioner, a curious reminiscence of former human 
sacrifices. 



I 



VOLUME AND PERIODICAL RISING OF THE NILE. 71 

The two zones of alluvial land skirting the Nile are intersected by numerous 
irrigation canals, which distribute the fecundating waters far and wide. Like 
those of other streams flowing through alluvial plains, the banks of the river are 
higher than the surrounding country. A cutting running transversely to the 
dii-ection of the valley woidd show that from cliff to cliff the plain presents the 
form of a convex curve, so that at high water the stream occupies the most 
elevated level between the ranges of hills bordering both sides of its valley. From 
this central elevation the surface of the current inclines right and left, and the 
slope is continued in both directions across the riverain plains. This disposition of 
the groimd is due to the greater quantity of sedimentary matter deposited along 
the banks of the stream. The waters have thus a double incline, that is, according 
to the general dii-ection of the river valley, and according to the lateral slope of its 
banks. If they met with no obstacle in the u-rigating canals, they would flow at 
once to the lowest level on either side, and convert the whole depression iato a 
vast lake. Hence they have to be retained at the higher elevation bj' means of a 
transverse dyke, -which is opened onlj- when the upper levels have been sufficiently 
submerged. The overflow is then arrested in a second section also confined by 
embankment works, and in this way the water is distributed to every part of the 
surrounding plains by a system of canals disposed at successive levels. 

Nevertheless the normal incline of the land has in many jilaces been modified 
by the local alluvial deposits, and by the action of opposing currents in the lateral 
channels. The shifting sands brought by the winds from the neighbouring 
escarpments have also here and there raised the low-lying plains to a level with, 
and even higher than, the banks of the XUe, thus obliging the cultivators to change 
the whole plan of their u-rigation works. Formerly, when the Nile was inhabited 
by five different species of the crocodile, the rising flood was preceded and heralded 
by the suk, a small and harmless variety, which was accordingly welcomed with 
much ceremony by the villagers, and even honoured with divine worship in many 
towns far removed from the Nile. Temples were dedicated to them, where they 
were kept alive, decked with armlets and pendants, and fed on the flesh of victims. 
But none of these saurians are now seen in the Egyptian Nile, even as high up as 
Thebes, although the canals iatersecting Cairo were still infested by them at the 
beginning of the present century. None appear to be met below Ombos, south of 
Asuan, and this region of the cataracts is also inhabited by electric fish. But the 
hippopotamus has retreated still higher up to the neighbourhood of the Atbara 
confluence. 

"When the flood begins to subside, the water iu the higher canals would at once 
flow back to the main stream were it not retained by sluices, and thus stored to 
meet the requirements of the following spring and summer. During the sub- 
sidence the level of the overflow is still maintained in the plains some 18 or 20 
feet above the bed of the main stream. The peasantry also utilise the waters 
which filtrate laterally into the ground to a distance of some nules, but so slowly 
that the effect of the immdations is not felt for weeks and even months after the 
normal period of the rising. Even within 300 or 400 feet of the Nile the water in 



72 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



the wells does not begin to rise for eight or ten daj's, while at the distance of half 
a mile it is delayed till the floods are actually subsiding. Hence the curious 
phenomenon that, when the Nile is at its lowest ebb, the water in wells at a 
distance from the stream rises some 10 or 12 feet higher than the river itself. 
The cultivators are thus enabled to continue the work of irrigation, which would 
otherwise be impossible. 

The canals and transverse ditches utilised as a means of communication between 
the villages cut up aU the cultivated lands into a vast "chessboard," whose parting 
lines are, so to say, alternately raised and sunk below the surface. The vivifying 
fluid circulates everywhere, like blood in the animal arterial system. But the 
maintenance of this intricate organism involves enormous care, the least disorder 
in these almost level plains often sufficing to cause crevasses and obstructions, and 
converting the flowing streams into stagnant waters. Worn out by ceaseless toil, 



Fig. 26. — Section of the Nile Yalley at SiCt. 
Scale 1 : 100,000. 








'■W!»m_ 












I 




51 -. 


i II 


1 1 


a 
c 
a 
u 

1 


"5 

c 

o 

I 


c 
c 

) 


1 J 

I 1 


* 

I 


1! 1 



. 3,300 Yards. 



harassed and disheartened by ofiicial rapacity, the f ellahin sometimes lack the energy 
required to keep in good order the canals that are indispensable to feed the primitive 
appliances for irrigating their fields. On the large estates the water is raised by 
means of the sakiijeh, a system of revolving buckets like those of Syria, worked in 
Egj'pt by oxen and asses, in Nubia by camels. But most of the peasantry make 
use of the so-called shadiifs, vessels or baskets attached to both ends of a balanced 
lever, and by two men lowered and raised alternately, and discharging their 
contents into a distributing riU. A shaduf will thus raise the water to a height of 
8 or 10 feet, a second and even a third contrivance of the same kind successively 
carrying it to the highest required level. But very little of the water that might 
be obtained for irrigation purposes is secured by this rudimentary apparatus. Of 
the 4,200 billions of cubic feet yearly discharged by the Nile, not more than 175 
billions are thus utilised by the riverain populations, so that not more than halt, or 
perhaps a third, of the arable land is brought mider cultivation. Scarcely forty 




BANKS OF THE NILE— THE SHADUF. 



! 






VOLUME AXD PERIODICAL EISING OP THE NILE. 



73 



millions of people dwell in the Nile basin, which might yield corn sufficient for a 
vastly larger population. 

The brown or blackish mud of the Jfile is the only manure required for the 
crops. In the sun it becomes solid and may be cut into bricks or vessels ; under the 
foot it is hard as stone, and in shrinking develops deep fissures in the ground. 
The old sandy or calcareous deposits, mingled at the foot of the hills with the rolled 
shingle washed down by floods anterior to the present geological epoch, are covered 
with a layer from 35 to 40 feet thick, forming an extremely rich arable soil which, 
if removed elsewhere, might suffice to fertilise a region a hundred times more 
extensive. 

In its chemical composition this Nile mud, from which Egypt has been created, 
differs fi'om that of all European rivers. Its analysis j'ields the most varied results 
according to its age, locality, and distance from the river. But it always contains 
a considerable proportion of carbonates of lime and magnesia, of oxide of iron and 
carbon, derived from decomposed organic substances. Palatable as it is, the Nile 
water nevertheless contains the refuse of aU the pro^-inces in its vast basin — the 
slime of the Atbara, animal remains from the Bahr-el-Azraq lagoons, sedge and 
other vegetable debris from the Kir and Gazelle rivers. Between the sands, argil- 
laceous clays, and rugged crags of both deserts there thus intervenes a narrow belt 
of verdure created by the miscellaneous sedimentary matter in the course of ages 
washed down from half the continent.* 

• Analysis of the Nile mud in Egypt, by Eegnault, " Description of Egypt," vol. xx. 



Water 
Carbon 
Oxides 
Silica 



11 


per 


cent. 


9 


)» 


»t 


6 


„ 


„ 


4 


„ 


„ 



Carbonate of Magnesia . 


4 per cent 


Carbonate of Lime . 


18 „ ., 


Almnina .... 


■ 48 „ „ 





CHAPTER III. 
REGION OF THE GREAT LAKES. 

HE basin of the Victoria Nyanza, including that of the Upper Nile 
as far as its passage across the Albert jSTyanza (M'wutan Nzigeh), 
comprises a superficial area which may be estimated at some 170,000 
square miles, although this estimate cannot claim to be more than 
a very rough approximation to the reality. Pending a more exact 
knowledge of the parting lines between the great river basins, we must be satisfied 
with rude calculations according to the spaces enclosed in the meshes of the 
intersecting lines of latitude and longitude. This vast region, which has a mean 
altitude of over 4,000 feet, forms part of the great continental divide. The waters 
it sends dovm to the Egyptian river bring it within the Mediterranean basin ; but 
it approaches far nearer to the Atlantic seaboard, while its southern extremity lies 
within 240 miles of the Indian Ocean. As regards its facilities of communication 
with the outer world, the Victoria Nyanza naturally gravitates towards the social 
and commercial sj'stem of which Zanzibar is the centre. Even after the water 
highway of the Nile is again opened, and intestine warfare has ceased to harass 
the riverain communities, European explorers will find it most convenient still to take 
the route, ascending from the Indian Ocean to the plateaux, which has ever been 
followed by the Arab traders. 

Although forming the water-parting between the Mediterranean, Indian, and 
Atlantic basins, the Nyanza region is far less elevated than some other parts of the 
continent. Except towards the sources of the Tangure, where SIfumbiro rises to 
a height of probably 10,000 feet, and farther north, where the stiU loftier Gam- 
baragara stretches parallel with the meridian, the plateau nowhere develops elevated 
highlands. The plains are broken only by hiUs and ridges rising a few hundred 
yards above the normal level, and presenting no insurmountable obstacles to the 
exploration of the interior. Amongst these Upper Nilotic lands those especially 
bordering the northern and western shores of Nyanza are almost imrivalled in 
Africa, and scarcely elsewhere surpassed, for the charm and variety of their scenery, 
their abundant waters, exuberant vegetation, and fertile soil. The inhabitants of 
U-Nyaniezi, south of the lake, are less faAoured in these respects. Here hill and 



CLIMATE— FLOEA— FAUNA. 75 

dale alternate with the plateaux ; but during the rainy season the land is mostly 
flooded or changed to a swamp. All the villages and cultivated tracts have had to 
be distributed over the uplands, the intervening valleys being utilised only as 
grazing lands dui-iug the dry season. The hills consist of granites clothed here 
and there ^vith a thin layer of vegetable humus, sufficient to support a little brush- 
wood. 

East of the inland sea the soil, being less copiously watered, is strewn with 
brackish or saline depressions, while farther north a large space between the Victoria 
and Albert lakes is occupied by fresh water morasses, thickets of the nenuphar 
plant, sluggish streams flowing in broad winding beds. 

Climate — Flora — Favxa. 

Although the Victoria JTyanza is intersected by the equator, the normal heats 
are tempered by the elevation of the land, by the free passage it offers to every 
atmospheric cui-rent, and by the arborescent vegetation fostered by the tropical rains. 
Hence the high temperatm-es prevalent in Xubia, twenty degrees north of the equator, 
are unknown in this favoured region. Systematic observations made at Rubaga, 
capital of U-Ganda, just north of the line, show that the epithet of "torrid" is 
inapplicable to the climate of these countries. The glass never rose above 95^ F. 
or fell below 51", the mean between these extremes being about 79" for the whole 
year. This is the temperature of Canton, Tunis, and New Orleans, and is much 
lower than that of Caii-o, Bagdad, Havana, Rio de Janeiro, not to speak of such 
sultry places as Bushir, ilascat, Karachi, Bistra, or Murzuk, &c. 

The prevailing winds are from the south and south-east, attracted by the rarefied 
air of the Sahara. Storms, which nearly always take place about the same hour in 
the afternoon, are generally the result of a collision between these southern currents 
and others fi-om the north and north-west. In this region, which corresponds with 
that of the "Black Caiddrou " in the Atlantic, heavy rains prevail throughout 
the year, except perhaps in July, which is a comparatively diy month. The greatest 
downpoiirs are in September, October, and November, and again in April, although 
according to Wilson the mean annual rainfall does not exceed 50 inches in U-Ganda, 
where there are no lofty ranges to intercept the moisture-charged clouds. The 
months are here marked by no transitions of heat and cold, and as the rainy seasons 
of autumn and spring are the most conspicuous phenomena of the solar year, the 
people of U-Ganda have taken as the natural divisions of time these epochs, which 
also coincide with their agricultm-al divisions. Hence their years are only half the 
length of ours, each consisting of six months, the first of which is called the " sowing 
month," the five others the "eating months." 

Favoured by an abundant rainfall, the flora is very rich in the fertile regions 
encircling Lake Victoria, where the soil consists of vegetable himius resting on a 
red clay mixed with sand some 35 feet thick. In U-Ganda about the equator there 
is no break in the verdure which everywhere clothes the land. The banana and 
other plantations, forming extensive gardens in which the villages are embowered 



7G KOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

in foliage, are succeeded by forest trees laden with parasitic plants and interlaced 
by festoons of huge creepers with the dense undergrowth. The brooks winding 
along the lowlands seem to flow in underground channels impenetrable to the solar 
rays. 

But however beautiful the flora of the upland plateaux, it does not appear to 
be distinguished by great variety. Of the seven himdred and fifty species collected 
by Grant between Zanzibar and the lower Xile, eighty, or at most a hundred, were 
new to botanists. The floras of the Cape, of Abyssinia and the Xile are intermingled 
on these uplands, where even some Indian species occur, and to these have recently 
been added a nimiber of European plants which here find a congenial home. Grant 
thinks that Karagwe especially would be admirably suited for the cultivation of 
the tea plant. The giant of these forests is the mpaffu, which distils an aromatic 
gum from its enormous trunk 24 to 26 feet in girth. 

Like the flora, the fauna of the plateaux is distinguished from that of the sur- 
rounding regions by but few indigenous species. The lake is inhabited, like the 
Nile and the Niger, by hippopotami and crocodiles, while multitudes of aquatic 
fowl swarm in the sedge or perch on the branches of the trees fringing its shores. 
From the cultivated tracts most wild beasts have been scared, although the neigh- 
bouring thickets are still infested by the much-dreaded panther. Hyajnas also 
prowl about the ^-illages ; the waj-f arer is often startled by the ill-omened yelp 
of the fox ; small game is hunted by the wild cat and other allied species ; squirrels 
spring from branch to branch of the forest trees, above which hover greyish parrots 
noted for their large size and shrill voice ; lower down the flowery mead is alive 
with all the brilliant world of smaller birds and butterflies. 

The wilder districts of U-Sui on the Karagwe frontier and of North U-Ganda, 
where forest trees and cereals are replaced by the wild palm and ferns, are inhabited 
by numerous species of the antelope, by the rhinoceros, elephant, and zebra. Here 
also the swampy lands are peopled by the buffalo, while the wild boar finds a lair 
in the dense brushwood. Several varieties of monkeys enliven the forests of the 
tableland, amongst them the coliibus guereza, noted for its rich white and black hair, 
and possibly also the chimpanzee.* The lion is very rare on the equatorial uplands, 
although his tremendous roar is occasionally heard, striking terror into the other 
denizens of the forest. Ostriches sweep over the open plains ; guinea-fowl in 
countless numbers find a shelter in the bush, and the victims of the battlefield or 
the executioner are removed by a small species of vulture, the scavenger of so many 
tropical lands. 



Inhabitants. — The Bantus. 

Certain parts of the Upper Nile region are amongst the most densely peopled lands 
in Africa. The descriptions of Speke and Grant, of Stanley, Long, De Linant, and 
Gessi, as well as the partial estimates of the missionaries, are all unanimous on this 
point. According to these witnesses, some ten or twelve millions of souls are 

* Emin-Bey, Peteimann's " Mittheilimgen," 1881. 



THE WA-SUKUMA AND WA-ZINZA. 77 

couceutrated in the districts borderiag on the great lakes, which are drained by 
the headstreams of the XUe. 

In speech, and probably also in origin, the tribes and nations of the plateau are 
allied to the peoples of South Africa, whose ethnological domain encroaches at 
this point some 600 miles on the northern basin. AU the lacustrine communities 
belong to this Bantu stock, which is so remarkable for its harmonious and pliant 
speech. East of the Victoria J^yanza, however, there appear to dwell certain 
tribes sj^eaking idioms akin to that of the Kordofan Xubas ; at least, it is certain 
that the Masai and the Wa-Kwafi, whose language is not of Bantu origin, have 
some settlements in the neighbourhood of the lake. Amongst these lacustrine 
tribes there are some that have not yet been visited by European explorers. 
Pending more positive information, which cannot be much longer delayed, all 
these tribes have been pro\-isionally classed with the Bantu family. 

The "Wa-Sukuma and "Wa-Zinza. 

A section of the Wa-Xyamezi group of tribes has occupied the hilly district 
stretching south of the Speke Gulf, the largest inlet of Lake Nyanza. But no large 
state has been developed in this region, which is watered by the Simeyti and other 
streams flowing to the gulf. The inhabitants, collectiveh- known as Wa-Sukuma, 
are divided into a large number of small communities of Bantu origin, but greatly 
modified by mixtui-e with slaves from all quarters, and frequently displaced to 
escape the attacks of the ruga-ruga, or marauders. Most of these Wa-Sukuma 
tribes, although banded together in a sort of confederation, are distinguished from 
each other b}' their systems of tattooing and by the way the front teeth are filed 
do\\-n. Their chief ornament consists of iron wire wound rovmd the arms, legs, and 
neck, rendering quick action very difficult. Both sexes also attach Little bells to 
their legs, the tinkling of which acts as an accompaniment to their conversation. 
The tribal chiefs enjoy theoretically very little power, and are required on all im- 
portant occasions to consult the elders, the real depositaries of the national usages 
and traditions. Nevertheless the personal wealth acquired by these kin glets, 
constituting them the great proprietors of the country, often enables them to play 
the part of ii-responsible despots. "When the villagers brew their pomhe or native 
beer, the king di-inks and gets drunk at pleasure ; when the hunters slay an ele- 
jjhant he claims the best "joints," and appropriates the tusks ; all the skins of 
Hons, leopards, and zebras in the same way fall to his share. The itinerant dealer 
must show his wares to the king, who imposes a road-tax, fixed according to his 
caprice. Lastly, the tribal chief inherits the property of all his subjects who 
suffer capital pimishment on the charge of sorcery. 

Although the women generally speaking enjoy very little respect, the populous 
village of "Wama is governed by a queen. The magicians command great influence, 
and whenever any of their prophecies happen to come true, or their miracles prove 
successful, they dispose of the imlimited authority usually accorded to infallibilitj-. 
Their " di^-ining wand " is a cow's or antelope's horn, which when filled with a 



78 



NOETH-EAST APEICA. 



mao-ic powder and planted in the ground before a village, suffices to ward off the 
enemy- However, resort must often be had to charms of greater potency. When 
a battle is pending the wizard flays a child, placing the bleeding victim on the 
" war path," to be trampled by the warriors marching to victory. But a great 
blow was given to the power of the magicians by the arrival of the European 
missionaries, for thej- also are regarded as " medicine-men," and their potions are 
held to be more efficacious than those of the natives. A rain-gauge placed by 
them near a station on the shore of Lake Victoria had to be removed, in order not 
to destroy the spells concocted by the wizards to bring down rain. 

The Sukuma country enjoys a certain commercial advantage, due to its position 



Fig. 27. — U-Kerewe and U-Sikuma. 
Scale 1 : 1,600,000. 




WA HOVMa 
^Walaswandi Wambwiiyf 



h' ■■■>^. 



.'^. 

'• -Lindyati 



■ -...-■•■V'-OxT*?™'!^ 



'^ .Soma .; 



?&>;:*•* 



namwamba* 



<^-^i» O t/ ff A 



L , of hreenwich 



5-l= 



30 JMiles. 



on the route of the slave-dealers between U-Xyamezi and U-Ganda. Since the 
days of Speke and Stanley it has been visited by several Europeans. The most 
popidous district is U-Eima, near the " Jordans' Nullah " of Speke, and the mo.^t 
frequented port is the village of Kagheyi (Kagei) on the left side of the lake, where 
was launched Stanley's Lady Alice, followed soon after by the Daisy and the Eleanor. 
The view towards the lake is interrupted b)^ the hills of U-Kerewe, a large island 
whose name has often been applied to the great inland sea itself. U-Kerewe, which 
is almost entirelj-^ covered with forests, f onns a separate state, whose capital, Bakindo, 
lies near the east side on a creek well sheltered by islets from the winds. A 
palisade of the trimks of trees in the centre of the town encloses the royal 
hut, those of the king's wives, the granaries, and the .shed where are deposited the 



THE WA-HTTMA. 79 

war diuuis. Beyond the first enclosure is the court of justice, where the king, 
seated on a throne decorated with teeth, talons, and horns, settles the disputes of his 
subjects. A second palisade, less substantial than that of the royal palace, encircles 
the whole village, with its huts, winding lanes, and cultivated fields, where are 
cultivated tobacco, cereals, and various vegetables introduced bj- the Arabs. 

The south-east side of Lake Victoria is bordered by the U-Zinza (U-Zinja) country 
Iving west of the Isanga Eiver, which flows to a narrow fiord penetrating over 30 
miles inland. This little-known region has been visited by Europeans only on its 
southern slope, which drains to Lake Tanganyka. Like the Wa-Sukuma, the Wa- 
Zinza are divided into several communities governed by chiefs and their wizards. 
Thev live in constant dread of the marauding Wa-Tuta tribe, who are said to be 
southern Bantus, perhaps Zulus penetrating from Lake Nyassa through the 
Tanganyka basin northwards, plundering and massacring along the route, like a 
horde of wild beasts. The "Wa-Zinza of the hilly sandstone districts in the north, 
who have less to fear from hostile inroads, are a finer and more vigorous race than 
those of the lowlands. They wear a skirt of tanned ox-hide, deck themselves with 
necklaces and amulets, and lard their bodies with rancid butter. Of all the Wa- 
Zinza tribes, the TVa-Sui branch is the most powerful. 



The Wa Hvma. 

In these regions the chief power belongs to families of the Wa-Huma, a race 
of pastors which is represented by one or more communities on all the upland 
plateaux round about Lake Victoria. According to Speke and Grant, these Wa- 
Huma are conquerors of Galla stock, originally from the Ethiopian highlands. In 
F-Xyamezi, and as far as the seventh degree of south latitude, kindred tribes are 
found, here known as Wa-Tusi, who closely resemble the "VTa-Hiuna in speech and 
usages. They are distinguished from their agricultui'al neighbours by a loftier 
figure and more regular features, oval face, straight and well-chiselled nose, and 
small mouth, without the pouting lips characteristic of the true Xegro. The Wa- 
Hinna women best represent this fine Ethiopian t^-pe ; hence they are readily pur- 
chased bj' the chiefs of other races for their harems. But while all the surrounding 
peoples become gradually modified by these crossings, the Wa-Huma preserve their 
original purity, keeping aloof from all contact with the aborigines. They are 
nearlv all stock-breeders, and as they mostly live in the jungle, far from villages, 
they are seldom met b}- travellers. Although they have given kings to most of the 
upland tribes, they are nevertheless regarded as barbarians by the Negro cultivators, 
just as in the " Middle Kingdom" the ilanchu conquerors are despised by their 
Chinese subjects. But in the midst of all these enslaved communities, who vaunt 
theii- industrial arts and agricultural pursuits, the Wa-Huma have at least the 
superiority acquired from a free and independent life. They tolerate no masters, 
and those amongst them who have failed to defend their liberties are no longer re- 
garded as belonging to their nation. Speke even tells us that captured and enslaved 



80 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



Wa-Huraa women are burnt alive ■whenever they again fall into the hands of their 
fellow-countrymen. The language of the Wa-Huma is unknown, and it is still 
uncertain whether they speak a Galla dialect mixed with Bantu words or a Bantu 
idiom affected by Galla elements. 

The Kingdom of KARAcwt. 

The kingdom of Karagwe occupies west of Lake Victoria an area of about 6,000 
square miles, being limited southwards by U-Zinza, west and north by the Tangure 



Fig. 28. — Kakagwe. 
Scale I : 1,500,000. 






;<?* r^s^Vw^ 



-fi# If X ' <^0<- 









i so Miles. 



river, which seems to have the best claim to be regarded as the Upper Nile. From 
U-Sui this state is separated by a desert borderland watered by the Lohugati, 
which flows north-east to Lake Nyanza. 

Karag\^■e is one of the finest countries in Central Africa. With its evergreen 
hills, fertile valleys, and purling brooks, the whole region presents a park-like 
appearance, and might easily be transformed to a vast garden. The western 
district is tolerably elevated, the crests of the plateau here attaining a height of 
5,000 and even 0,000 feet, and in clear weather commanding a view of the blue 



THE KINGDOM OF K^iEAGWE. 81 

!Mf umbii-o peaks, and of other distant summits, named by Speke the " Mountains of 
the Moon." On the Karagwe uplands the air is so cool that the natives of Zanzi- 
bar fancy that they must be in the neighbourhood of England, the only cold coimtry 
known to them by repute. In some of the depressions lakes have been formed, 
amongst others the lovely Raveru (4,300 feet), which to Speke and Grant seemed 
beautiful enough to merit the title of the African "Windermere." But although 
encircled by grassy slopes rising 1,500 or 1,600 feet above its waters, it is not an 
Alpine lake, its depth nowhere exceeding 45 or 46 feet. The Urigi, another basin 
near the southern frontier, is merely a large jjond, discharging its overflow north- 
wards to the Tangure. According to the natives the whole valley was, even in 
recent times, still under water. Boats were able to ascend from K'vanza to Uriffi. 
and the little dome- shaped hillocks dotted over the plain were then rocky islets. 
These hills consist of argillaceous sandstones of a bright red coloui-, interspersed with 
large masses of white quartz. The decomposition of the sandstones, the prevailing 
formation throughout the whole region, sujiplies the fertile red soil on which such 
bountiful crops are i-aised. At the head of a shady valley in the north-west spring 
the six thermal streams of M'tagata, which have a temperature of 130° Fahr. They 
are resorted to by all the surroimding populations, who have much faith in their 
curative properties. 

Except in some districts, such as that of the capital, near "Windermere, Karagwe 
is rather thinly peopled. The majority of the inhabitants belong to the "Wa- 
Xyambo stock, and speak the Zongora, a Bantu dialect. But here also the chief 
power has been iisurped by the Wa-Hiuna, whose daughters are not permitted to 
contract alliances with Negroes of lower castes. The lives of the TVa-Himia are 
held to be sacred ; hence they are absolutely exempt from capital pimishment, all 
crimes, murder not excepted, being punished by fines alone. We know that in 
many parts of Africa the women are systematically fattened, to such an extent as 
to be no longer able to stand up. This excessive obesity is regarded as a supreme 
virtue, doubtless because it proves the wealth of people who can thus afford to 
nourish their wives and exempt them from manual labour. For an analogous 
reason many Karagwe chiefs allow their naUs to grow, like the Annamese mandarins, 
to show that thej* have no need of their hands, slaves working and toiling for them. 
On certain occasions human sacrifices are also still practised. At the death of the 
sovereign a " mortuary chapel " is built over the bod}', into which are thrown five 
girls and fifty cows, destined to accompany their master on his long journey to 
spirit-land. 

Warahanje, capital of Karagwe, is pleasantly situated, over 4,300 feet above the 
sea, on a grassy terrace overlooking Lake Windermere, and commanding a view of a 
steep hiU, on which stands the royal necrojDolis. Farther on winds the valley of 
the Alexandra Nile, a vast forest of papjTus boimded on the distant horizon by the 
triple-crested Mfumbiro. At the eastern foot of an intervening cone the Arab 
traders have established the station of Kiifro (Kafuro), where woven goods, salt, 
and European wares are bartered for ivory, coffee, and other native produce. In 
this district elephants have already begun to disappear, although a huge species of 

VOL. X. G 



, 82 NOETH-EAST j\JEICA. 

white or greyish rhinoceros still abounds. ^Vest and north of Karagwe the large 
mammals have not yet been disturbed either by Europeans or Arabs, these some- 
what inaccessible regions having hitherto remained unv'isited by explorers. 

The Ruanda Country. 

Ruanda, Ij'ing directly west of the Tangure river, and stretching away as far as 
the northern slope of Lake Tanganyka, is jJrobably the most powerful state in this 
still unexplored region. According to the statements of the Arabs, who have 
vainly endeavoured to penetrate into the country, whence they would be promptly 
expelled, because " famine and drought follow in their train," here are some very 
large villages, and the land is said to abound in minerals and hot springs. South 
of Moimt Mfumbiro all the slopes seem to be covered by an immense forest of use- 
ful timbers. Northwards M'poro and U-Sagara, also called Ankori or Mkole, are 
also said to be rich in valuable products. Most extraordinary things are related of 
this mysterious country, wicked dwarfs, far more formidable than giants, taking a 
prominent part in all these reports. It is probable that a race of pigmies, like the 
Akka of the forests of the river "Welle, and the Obongo of the Ogoway basin, occupy 
the upland valley's of Moimt M'fumbiro and the ranges running northwards towards 
Mounts Kibanga and Gambaragara. Stanley states that the king of TT-Ganda sent 
an expedition against these dwarfs, but the cold seems to have prevented his soldiers 
from penetrating into the upland valleys. Here also the chief power appears to be 
in the hands of the Wa-Himia, these conquerors from the east having thus appa- 
rently reached the water-parting between the Nile and Congo basins. This still 
imexplored country will doubtless sooner or later occupy a position in the history 
of the continent analogous to that which it already holds in its geographical aspect. 
Thanks to its climate and productions, it may become a new Europe in the very 
heart of Africa, and here will be the principal health-resort of the Nile and Congo 
lowland regions. 

The Empire of U-Ganda. 

The kingdom of U-Ganda,* the best known of all the states on the plateau of 
the Nile basin, seems to be also the most populous, as it certainly is the most power- 
fid. Its form is that of a crescent, stretching west and north of the Nyanza, and 
comprising Koki, U-Du (Uddu), and other states, as far as the mouth of the 
Alexandra Nile. Eastwards it extends even beyond the Somerset NUe, having 
gradually absorbed the U-Soga coimtry. It also possesses the large Sesse Archi- 
pelago, besides several other islands. In the interior its still undefined limits are 
lost in dense uninhabited jungles, and quite recently it has claimed sovereignty 
over Karagwe and U-Sui. Its total area may be estimated at 20,000 square miles, 
and, including the dependencies, at about 70,000 square miles. Stanley's calcula- 
tions, based on the number of armed men, make the population about 2,775,000. 

* V-Ganda means country of Ganja ; M-G(i»da, man of Ganda ; Wa-Ganda, people of Ganda ; Ki- 
Ganda, language of Ganda. 



IIABITS AKD CTJST02IS OF THE WA-GANDA. 83 

But according to the English missionaries it really amounts to 5,000,000, that is to 
say, nearly 200 persons per mile, a density almost one-fourth more than that of 
France. HoT^•ever, a still more remarkable statement of Messrs. Felkin and TTilson 
throws some doubt upon the value of these provisional estimates. Accordino- to 
them, the women are three and a-half times more numerous than the men, a social 
phenomenon elsewhere without parallel. Hitherto all the regular statistics have 
shown that the sexes are nearly equal, either with a slight overplus for the women, 
as in all the countries of Europe and the New "World, or with a small excess for the 
men, as in Japan. English travellers seem to think that this extraordinary dispro- 
portion may be due at once to natural and political causes. The births of girls far 
exceeds those of boys, as is evident fi-om the groups of children playing before the 
huts, the dangers of the battlefield and the massacres of the captives accoimting for 
the rest. On their successful expeditions the "Wa-Ganda warriors, Kke their neigh- 
bours, kill the men and carry off the women, who are afterwards divided amongst 
the conquerors. 

In U-Ganda, as iu most of the other states of the plateau, the power belongs 
to the TTa-Himia nation, although the majority of the inhabitants are the "VTa-Ganda, 
who have given their name to the state. They are true Negroes, with almost black 
complexion and short woolly hair, above the average height, and endowed with 
uncommon muscular strength. The women are distinguished by their small hands 
and feet. The "Wa-Nyambo, who come from Karagwe and the adjacent provinces, 
and who are for the most part pastors, are more slender in appearance than the 
natives. But the TTa-Soga, immigrants from the countries situated to the east of the 
Somerset Nile, equal the Wa-Ganda in stature and in strength, while they are even 
of a darker complexion. Amongst these various peoples albinos are very nimierous ; 
nevertheless they are exhibited as curiosities in the huts of the chiefs. The 
practices of tattooing the face, distending the lobe of the ear, or filing the teeth to 
a point, common amongst other African tribes, are here unknown, all voluntary 
mutilation being forbidden under pain of death. Nor do the Wa-Ganda grease 
the body with fat, and they are in other respects of cleanly habits and given to 
frequent ablutions. The most dreaded disease is small-pox, probably imported 
from the eastern coast. It spares few persons when it presents itself in an epidemic 
form. A few scattered cases of leprosy are to be found here and there, persons 
frequently being seen with their black skins covered with white blotches, like those 
of the Mexican Pintados. 

Habits A^^J Ccstoms of the Wa-Gaxda. 

The chief food of the Wa-Ganda is the banana, of which they possess several 
varieties, amongst others the Ethiopian musae ensete. It is prepared by them in 
various ways, being even made into flour and a fermented liquor which they brew 
from it. Sweet potatoes, haricots, various kinds of goui-ds and tomatoes, maize, 
millet, papaw fruit, rice, and vegetables introduced by the Arabs, are amongst their 
alimentary plants. The coffee-shrub is also cultivated, but yields a very small 

G 2 



84 XORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

berry, of which the TTa-Gauda make no infusions, using them merely for chewong 
purposes. They rarely eat meat, as all the live stock, consisting of thin and bad 
milch cows, goats, and fat-tailed sheep, belong to the Huma, who do not sell them. 
On the shores of the lake, and on the islands, the inhabitants, mostly ichthyophagous, 
find abundant nutriment in the multitude of fish abounding in the N'yanza. Nor 
do the "\Ya-Ganda despise smaller creatures, readily eating termites and locusts, 
and even chasing swarms of flies, which they capture by means of nets drawn quickly 
through the air. 

Owing to the cool atmosphere of these central jjlateaux the Wa-Ganda build 
their dwellings more carefully than most other tribes of the continent, and these huts 
are large enough to permit all domestic work being done within. They are nearly 
always of the beehive type, consisting of a double hemisphere or dome of branches 
supported by posts, and thickly thatched with straw of the so-called " tiger grass," 
some eighteen or twenty feet long. Between the two roofs the air circulates freely, 
keeping the interior of the cabin fresh and sweet. A sloping ledge of beaten earth 
round the outside carries off the rainwater during the wet season. Many of the 
houses have a low porch, under which they enter on all-fours. This, combined 
with the custom of prostrating themselves before superiors, is the cause of the pouch- 
like wrinkles that most of the natives have on their knees. Inside, the ground is 
strewn with bundles of grass disposed in geometrical figures, which produce a 
pleasing effect until the walls become blackened through the want of outlets for 
the smoke. Recently the Arabs and the Europeans have constructed other and 
larger houses, with gables and windows ; but the king has not permitted them to 
erect stone buildings, none having a right to inhabit a grander house than the 
king's palace. The national costume is also changing luider the influence of 
foreigners introducing new fashions. 

Amongst the Central African tribes the Wa-Nyoro and Wa-Ganda alone clothe 
themselves from head to foot, pain of death even being the penalty for men or 
women leaving their houses too scantily attired. Till recently the national costume 
was the mhugu, a garment of bark stripped from a species of fig-tree (ficus ludiaX 
and beaten to render it supple. Over the mbugu the chiefs wore a robe, either an 
ox-hide or made up of twenty or thirty skins of the little ntalaganya antelope, 
which is no larger than a hare, and whose brown fur is remarkably beautiful. But 
the Arab di-ess is gradually prevailing, even the poorer classes buj-ing the ha'ik, the 
shirt, the girdle, and the caftan, while the chiefs deck themselves with rich turbans 
or with the Egyptian fez. Stockings and Turkish slippers are also replacing the 
coarse buffalo-skin sandals. Their arms are also supplied from Zanzibar, and the 
Wa-Ganda warriors have already substituted modern rifles for the old-fashioned 
spears and bows. The Egyptian Government has in vain forbidden the exportation 
of small-arms to the Nyanza region, for these weapons continue to be imported from 
other sources. 

The practice of polygamy is far more general amongst the Wa-Ganda than 
amongst the Europeans and Asiatic Mohammedans, the chiefs having no limit to 
the number of their wives, who are also their servants. The late King M'tesa is 



I 



HABITS ANT) CUSTOMS OF THE WA-GANDA. 85 

said to have had no less than seven thousand, obtained in exchange for trifles such 
as some domestic animal, a few needles, or a box of pills. The chiefs follow their 
sovereign's example in surroimding themselves \vith a host of wives, and the smallest 
vassal has his harem. The grandees thus absorb such a large portion of the female 
population that, in spite of the preponderance of girls, there are not enough left for 
all the Wa-Ganda. Peasants are often seen whose scanty crops have never sufficed 
to purchase a single wife. K"o law forbids the marrying of near relations. On the 
death of a father the eldest son even inherits all his wives, with the exception of his 
own mother, occasionally sharing them with the other members of the family. 
During the period of lactation, lasting two years, the women live apart from their 
husbands, the king and the chiefs having for these nurses separate houses scattered 
throughout the kingdom. 

Nearly all domestic work falls on the women and slaves, the free man being 
above any toil except that of building his own house. He is bom a soldier, and 
must keep his strength for the wielding of arms. The Wa-Ganda naturally have 
all the A-ices produced by such a state of things. They are liars, idlers, and thieves, 
those who have wives and slaves to do their work passing their time in gambling 
and dr inkin g. The traveller is most struck by the disregard the Wa-Ganda have 
for human Hfe. Killing a man is a mere trifle that no one troubles himself about. 
A court-page wanting to try a rifle shoots the fii-st passer-by, and returns delighted 
with his weapon and his skiU. Another complains to the kiag of always serving, say- 
ing that he should like to be a chief. " Well then, kiU yoiir father ; " and the son 
hastens to put this idea iato execution, so as to inherit the women and slaves, which 
will enable him to fold his arms and do nothing in his turn. And yet the Wa-Ganda 
cannot be called a cruel people. They are rather inclined to benevolence, generally 
treating their slaves with great gentleness, and welcoming the traveller with 
kindness. U-Ganda is said to be the only African country where the Hfe of the 
guest has always been scrupulously respected. "When a war breaks out all the 
strangers are enclosed in a village and placed under the charge of a chief respon- 
sible for their safety and bound to furnish them with food and shelter. But if they 
withdraw from the place assigned to them, the chief is uo longer answerable for 
the consequences. 

Endowed with great intelligence, and speaking an extremely sonorous, pliant, 
and logical language, the Wa-Ganda are probably the only African people who 
have made any real progress since 1862 when Speke, the fii-st European visitor, 
penetrated into their coxmtry. Wa-Ganda envoys were already despatched to 
England in 1880. Xew plants have been introduced, together with new methods 
of culture, and agricultural labour is increasing. Very skilful in forging iron, the 
Wa-Ganda imitate perfectly European objects, and can even change flint-lock 
guns into modern rifles. They readily acquire foreign languages, and Swaheli, 
the idiom of the coast, and the most useful in Eastern Africa, is already spoken 
fluently in the capital and the market-towns. A certain number of chiefs also 
speak and wiite Arabic. In a few days school-children master the difficulties of 
the Latin alphabet, made much easier by the English missionaries than that of the 



86 



NOETH EAST AFBICA. 



Arabic language, in whicli the sound so rarely corresponds to the symbol. The 
Ganda alphabet is composed of Latin letters, x and q, however, being replaced by 
other characters. 

Religion — Tradk — Administration. 

Hitherto foreign religions have scarcely had access to this country. Islam, 
vrhich is making so much progress north and south of the plateau, seemed destined 
to prevail in IT- Ganda ; but the practice of circumcision, which nearly all Mussul- 
mans have to undergo, except perhaps in Senaar and tho Blue Nile, infriages the 
laws of the country, which, though permitting mui-der, forbids all mutilations. A 
hxmdred young men who had been circumcised were burnt by order of the king. 
Still, foreign Mohammedans have been allowed to build a mosque. The Catholic 



Fig. 29. — South TJ-Ganda. 
Scale 1 : 2,400,000. 




t V of Preenwvi ch 



35*40 



■C Perron 



. 311 Miles. 



and Protestant missionaries have made but few converts, although they both hoped 
to be able to strike a great blow by converting the king, baptised in anticipation as 
" Constantino the Black." For the rest, the Wa-Ganda have neither idols nor fetish 
gods, properly so-called ; they believe in a universal creator, Katonda, whom, how- 
ever, they do not worship, believing him too far above them to condescend to listen 
to their prayers. Hence they confine themselves to invoking the hthari, cither well- 
disposed genii or dreaded demons, dwelling in the lakes, rivers, trees, and the rocks 
of the mountains. IMukusa, the god of the Nyanza, becomes occasionally incarnate 
in a wizard or a witch, announcing through this medium rain or drought, peace or 
war, triumphs or disasters. Another dreaded god, he who lets loose the scourge of 
small-pox, seems to be the spirit of an ancient king, dwelling on the west of Mount 
Gambaragara above the region of the clouds. All the kings have their apotheosis, 
and after becoming demi-gods continue to govern the people, massacring or par- 



EELIGION— TRADE— ADMINISTEATION. 87 

cloning as they did before their death. Amongst the most venerated is the god of 
thunder, and the place where lightning is seen to strike is held as sacred. Here 
an archway is built, under which no stranger has the right to pass ; or else a hut 
is raised on the spot as a sort of temple, which, however, must not be repaired when 
it falls in ruins. Against all the dangers which surround him, proceeding from the 
e\'il genii and powers of the air, the Ganda man protects himself by amulets of 
wood, stone, or horn, and by shreds of cloth made for him by the mandwa, or 
"medicine-men." These magicians appear also to have a sort of recognised 
influence, due to their skilful treatment of diseases with roots and nostrums. 
According to Speke, an ecclesiastical fief, over which thekiag of U-Ganda has only 
an indirect power, occupies a large tract on the left bank of the Nile. 

In U-Ganda all the trade of any importance is in the hands of the Arabs and 
the Zanzibar half-castes. Their trading stations are limited on the north by the 
Somerset Nile, and the series of- cataracts from Karuma to the Mui-chison Falls, 
and if they penetrate westwards towards the Albert Nyanza they still keep their 
depots in U-Ganda. They barter guns, powder and shot, woven goods, glassware, 
and a few European articles, for ivory and slaves, the latter the great staple of trade 
in Central Africa. At least one thousand blacks are thus sold amiually to the Arabs. 
As the elephants retire before the himter deeper and deeper into jimgles remote 
from all human dwellings, the Wa-Ganda have no other means of paying their 
debts than by annually handing over an ever-increasing number of slaves to the 
dealers in human flesh. It has already been ascertained that the slave element is 
actually diminishing in the coimtry. Ivory comes chiefly from U-Soga, and salt is 
imported from the banks of the Albert Nyanza across U-Nyoro. Till recently a 
little trade was also carried on with the Egj-ptian possessions in Sudan, to which 
U-Ganda supplied coffee, tobacco, and cattle, in exchange for cotton-stuffs, iron, and 
Turkish slippers. Money is still rarely employed in these transactions, the recog- 
nised commercial currency being the doti, or " eight cubits " of calico of the value 
of one thousand cowries. Thanks to the numerous caravans journeying between 
the sea and the lake, by the easy routes of the Masai coimtry, the facilities for 
exchange are increasing. Hence there can be no doubt that a civilised sj'stem of 
trade will soon replace that of barter. The navigation of the Nyanza has become 
less dangerous since the Arabs' dhows have made their appearance on its waters, 
and in U-Ganda itself the former miry paths are being replaced by good routes. 
The road connecting the capital with its port on the Nyanza would do honour to 
Europeans. It is carried over a swamp on a solid foundation of wild-palm trunks 
placed side by side. 

The Egyptian conquests at the time of their greatest extension never reached 
the frontiers of U-Ganda. The ofiicers of the Khedive penetrated into the country 
only under the title of ambassadors. The old feudal system has undergone no 
chanffe since the kinsdom has entered into commercial relations with Ai-abs and 
Europeans. In theory the king is absolute master of land and people, and is free 
to act as he pleases in matters of small moment, such as the lives of his women or 
of the wakopi, members of the agricultural class. M'tesa well deserved his name, 



88 XOBTH-EAST AFRICA. 

which according to one interpretation means " he who makes all tremble." A small 
army of executioners, their heads bound with cords, always awaited his orders, 
accompanying him in aU his expeditions. But he was not absolute master in state 
affairs, his power being controlled by three wahuiKju, or hereditary vassals. The 
katekiro, or chief functionary, a sort of "mayor of the palace" and governor of 
TJ-Du, is nominated by the king, and may be chosen even amongst the peasantry. 
He takes his place with the sovereign and the three wakungu in the privy council, 
and in the king's absence presides over the hichiko or governing body, composed of 
all the grandees of the country, vassals and feudatories, wakungu and wakongoli. 
The head cook and other palace dignitaries have also a voice in the coimcil. At 
the death of the king the right of nomination belongs to the three wakungu, who 
select one of his childi-en, imprison his brothers during their minority, and then 
burn them, reserving two or three to continue the race, should the new king die 
without issue. If the three great chiefs disagree as to the choice of the sovereign, 
the question is decided by war, the conqueror enthroning his choice. For their 
battles the wakungu have no lack of men, all able-bodied persons, from five 
hundred thousand to six himdred thousand altogether, being trained in the use of 
arms and obliged to obey the first summons of theii" chiefs. The royal guard is 
partly composed of peoples of Eastern Sudan and Dongola, deserters from the 
Egyptian army. The fleet consists of several hundred canoes. 

Topography of U-Gaxda. 

The capital changes according to the king's caprice. In 1862, at the time of 
Speke and Grant's visit, the royal residence was at Banda, which, for a country of 
large trade, woidd appear to be most favourably situated on the crest of the portage 
between the great gulf of Mwaru-Luajerri, the Murchison Bay of the English, and 
the river Katawana-Luajerri, which joins the Nile at Lake Ibrahim. A few 
scattered hamlets in the midst of ruins, which must soon disappear, are now all that 
remains of Banda. Rubaga is the most important present capital, lying about seven 
miles towards the north-west, on a hiU encircled by rivulets which form the head- 
stream of the M'werango river, flowing through the Kafu to the Nile. On the 
summit of the hill, visible from afar, with its lofty gables and flagstaff, stands the 
king's palace, surroimded with gardens, above which appear the conic roofs of the 
huts inhabited by his wives and officers. Northwards another hill bears a second 
royal residence, surrounded by the village of Nabulagala, Stanley's Ullagala. This 
IS the main depot of the Arab merchants, and here begins the caravan route towards 
M'ruli, the principal market-town of the Somerset Nile. The two most frequented 
ports of U-Ganda on the shores of the great lake are U-Samra, on the banks of 
Murchison Bay, and M'tebhi, on the gulf limited south hy the Sesse Archipelago. 

The Kavirondo and Nanda Countries. 

East of Nyanza the most powerful state is that of Kavirondo, which is said to 
exercise a sort of suzerainty over all the riverain peoples between the islands of 



THE KATIROXDO AND XAXDA COHNTELES. 89 

U-Kerewe south-east, and the country of U-Gana nortli-east, of the great lake. 
Thus the two kingdoms of Ganda and Karirondo would appear to be scarcely 
separated by the region inhabited by the TVa-Soga. Situated nearly towards the 
middle of the eastern coast according to Ravensteia's map, but to the north-east of 
the lake followiag the statement of Thompson, the most recent explorer, Kavirondo, 
properly so called, is a grassy plain in the centre of which rise several little isolated 
hills, whilst in the north stands the lofty ilount Manda. Although the country 
has an abundant rainfall, it is diversified only by a few clumps of trees. Xumerous 
rivers wind thi-ough the plain, and one of them, the Mori, appears to flow fi-om the 
lake, evaporating in a depression below the level of the Xyanza. But this remark- 
able statement depends exclusively on the report of an Arab dealer, and made on 
his return from a journey to the interior. The ilori is said to be crossed by a 
suspension bridge facing the town of Kamrete. The island of U-Kava, not far from 
the fluvial basin, is said by Felkin and "\^ilson to be occupied by a race of dwarfs 
with a mean stature of less than four feet and a-half. 

The TTa-Kavirondo are of the Xegro t}"pe ; they are tall and robust, with almost 
black complexion, flat nose, and thick lips. Judging from their language, as well 
as their features, they appear to belong to the same stock as the Shilluks of the 
Middle Xile. In appearance and speech they are quite distinct from the other 
riverain populations, who are of Bantu origin. The women tattoo their backs and 
breasts, the men rarely decorating themselves in this fashion. But like so many 
other African peoples they do not leave the teeth in their natural state, but extract 
the two middle incisors of the lower jaw. They go naked, or else only wear a 
waist-cloth, to which the women add a tail of bark. This portion of theii- costume, 
like the plaited tails of other native commimities, explains the fables, so long 
believed by the Arabs, of African tribes forming the connecting link between man 
and the monkey. Apart from this tail the Kavirondo women have no ornaments, 
but they daub their bodies with grease. Unlike the Wa-Ganda, the Wa-Kavirondo 
do not consider themselves dishonoured by work, but take their share with the 
women in all agricult\iral operations. They also employ themselves in the chase, 
in fishing, in breeding domestic birds, in which they are very skilful, and in 
navi^atino- the Xvanza with sailintj boats much more substantial than the canoes 
of the "Wa-Ganda. They are as peaceful as they are industrious ; nevertheless they 
defend themselves courageously against attacks, and the palisades surrounding 
their dwellings are carefully avoided by the wandering tribes of the interior. The 
TVa-Kavirondo have a king, who is not master over the lives of his subjects ; the 
coimtry is more of a confederation of republican villages than a feudal realm like 
U-Ganda. The 'Wa-Kui-i and "Wa-Kara, living more to the south on the coastlands 
bounded by Speke Gulf, resemble the TTa-Kavirondo in language and customs, 
except that the Wa-Kara clothe themselves in bark, tattoo the breast, and paint the 
body red and white by means of clay mixed with oil. But amongst the numerous 
tribes of the eastern slope of the Xyanza, several constitute by their customs, and 
possibly their origin, isolated ethnical enclaves distinct from the surrounding 
groups. Such are the TVa-Xanda, inhabiting the upland valleys of the same name 



90 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



nortli of Kaviroudo. Tliej- appear to be an extremely ferocious tribe, carefully 

avoided by all traders passing in the vicinity of their haunts. They are described 

as " clothed with knives," which they wear on their arms, thighs, body, and waist. 

The centres of population in U-Kavirondo are sufficiently large to merit the 



Fig. 30. — U-GrAN-DA : RuBAGA, Pkixcipal Residence of M'Tes v. 





name of towns. The largest is Kahondo, situated on the eastern frontier, near the 
Masai country. At ITyaica, about four hours' march to the north-west, stands the 
residence of the king, followed in the same direction and about the same distance 
by Sandcg^, the depot of the Mussulnmn mercliants of Zanzibar, commanding a 



THE U-NTOBO TEEEITOET. 91 

view of the IS^anda range. The caravans, which travel slowly, scarcely making 
more than eight or nine miles a day, take two whole months toijerform the journey. 
The missionaries of Islam, more fortimate than those labouring in U-Ganda, claim 
Kavirondo as their conquest ; at least the greater ijart of the people have submitted 
to the rite of circxmicision. 

The U-Nvoro Territory. 

North of U-Ganda most of the peninsular district lying between the Albert 
Nyanza and the Somerset Nile belongs to the Wa-Nyoro people. Formerly all the 
country stretching between the two Nilotic lakes constituted the vast kingdom of 
Kitwara, governed by a dynasty of Wa-Himia conquerors. This empire has been 
divided into many states, of which U-Ganda is the most powerful ; but the sovereign 
of U-Nyoro would appear still to enjoy a sort of virtual sovereignty over his 
neighbours, and always bears officially the title of King of Kitwara. Nevertheless 
U-Nyoro cannot be compared to U-Ganda, either in the extent of its cultivated 
territory, in the number of its people, or in political unity. In spite of the natural 
frontier, indicated by the banks of the Nile and the lake, its limits are rendered 
uncertain by the incui'sions of hostile tribes. Uninhabited borderlands separate 
U-Nyoro from U-Ganda ; but here lies a region of great commercial importance, 
belonging at once to two kingdoms as a place of transition, which caravans can 
traverse only under escort, usually choosing the night for their march. This 
debatable region is the zone of land comprised between the marshes of Ergugu and 
the abrupt bend of the Nile at M'ruli. The Wa-Ganda are compelled to force their 
way through it when i^roceeding from Rubaga to Sudan, and the "Wa-Nyoro of the 
west have no other waj' by which to visit their -s-illages situated to the west of the 
Nile. U-Nyoro is in a continual state of warfare, dividing it into petty states, 
which increase or diminish in extent according to the vicissitudes of the battlefield. 
It is the custom on the death of the sovereign for his nearest relations to dispute 
the succession ; the corpse is not buried till after the victory of one of the competitors. 
The latter, however, often hastens to celebrate his triumph prematm-ely, in which 
case the war continues for generations between brothers and cousins. At present 
U-Nyoro is divided between hostile kingdoms ; besides which Egyptian garrisons, 
cut off from the centre of administration at Khartum, still occupy the line of 
the Nile between the bend of Foweira and Lake Albert Nyanza. Nvmierous tribes 
have also retained their independence, especially in the high south-western district 
between the two great lakes. 

U-Nyoro presents on the whole the aspect of a plateau with a north-easterlj'- 
slope parallel to Lake Albert Nyanza. It enjoys a copious rainfall, and many 
depressions in the surface are occupied with swamps rendered dangerous to the 
waj-farer by the holes caused by the heavy tramp of elephants. The lacustrine 
basins are also strewn with gneiss and granite boulders, whose presence in these 
alluvial tracts seems inexplicable. Except in the vicinity of the Nile, vegetation 
appears to be on the whole less exuberant than in U-Ganda. Leguminous plants. 



92 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



however, are moi-e numerously represented, and the delicate foliage of the acacia 
forests looks in some places like a light haze enveloping the stems and branches of 
the trees. Antelopes still abound in these regions even on the route hitherto 
followed by most explorers along the Khor-Ergugu between Eubaga and ^I'ruli. 

The Wa-Nyoro are a smaller people than their Wa-Ganda neighbours, to 
whom they also appear to be inferior in physical strength and iutelligence, but not 
in the art of forging and pottery. They belong to the same race, and speak an 
allied Bantu dialect, but are of a lighter complexion, usuaUj' a dull red, and the 
hair is crisp rather than woolly. Although of cleanly habits, never failing to wash 
their hands before and after meals, their huts are badly kept, and constructed 
mostly of branches planted round a stake, and converging upwards so as to form a 
regular cone. Their only domestic animals are cows, goats, and a poor breed of 
poultry. In case of distemper these animals are treated by bleeding, and the blood 



Fig. 31.— U-Nyoro. 

Scale 1 : 3,000,000. 




L . o^ breenwich 



C Perroo 



. 60 Miles. 



saved for hmnan consumption. Like the Wa-Ganda, the "Wa-Nyoro wear clothes, 
and consequently hold themselves superior to the naked Negro people dwelling 
beyond the Nile. The yoxmg men, however, do not assume their bark or skin 
garments before the age of puberty, when they are accepted as members of the 
tribe, and their new dignity celebrated by the extraction of the four lower incisors. 
Two lines tattooed on both sides of the forehead further distinguish them from the 
surrounding populations. 

Polygamj' is universal, even amongst the poor, who have always two or three 
wives, although of " inferior quality," for a handsome spouse would cost at least 
four cows. As in U-Ganda, brothers may marry their sisters, fathers their daughters, 
while the son inherits the whole paternal harem except his own mother. The 
king has a general monopoly of all the unmarried women, for whom he selects 
husbands amongst his coiu-tiers. The sons of these unions become royal pages, 




< 

a 

<) 

ffl 
P 

o 



OF THE. 

U-.i'.'rpQlTV J I' 



• '1 



THE U-NYOEO TERRITORY. 93 

the daughters following their mother's profession. The wives of the kiag and 
chiefs would regard themselves as degraded by manual labour, their whole ambition 
being to grow corpulent and acquire double the weight of their humbler sisters. 
Few of the Wa-^yoro women give birth to more than two or three children. 

Islam has already penetrated into U-Nyoro. But although many of the chiefs 
have become converts, the bulk of the people have accepted of the new religion 
little beyond its prescriptions regarding prohibited food. The " medicine-men " 
stUl universally practise magic, seeking to secure the favour of " the great wizard " 
and of the spirit-world by means of charms, incantations, and dances. The fortune- 
tellers, belonging to a wandering caste compared by Emin-Bey to the European 
gj'psies, are also frequently consulted. The " evil eye " is much dreaded, especially 
that of old women, whose glance suffices to poison food and drink. All disorders 
are attributed to sorcery, and in order to recover the patient spits three times in 
the face of every woman he meets, the cure being effected when he reaches the 
actual delinquent. Every event, from the meeting of a wUd beast to the motion 
of a leaf, has its auspicious or unfavourable meaning, so that the people spend their 
lives in studjang the aspect of vegetation, the flight of birds, the state of the 
firmament, and all other outward phenomena. No one ever retraces his steps, and 
if he has to return he chooses a path parallel to the first, or else opens a new way 
through the bush. The blacksmith accompanies his work with a song, the words of 
which enter into the metal and endow it with its peculiar properties. Two men swear 
friendship by mingling their blood and dipping a coffee-berry in the mixture 
in order to assimilate their respective qualities. Between two uterine brothers 
mutual trust is imbounded and never betrayed. Hence the king selects his 
most intimate ministers amongst those united to him by the brotherhood of con- 
sanguinity. The nocturnal dances, celebrated by the flickering light of torches 
or the lurid flame of the stake, are said to produce an ineffaceable impression. The 
wizards, daubed with ochre, decked with fantastic finery, conjuring the demons by 
their wild gesticulations, leaps, and shouts, flitting about in the glare and suddenly 
plunging into the surromiding gloom, appear themselves like spectres of the 
night, or fantastic beings from another world. The Wa-Nyoro have also a 
warlike dance like that of their kindred, the southern Zulus, and, like them also, 
make war with assegai, spear, and shield. 

U-Nyoro is also occupied bj' peoples of other stocks, the most powerful of which 
are the Lango or Longo, who hold both sides of the Nile between Foweira and 
Magungo. These are probably of the same origin as the Wa-Huma, and even stQl 
speak a Galla dialect. They enjoy full freedom, forming independent communities 
in the midst of the Wa-Nyoro, and recognising the authority of the chiefs only 
durmg their warlike expeditions. They are otherwise sjieciallj' devoted to the 
oflices of the toilet, spending long hours in arranging their elegant or imposing 
head-dresses. The prevailing fashion is a kind of helmet, in which every lock of 
hair is interlaced with many-coloured wools, and terminating in a superstructure 
of plumes, wreaths of shells or glass beads, or curved projections in imitation of 
buffalo hoi-ns. Whole years are required to bring some of these sumptuous head- 



94 NOETH-EAST AFBICA. 

dresses to perfection. The Lango women are the finest and most symmetrical in 
the whole region of the equatorial lakes. They wear little clothing beyond waist- 
bands, necklaces, armlets, and rings. 

South of the Xile is found another ethnological group, formed by the "Wa-Tchopi 
or Shefalu, in speech and appearance resembling the Shilluks, whose proper domain 
lies some six hundred miles farther north. According to the national traditions, 
the Shefalu are descended from a conquering people, who came originally from that 
direction. 

Masindi, on a river flowing to Lake Albert, was the residence of the king of 
IT-Nvoro when the country was first visited by Speke, Grant, and Baker. But in 
1877 it was rej^laced by Nyamoga, which is also conveniently situated in the centre 
of the region enclosed between the lake and the great bend described by the Nile 
below M'ni/i. The latter place, which occupies an important strategic and com- 
mercial position on the Nile at the converging point of the caravan route from 
U-Ganda, has ceased to be the advanced southern outpost of the Egyptians. Even 
before the Mussulman revolt in Dar-For the troops had been withdrawn from M'ruli 
and from Kirota, which lies in a forest clearing farther north-west. The western 
bulwark of the Khedive's possessions is, or was tiU recently, Foiceira (^Faicera, 
Faurcrn, Faveira^, whose site has been shifted to a cliff on the east bank of the 
Nile near the Kubuli confluence, and not far from the point where the river trends 
westward to Lake Albert. North of the river stands another fortified station near 
the Karuma rapids, and north of Panyatoli, residence of one of the most powerful 
"Wa-Nyoro chiefs. A third Egyptian fortress in U-Nyoro is Magungo, on the 
right bank of the Nile, where its sluggish current joins Lake Albert. Being 
enclosed by a ditch ten feet broad, this place is impregnable to the badly amied 
and undisciplined troops of the Lango or Wa-Nyoro chiefs. East of Magungo 
steamers ascend the river as far as the wooded gorges of the Murchison Falls. 

Mahaghi (^Ma/iahi), another fortified station, has been formed by the Egj-ptians 
on the west side of Lake Albert, where it is sheltered by a headland from the 
northern winds. The whole of this coast region, which takes the name of Lui', is 
inhabited by Negro tribes akin to those of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and speaking a 
language which differs little from that of the Shuli east of the Nile. In habits 
they resemble the Wa-Nyoro, with whom thej^ formerly maintained constant 
commercial relations, and whose suzerainty they recognise ; without, however, 
paying any tribute to the king. South-west of the Egj"ptian station are some hot 
springs, sidphurous, like all hitherto discovered in the Upper Nile regions. A 
considerable trafl&c is carried on by water between both sides of the lake, especially 
with the ports of HTbakoria ( Vacovia) and Kibero, where salt is yielded in abimdance 
by the surroimding argillaceous days. 



fSiiiii'!!;!'!: 




S5 
O 



a 



LiSRARV 

^f THE 

*y.ofiijjNOis 



CH^iPTER IV 



REGION OF THE UPPEK XILE TKIBrTARIES. 




HE section of the Nilotic basin comprised between Lake Albert and 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal confluence presents a marked contrast to the 
svuTounding land in its abundant waters, its converging streams, 
extensive marshy tracts, and the general imifonnity of its slope. 
The natural limits of this distinct geographical domain are formed 
b_v the course of the Xile and Asua on the east and south-east, and of the Bahr- 
el-Ghazal on the north. In the historic Ufe of the continent the inhabitants of 
this watery region have also played a separate part. Here lies the chief connecting 
route between the Xile and Congo basins. The water-parting being marked by no 
perceptible " divide," no barrier is presented to the migration of peoples between 
the two great arteries. Thus the hydi-ographic parting-Une forms no nattu-al limit 
between ethnical groups, some of which, such as the Niam-Niam, occupy both 
sides of the slope, while continually encroaching northwards. Through this region 
of transition must pass the future continental highway from east to west between 
the Red Sea and the Bight of Benin. It has abeady been partly opened by 
Peney, Lejean, Petherick, Piaggia, Schweinfurth, Junker, Bohndorff, and other 
explorers are eagerly following in their footsteps. 

Northwards this region has a natui-al limit ; indicated, however, not by any 
water-partiug, but by the climate, which produces a marked contrast in the aspect of 
the land, its vegetation, fauna and inhabitants. The latitudinal depression flooded 
by the waters of the Bahr-el-Arab coincides in a general way with this climatic 
fi'ontier. South of it the rainfall is sufficiently copious to feed perennial streams, 
or at all events rivers flowing for sis months in the year. But on the north side 
we have nothing but wadies flushed only during the heavy rains. Hence the great 
difference presented by the forest vegetation along the right and left banks of the 
Bahr-el-Arab. On one side we finrl the baobab, with its huge inflated trunk, on 
the other the lulu, or butter-tree, in some places covering hundreds of square miles. 
The large apes never cross the frontier into Kordofan ; nor does the elephant 
venture north of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where the flocks and herds are also free from 
the ravages of the tsetse- fly. The southern region belongs to the Xegro and his 
homed cattle, the northern to the horse and camel-breeding Arab. 



96 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



Flora akd Fauna. 

The extensive tract comprised between the Bahr-el-Jebel and the Bahr-el-Arab, 
although clearly characterised by its ramifying waters, has no general geographical 
designation, and is known only by the names of the tribes occupj-ing its various 
sections. Politically the western portion is known as the province of the Bahr-el- 
Ghazal, a name which should properly be restricted to the basin of this affluent of 
the Nile. The whole territory might be collectively called the " fluvial region," 
for here are concentrated all the western affluents of the Nile north of Lake 
Albert. Its total area may be estimated at about 140,000 square miles, and its 
mean altitude at 2,500 feet above the sea. The soil being composed of disin- 
tegrated granite mingled with fluA-ial alluvia and humus, is extremely fertile. 
Vast tracts are covered with a red earth overlying soft iron ores, which combining 
with the sediment and decayed vegetation washed down by the streams, is also 
very productive. But where the ferruginous deposit lies too near the sm-face. 



Fig. 32. — Water-parting between the Nile and Congo. 

Scale 1 : 7,000,000. 







/V/A /i^ - /V/A 



5° 



t , of UreenvvicH 



. 120 ilUes. 



large plants are unable to strike deep root, and even after the rains little is seen 
except a scant herbage. Elsewhere the soil yields heavj' crops, while its sponta- 
neous growths comprise many species of great economic value. Such are the ruhm 
{criodcndron aiifractuosum), a large cotton-plant, and the htlu {hufyrospermum 
Parkii), whose fruit contains much oil and butter. Other plants supply several 
varieties of caoutchouc ; and here and there is met the higlik, or " elephant-tree," 
(baknites uSHfjijptiaca'), under which pits are often dug to capture the huge 
pachyderms, who greedily devour the foliage of this plant. 

The elephant stiU abounds in this region, although from live thousand to six 
thousand are said to be taken every year. The species of antelopes have been 
estimated at a hundred (?), and some large apes, supposed by Felkin to be chim- 
panzees, are much dreaded by the natives. Some hundreds of these bimanes 
attacked the station of Gaba Shambe on the NUe, and destroyed several houses, a 
fire completing the ruin of the depots. On the other hand, neither the horses, 
asses, mules, camels, nor the pack-oxen of the Baggara Arabs survive more than a 



I 



TXHABTTAXTS. 97 

twelvemonth in the wooded districts skirting Dar-For and Kordofan on the south. 
The destruction of these unacclimatised animals is attributed by Emin-Bey to the 
spontaneous development of multitudes of entozoa, while the natives suffer much 
from the "Medina worm " as far as the third parallel north of the equator. 

IXHABITAXTS. 

Fifty mHlion people might easily live in this fertile region, in some parts of 
which the villages foUow in close succession, and the jungle has been replaced by 
gardens. But almost everywhere are visible the traces of murderous and maraud- 
ing inroads, and many districts recently imder cultivation are now completely 
depopulated. Xowhere else in East Africa has so much ruin been caused by the 
slave- dealers, including many Egyptian officials, who for many years openly carried 
on the traffic in human flesh. Protected by their very position, these fimctionaries 
were able quietly to promote their " civilising mission," as it was pompously 
described in the official reports. Even stLU the routes followed by the convoys of 
wretched captives regularly forwarded from the Arab stations to the Lower Xile 
may be recognised by the bleached bones of the victims of this nefarious commerce. 
And when it was at last officially interdicted, the ostentatious Government procla- 
mations were easQy evaded by the ilohammedan and Christian dealers alike. 
They no longer engaged personally in the razzias, but they fomented the tribal 
feuds, encouraging the slaughter of the men, the captiire of the women and 
children. Then humanity itself seemed to require their intervention, to rescue the 
captives and reserve them for a less cruel bondage in the northern cities. Such 
was the regime introduced by the " era of progress," under which not only was the 
coimtry wasted, but its surviving inhabitants debased by the hitherto imknown 
vices of a "higher culture." 

WTien at last the Eui-opean governor, Gordon Pasha, attempted in 1878 to put 
an end to these horrors, the revolt broke out, and while the functionaries were 
officially encouraged to act vigorouslv, the rebels were secretly supplied with 
munitions of war. The slave-dealers were openly or covertly abetted by nearly all 
the Eg}-ptian officials. The hope, however, of establishing a separate state under 
the notorious slaver, Suleiman, was thwarted by Gordon's energetic action, aided 
by the skill and zeal of his lieutenant, Gessi. And although both of these brave 
men were soon recalled and sacrificed to court intrigue, the old regime of terrorism 
seems never to have been restored. The Khedive's authority stiU survives, at least 
in name, and the Kordofan rebels seem again circumvented in their attempts to 
cross the Bahr-el-Ghazal by Gordon's return to Khartum in 1884. 

Meantime the commimications with the north have been interrupted. By the 
very force of circumstances this province has, at least for a time, become autono- 
mous ; but the time seems still remote when the Sudan will be able to dispense 
altogether with foreign intervention in its internal affairs. A bright prospect is 
nevertheless in store for it, as soon as the slaA-e-trade has yielded to legitimate 
commerce, dealing in corn, fruits, vegetables, butter, cotton, hides, metals, gums, 

VOL. X. H 



98 NORTH-EAST APEICA. 

wax, caoutchouc, and many other local products instead of the present staples — 
ivory and human flesh. The climate is suitable to Europeans willing to lead sober 
and active lives. But the extensive swamps in the low-lying districts must always 
render it dangerous to immigrants, until health resorts, like those of India, have 
been established in the southern uplands. 

The native populations have in many places become intermingled through the 
constant local wars and razzias of the slave-hunters ; the old tribal limits can no 
longer be determined ; the territories have shifted theii- inhabitants. During the 
last generation stable communities have been maintained only on the banks of the 
Nile between Magungo and Dufile, where the slave-dealers have scarcely succeeded 
in penetrating or establishing their footing for any length of time. Hence the 
population is still dense in this district, in which we may wander for days without 
meeting any waste or unreclaimed lands. In this peaceful region, for generations 
undistm-bed by foreign wars, the manners of the people have become softened, 
crime is almost unknown, and the traveller may move about freely vmarmed. How 
great the contrast with those communities that have been harassed by the slave- 
hunter ! Yet nearly all are of one origin, and had formerly the same habits, the 
same social and political organisation. Mostly of Negro stock, they speak 
languages entirely different from those current amongst the Bantu peoples of the 
equatorial lakes. But of these diverse tongues, two or three only have been 
reduced to writing bj' the missionaries. The Bari, Denka and Shilluk have thus 
been partially fixed by grammatical works and religious translations. Of all the 
African linguistic groups, this is on the whole the least kno-mi, although the 
country has been more frequented by Europeans than many other regions of the 
interior. 



The Shuli and Madi. 

Southernmost of these Nilotic tribes are the Shuli on the east, and the kindred 
Lur, or Luri, on the west bank of the river, where it emerges fi-om Lake Albert. 
Their joint domain comprises the left side of the lake, and an extensive tract 
stretching along the Nile northwards beyond the Asua affluent. The Shuli would 
be of pleasant outward apjjearance but for the habit of piercing the lower lip, and 
mserting a piece of crystal, a stick, or any other ornament, three or four inches long. 
They also extract the foui- upper incisors, causing their utterance to be very indis- 
tinct, and with an oxide of iron daub their bodies red in all sorts of fantastic forms. 
Like the Madi on their northern and the Lango on their southern frontier, the 
Shuli pass a great part of their lives in thus painting and decking themselves. 
The elaborate headdresses vary according to the taste of each individual, but on all 
alike the greatest care is lavished. Some are raised several stories high, and 
embellished with ornaments of all kinds — flocks of wool, -(VTeaths of foliage, rings, 
strings of pearls — the whole forming an architectm-al edifice sufficiently incom- 
modious to the bearer. The rich throw an antelope skin over their shoulders, the 
poor a goatskin, loading wrists, legs, and neck with iron rings. Under this weight 



THE SHIILI AND ISLVDI. 99 

of metal locomotion becomes difficult, while to look to the right or left the fashion- 
able Shiili has to wheel his whole body half round. The costume is completed with 
red and white beads, and diverse amulets of silk, roots, teeth, horn, and the like. 
The women, however, wear nothing but a loin-cloth, a few glass trinkets, some 
decorative paintings, and a queue, like that of the Niam-Niam. 

The Shuli, Liu-, and Madi are distinguished from the neighbouring tribes by the 
consideration they pay to the women in all social matters. Young girls, living 
apart in huts reserved for the purpose, have the privilege of choosing theii- own 
husbands. They are never beaten, and the husband seldom takes any important step 
without consulting his wife, or receives any present without sharing it with her. 
The women are also exempt from field operations, and occupj' themselves exclu- 
sively with household duties. 

The national name, ShuH, recalling that of the Shillulvs on the "White Nile, 
points to a common origin of these tribes, a conclusion confirmed by the obvious 
affinity of their respective idioms. The Shuli, however, unlike their northern 
kindred, are a peacefid people, engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits. They 
grow excellent tobacco, various kinds of vegetables, and large quantities of cereals 
and sesame. In the midst of their orchards they plant here and there certain 
fetish trees, loading the branches with the horns, teeth, and heads of animals cap- 
tured in the chase. Like the Nyanza tribes, they also dedicate small shrines to the 
local genii, and never start on any enterprise without consulting the wizards. All 
travellers meet with a friendly welcome, and on their departure a goat is sacrificed 
by the wayside to avert all dangers on their homeward jonrney. Three days of the 
week are considered propitious, three ill-omened, and the seventh indifferent. But 
through their ignorance of these local superstitions strangers often become involved 
in serious troubles. 

In the Shuli territory the Egyptians have established a few military posts 
placed at intervals of two or three days' march from each other, so as to overawe the 
whole land by a system of strategic routes. Wadelai, one of these stations, lies on 
the left bank of the Nile, at the confluence of a small tributary. But the most 
important place is Fatiho, founded by Baker, some 60 miles east of the river, between 
two affluents of the Asua, in a fertile district commanded by granite heights. One 
of these crags rises north of the fort about 300 feet above the plains, affording an 
extensive view of the whole region beyond the Nile. Fatiko, standing at an altitude 
of 4,000 feet above the sea, occuj^ies the culminating point of the Shuli territory, 
whence the land falls in abrupt terraces north, west, and south. Lying midway 
between Foweira, on the Somerset Nile, and Dufile, on the Bahr-el-Jebel, it is 
favoiu-ablj' placed for trading purposes, and exports much corn and wax. Other 
large villages in the Shuli country are FaJeJlo {Fajuli), Fadihcli, Fi'trajok and Olho, 
IjTng east and north of the Asua river. 

The Madi, who occupy the right bank of the Nile north of the Shuli, resemble 
them in appearance, in their stjie of headdress and other usages, notably the 
respect paid to their women, who take part in their tribal deliberations. Although 
apparently of kindred stock, their language is quite distinct from that of the Lur, 

H 2 



100 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



Shuli, aud Sliilluks, sliowiug affiuities ratlier with that of the Xiam-Xiam. This 
difference in speech aud resemblance in customs is doubtless due to the presence of 
two ethnical elements now fused in one nation. The foreign intruders probably came 
from the south-west, where the Madi occupy the water-parting between the Nile and 
Congo basins, and where they are conterminous with the Kalika, allied to them in 
speech and origin. 

In the Madi territory the chief Egyptian station is Dufile (^Dufli), on the west 
bank of the Nile, near the great bend it describes before its confluence with the Asua. 
It occupies the apex of the triangle formed by the two streams and by the 



Fig. 33. — Shuli Musicians. 




H 



Somerset Nile between Foweira and Magungo, over against another river navigable 
for some 12 miles. Thanks to this important strategical position, Dufile canuot 
fail to become a large centre of trade. Here is the station of the steamers on the 
Upper Nile, which is obstructed farther down by the Fola Hapids. Beyond its 
palm-groves are visible the peaks of the Kuku range, rising at some points 600 or 
700 feet above the river. Between these hills and the Bahr-el- Jebel are the fortified 
posts of Lahore and Mugi, near the Yerbora Rapids, while southwards Dufile is con- 
nected with Fatiko by the populous village of Faloro, one of the granaries of 
Egyptian Sudan. The fields of the Madi in this district are cultivated with great 
care by the women and children, who sow each grain of corn separately. 



THE B.AJtl. 101 



The Baki 



The Bari, ■who follow the Madi along both banks of the river, form one of those 
groups of Xegro tribes most remarkable for their physical beauty and haughty 
carriage. The traveller can easily study their fine proportions, as they go perfectly 
naked, considering it effeminate to cover the body. Peney even tells us that they 
are " afraid of clothes," and that to assure himself of a favovu-able reception he had 
to take off his own garments. Although the women are allowed to dress, most of 
them merely wear the rahad, or loin-cloth, made either of little iron chains or strips 
of leather, and a hide round the hips. Theii" hair is sdways shaved off, while the 
men leave a little tuft on the top of the head, which the chiefs deck with ostrich 
feathers. Unlike the Shuli, the Bari do not cover themselves with amulets and 
bracelets, although some also paint the body, especially for the war dances, and 
tattoo themselves with arabesques or many-coloured geometrical designs. These 
operations, undergone at puberty, are very dangerous and often end in death. 
According to Felkin, the Bari, recentlj- decimated by small-pox, have invented and 
applied the practice of innoculation, apparently with perfect success. The Bari 
warriors are considered the bravest of all the Nilotic tribes. Amongst them men 
are often met wearing on the wrist an ivory bracelet ; these are the hunters who 
managed to kill an elephant in single combat. The slave-dealers generally 
recruited their bands of slave-hunters amongst the Bari, and the name of these 
banditti was dreaded as far as the vicinity of the great lakes. But the Bari have 
themselves suffered much from the razzias of the slave-traders, certain parts of their 
territory having been completely depopulated. Knowing that the principal wealth 
of the Bari consists of cattle, and that they are very proud of these beautiful animals, 
decorating them with bells, like the Swiss cows, the slavers first captured their herds, 
the Bari bringing their own wives and children to ransom them, unless a fortimate 
expedition enabled them to substitute the families of some neighbouring tribe. 
The cow is held as sacred amongst these Nile populations. Instead of squatting, 
like most other Negroes, or sitting cross-legged, like the Arabs, the Bari are 
accustomed to sit on stools painted red. 

Catholic missionaries have been for some time at work amongst the Bari, but 
with small success, the conduct of the Christian slave-dealers being scarcely of the 
kind to assist the teachings of the priests. The Bari still adhere to their magical 
rites, their ancient animistic religion, their worship of the serpent, called by them 
"grandmother," and their veneration for the dead, whom they carefully bury in a 
sitting posture. " Formerly," said they, " we could climb to heaven by a cord con- 
nected with the stars, but this cord has been broken." The ruins of the chui-ch, the 
head-quarters of the Upper Nile missions, are no longer to be seen, a fine avenue of 
lemons alone marking the site of what was the city of Gondokoro ; the bricks of 
the Austrian missionaries' houses have also been ground down by the natives, and 
mixed with grease, with which to paint their bodies. Baker Pasha had made 
Gondokoro the centre of his administration under the name of Isma'ilia ; but on 
accoimt of the shifting of the river, and the development of marshes and sandbanks, 



102 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



Gordon removed his residence to Lado, or Lardo, some twelve miles farther down 
on the left bank of the river. This town, whose brick buildings and sheet-iron roofs 
are visible above the palisades, presents a fine appearance in comparison with the 
neighbouring villages. It is surrounded by a promenade ; a eucalj'ptus, planted by 
Emin-Bey, towers above the house-tops ; while till recentlj' the quay was crowded 
with river craft. The other stations in the Bari countrj' above Gondokoro are 
Kirri and Bedden, where the river is crossed by a ferry. South-east of Gondokoro 
stand the villages of Billigonrj or Belrniun, noted for their iron mines and javelin 
and lance manufacturers. In the neighbouring Lokoya Mountains dwell the bravest 



Fig. 34. — Bari Smiths. 



r 



P 



0^^^ 




afi^- 









•Vt"--') 






^SSfeigsf 



.'■'ii/ 



of the Bari, against whom the whites settled at Gondokoro had often to protect 
themselves. Farther north the Borri, Bar, or Behr, occupying the prairies north- 
east of Gondokoro, form a group of tribes distinct from the Bari, sjioaking an idiom 
nearly identical with that of the Shuli, whom they also resemble in customs and 
appearance. Another kindred people are the Shir, whose villages line both banks 
of the Nile below Lado. Possessing no iron, these blacks fashion their arrow-heads 
from ebony-wood. 

The Latuka Country. 

East of the Bari, a territory well watered by wadies flowing towards the Nile 
from the south-east is occupied by the Latuka, who are entirely different from 



I 



THE LATTJKA COUNTRY. 



103 



Fig. 35.- 



-Routes of Extlorekb East of 
THE Bahr-el-Jebel. 

Scale 1 : 6,000,000. 



rJifet 



their Negro neighboui-s. Nearly all travellers regard them as of Galla stock, and 
their language appears to belong to the same family as that of the Ilm-Orma. 
Their high foreheads, large eyes, straight and shapely nose, thick but not pouting 
lips, leave little doubt as to their origin. 
Other populations living more to the 
east, towards the Sobat, especially the 
Arboreh, belong to the same family ; 
but the Akkara and Irenga speak dif- 
ferent languages. The character of the 
Latuka differs greatly from that of the 
neighboui'ing Negroes ; they are mer- 
rier, franker, and so brave that slave- 
dealers have never succeeded in captur- 
ing them. If their tribes were united, 
instead of continuallj^ fighting one 
against the other, they would as- 
suredly be one of the most powerful 
African nations. Although these Galla 
immigrants have to a great extent 
preserved their original speech, phj-sical 
traits, and character, the Latuka have 
become a half-caste race, and have 
adopted many customs of the Nilotic 
Negro peoples. Like the Bari and 
Shilluk, they would seem to be ashamed 
to wear clothes ; but they take great 
pride in dressing the hair in elegant 
styles, mostly affecting the form of a 
helmet. The completion of these ela- 
borate headdi-esses is a work of eight 
or ten years. The hair, bound with 
bark strips, is made into a sort of thick 
felt, ornamented with glass and china 
beads ; a coj)per plate glitters above 
the forehead, and nodding tufts of 
feathers and plumes crown the super- 
structure. The women, less elegantly 
formed than the men, and possessing 
imusual strength, have no right to 
all this finery, and confine themselves 

to a few tattooings ; they wear a queue like a horsetail, and like most other women 
of this region, extract the four lower incisors. The Latuka huts resemble those of 
the neighbouring tribes ; they are shaped like a beU or extinguisher, the only 
opening being a low door, which is entered on all- fours. Near each \allage is a 




104 . NORTH-EAST APEICA. 

cemetery, whitlier the bones of the dead, first buried near tbe dwelling, are brought 
after they have been completely decomposed. Fimeral dances are kept up round 
the dead for weeks together. The territory of the Latuka is very fertile, and their 
tobacco, although nearly alwaj-s adulterated with foreign substances, is in high 
demand among the neighboui'Lag peoples. In this country the leopard is the only 
beast that is feared, as it often attacks man. The lion is so little dreaded that 
Emin-Bey tells us that one of these animals having fallen into a leopard-trap, the 
people hastened to set it free. 

The Latuka district is bounded on the east by the Lofit or Lafit range, rising 
some 3,300 feet above the j)lains, and on the south by still higher mountains. 
The whole country consists of a long fertile valley studded with trees, amongst 
which is the " higlik," whose saccharine fruit is so rich in potassium that it is used 
as soap. The villages are tolerably numerous, many even meriting the names of 
towns. Tarmngoleh, the chief town,- situated in the midst of the Latuka countrj' 
on the high bank of the Khor Kohs, is said to contain no less than three thousand 
huts, not including the sheds for some ten or twelve thousand head of cattle. It is 
surrounded by a strong palisade, each house being f ui'ther protected by a separate 
enclosure. Three-storied turrets stand in many parts of the city, in which sentinels 
keep guard during the night, ready to strike the war drum at the least appearance 
of danger. One main street intersects the town, all the rest beiag merely 
winding alleys, iato which the cows can only enter one by one — an arrangement 
which simplifies counting, and prevents the enemy from surprising and carrying oflE 
their herds. In the northern region of this country, the two villages of Wakhala, 
or Okkela, and Loronio, also known as Latomeh, from the name of its chief, have 
also a large population. According to Emin-Bey, the women, as in U-Ganda, are 
far more numerous than the men. 

The Latuka are the most easterly of all the Galla tribes, unless the Lango of 
the Uijper Nile and the Wa-Huma of the plateaux are also to be regarded as 
branches of this race. But on the Bahr-el-Jebel itself and to the west of this river 
none but Negroes are met. The Niambara, or Niam-bari, occupying a hilly 
district which forms the water-parting between the Nile and its tributary the 
Yei, are akin to their easterly neighboui's, the Bari, although their speech is 
distinguished by a greater variety of tones and sibilant consonants than the 
language of the neighbouring peoples. Like the Bari, the Niambara are tall and 
strong and go naked, but load themselves with iron bracelets, rings, and other 
ornaments of the same metal ; while the women wear daggers at the girdle. 
Although earrings are unlinown amongst most of the Nilotic peoples, the Niambara 
pierce the lobes of the ears, passing glass trinkets through them, and, like the 
Orechones of South America, distending them on each side of the face. The 
women also pierce the lips at the corners, and insert a fragment of quartz, or if that 
is not available, a wooden cylinder or a piece of reed. They wear no loin-cloths, 
but only a scrap of leather, leaves, or occasionally a small bell. About the middle 
of the century, before the arrival of the ivory merchants, elephants' tusks were of 
such little value that they were scarcely used except as stakes for the cattle 



THE DENKA. ■ 105 

enclosures. The Niambara hunt this huge pachyderm in a totally different 
manner from the other tribes. A man concealed amongst the foliage of a tree 
waits tiU the beaters have driven the animal under the branch where he is 
stationed, lance in hand ; then the iron head, from 26 to 30 inches long, plunges to 
the shoulders into the elephant's back, generally producing a mortal wound. 
Besides being skilful hunters, the Xiambara also carefully cultivate their orchards 
and fields, have beehives roimd their huts, and as smiths rival the Bari of Belenian. 
One of the chief villages bears the name of the tribe. It is situated 2,000 feet 
above the sea, in a valley surrounded by high hiUs, joining by a lateral branch the 
mountain range which skirts the Xile from Mugi to Dufile. The pyramid- shaped 
Ku-Gu peaks rise above the grassy plains of the Xiambara, and mineral springs, 
used alike by natives and the Arab dealers, burst forth in many parts of the 
country. 

Tbe Dexka. 

Of all the peoples living on the banks of the Bahr-el-Jebel, the Denka or 
Dinka, also called Jeng and Jangheh, occupy the most extensive domain. Their 
territory may be estimated at about 40,000 square miles, and their tribes or 
separate clans are counted by the dozen. The best known are, naturally, those 
which come in contact with the traders, such as the Tuich, the Bor, the Kij or 
Kitch, and Eliab on the Xile, and the Waj, Rek, and Afoj to the west, on the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries. Other Denka communities are also settled on the 
right bank of the Bahi--el-Abiad, below the Sobat confluence. But although 
occupying the route necessarily followed by all travellers ascending the Upper 
Xile or penetrating to the Congo basin, the Denka have in no way altered their 
mode of life under the influence of foreign civilisation. They have remained free 
on their plains or marshes, buying next to nothing from the Arab merchants, the 
milk of their herds, the fruits of their orchards, and the seeds and vegetables of 
their fields sufficing for all their wants. On the right bank of the Nile, in the 
country of the tribe of the same name, stands Bor, a fort bmlt by the Egyptian 
Government to overawe the Denka. Like the Bari, the Denka have also been 
visited by Italian and Austrian Catholic missionaries, who had settled themselves 
at Panom. or Fautentum, below Bor in the Kij country, on the left bank of the 
Xile ; but they were forced to quit this establishment of the Holy Cross (Santa 
Croce, Heiligen Kreutz), on account of the epidemics that ravaged the mission. 
Xor did their proselytising labours produce any results beyond the collection of 
vocabularies and translations that they brought back from the Denka country. 

The Mohammedan missionaries have also had little success amongst the Xilotic 
peoples, who have remained nature-worshippers, like most of the other Central 
African peoples. 

Like the Bari, who speak an allied language, the Denka are ashamed to wear 
clothes, the women alone attaching hides to their gii-dle. They do not however 
despise ornaments, wearing iron rings on the arms, ankles, and ears, placing 
ostrich feathers on the crown of the head, tattooing the face to distinguish 



106 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

themselves from other tribes, and extracting the incisors of the lower jaw. Nearly 
all of thera shave the head, but the dandies paint their hair so as to make it 
resemble that of Europeans,- and give it a reddish hue by moistening it with 
animal matter. The natural complexion is of a fine bronze hue ; but to preA^ent it 
from changing they take constant care to rub the skin with greasy substances and 
smear it with ashes, which gives them a bluish- grey appearance. Being accustomed 
to kindle large fires every evening, round which they pass the night with their 
herds to protect them from mosquitoes, their villages become strewn with large ash- 
heaps, on which they delight in rolling. The Denka of the eastern region are one 
of the tallest African races, men often being found amongst them over six feet in 
height. The Kij are especially tall, but westwards, in the Bahr-el-Ghazal basin, 
their stature is scarcely superior to that of the average European. They possess 
generally great bodily strength, although they eat but one meal a day, towards 
sunset. Their legs are long and thin, and as they live, like the Nuer and Shilluks, 
in marshy regions, they walk as if on stilts. Seen from a distance moving slowly 
above the reeds, raising the knee and cautiouslj' advancing their large flat feet, 
they might easily be mistaken for storks. LilvC the birds of the swamps, they are 
accustomed to stand motionless on one leg, resting the other above the knee, and 
remaining in this position for an hour at a time. 

Although living in the iron age, as shoAvn by their preference for implements 
of this metal, the Denka have no smiths, their alluvia being destitute of iron ores ; 
still they show themselves to be skilfiJ workmen in various industries. Sarcasti- 
cally called " men of the stick " by their neighbours on accoimt of their favom-ite 
weapon, they make ingenious elastic bows and carve curious walking-canes with 
shell guards to j^rotect the hands from blows. Their houses are larger than those 
of the neighboui'ing tribes, and as cooks they possess rare skill, in this respect 
being unrivalled in Africa. They are great cattle-breeders, possessing vast herds. 
When an animal falls ill it is separated from the rest, and taken to a well-appointed 
infirmary for treatment. They never kill but only occasionally bleed them, to 
drink the blood mixed with milk, and eat the flesh of those alone which die of 
disease or are killed by accident. In spite of their care, the bovine race appears 
to degenerate in the country, owing probably to climatic conditions, or else, as 
Schweinf m-th believes, because of the total lack of crossing with other breeds, and 
the want of salt in their food. Amongst one hundred beasts, scarcely one could be 
found strong enough to travel from one nut rah, or enclosure, to another, or to carry 
burdens such as those of the Baggara cattle. In appearance, however, they are 
handsome animals enough, with slender horns and delicate heads, and might be 
almost mistaken for antelopes. The bulls have a mane covering the shoulders, 
neck, and breast, the body and tail being clipped close, giving them the appearance 
of small bisons. The Denka also breed goats, the only animals they kill for food. 
A nation of pastors, living in small groups on the plains, the Denka have no public 
or private form of worshijj, although many of their local practices are supposed to 
recall a cult resembling that of the primitive Aryan Hindus. Like the Shilluks 
and Bari, they respect the cow, and have a remarkable veneration for snakes, which 



r isRARy 

- THE 

■v.^f miNO!?. 



TKE MAKEAKA.— THE MUEU. 107 

they call " brothers ; " to kill these reptiles is considered a great crime. Sch'svein- 
furth was told that pet serpents are kept in every house, which recognise the 
members of the family and answer to their names. 

The Makraka. 

The largo river Yei, which rises in the " Blue Moimtains " near the Madi 
coimtry and the Upper Nile, and which, after describing a westward bend through 
some marshy tracts, joins the Nile below Gaba Chambeh and the Bahr-ez-Zaraf 
bifurcation, traverses the lands of the Kakuak, Fajellu, and Kederu tribes, most of 
whom are related to the Bari and Denka. But amongst the tribes of this basin 
there is at least one, that of the Iddio, or Makraka, who are entirely distinct in 
speech, appearance, and usages. They belong to the powerful A-Zandeh or Niam- 
Niam nation, whose domain stretches chiefly south-west into the Congo basin. 
The Makraka (Makaraka), or " Cannibals," fully deserve their name, as is attested 
bj' Schweinfurth and other European exj)lorers. But taken all in all they are 
decidedly superior to the surrounding Negro tribes. They are of a reddish black 
colour, vrith. less flat nose and less prominent cheek-bones, and the facial angle 
more developed than those of their neighbours. The hair is long and almost silky, 
and by means of berries and various vegetable substances built up into the most 
fantastic forms. They do not )-ield the pahu even to the Madi in this respect. 
They do not extract the incisors like the surrounding Negro tribes, but alone of all 
non-Mussulman peoples practise cii'cimicision. Thej' are accordingly regarded as 
a kind of JMoharamedans, although they do not recognise Islam, and this semi- 
religious brotherhood is one of the reasons whj' the Egyptian governors choose 
them to recruit their troops ; but the chief cause is the terror inspired in the other 
tribes by their courage and reputed cannibalism. The dealers traversing the 
coimtry had often to fight not only the Makraka men, but the women as well. 
These Niam-Niam are skilful agriculturists and possess a considerable variety of 
plants. Although their territory is of small extent, it ranks from its material 
prosperity as the first amongst the surrounding nations, and one of the administra- 
tive departments established hj the Egj-ptian Government is named after these 
people, although also comprising many other nationalities. 

The Muru. 

The most widespread nation in the Yei basin above the Denka country are the 
Mm-u, one of whose communities, carefully studied by Fellvin, bears the name of 
Madi, like the large tribe on the banks of the Bahr-el-Jebel. Differing little from 
the Bari and Denka in usages, the Mm-u also go naked, seldom wearing any 
ornaments except iron rings. Their distinctive tribal sign consists of two tattoo- 
marks on the forehead. The stones heaped roimd their graves have the same form 
as the dohucns of Brittany. Owing to their physical strength, the Muru are 
employed as porters throughout the whole region of the Upper Nile tributaries. 



108 NOETH-EAST APEICA. 

They are also skilled tillers and gardeners, and each hut has in its vicinity an 
enclosure, where the vegetable beds, three feet high and very nari'ow, are so 
disposed that they can be cultivated without bending the back. The old Muru 
custom of all property being in common has not yet been completely replaced by 
private ownership. The beer prepared bj' the women belongs to everj-body ; it is 
placed in a public building, every thirsty native or traveller drinking at pleasure, 
but never taking it away or abusing the privilege, drunkenness being quite unknown. 
In fine weather all the people in the village, men and women, dine together, served 
by the children. Politeness is one of the virtues most sedulously cultivated bj- the 
Muru ; the women are respected, and those amongst them who practise medicine, 
with much more success and intelligence than the men, are always escorted back 
to their own dwellings bj' the head of the family they have honoured with a visit. 
The education of the children is looked upon as the chief dut^- of the tribe. Boys 
and girls are trained to bow to and keep silence before theii- elders ; they learn 
gymnastics, dancing, mimicry, practise games of strength and skill, accustom 
themselves to the use of arms, and make of their father a target for their blunt 
arrows. They are taken away and left in the woods, then watched from a distance 
to see how they find their way back to the village. Their education is completed by 
travel. At the age of ten the children leave the paternal roof on visits to distant 
friends of the same or other nations, thus making their "tour of the world," in 
order to become acquainted with the manners and customs of foreign lauds. "WTien 
the young women get tired of travel their brothers bring them home, then again 
set off on their ramblings. They also seek foreign wives, chiefly amongst the 
Niam-bara, exogamy being tbe rule in the Miuni nation, although unknown 
amongst the Bari. When the young Muru finds a girl that takes his fancy, he 
approaches her and attaches a wreath of foliage to her wrist ; if she retains this 
ornament the young man may hope, and the negotiations for the marriage are 
forthwith begun between the respective parents. 

The chief station of the Muru is the village of Madi (A-Madi'j, on the left bank 
of the Ye'i, and on the caravan route between Lado and Dem Suleiman, in the 
midst of vast sesame and millet-fields. It is one of the centres of traffic between 
the Nile basin and the Monbuttu country. The official reports record how many 
hundredweights of ivory are purchased by the Egj'ptian officials, but make no 
mention of a more important commercial article, namely, the slaves captured from 
the peaceful tribes of the country. Till recently Madi also forwarded a large 
number of eunuchs to the towns of the lower Nile and Arabia. It is stated that the 
slave-dealers always tried to capture and mutilate those chiefs who did not readilj' 
countenance their traffic in human flesh. Hence it is not astonishing that the 
sight of a " Turk " terrifies the blacks of these regions ; the children on seeing a 
stranger scamper awaj^ with cries of terror. 

The river Rol, which under divers names flows parallel to the Ye'i, and which at 
last runs out in the Nile marshes above the cataracts, flows through the territory of 
numerous tribes, such as the Abukaj'a, the Lori, the Lesi, the Belli, and the Jiri, 
which possess no political cohesion. In the country of the Agar, a branch of the 



i 



THE BONGO. 109 

Denkas, there is a veritable town, Ai/nl;, or Dufalhi, standing on the right bank of 
the river and sui-rounded by a palisade and a deep ditch. The dwellings, all built 
on raised platforms, are crowded together within the enclosiu-e, whilst the zeriba 
is surrounded by a complete zone of villages. North-west of Ayak, at some 
distance from the river, and in a hilly cidtivated district, is situated another zeriba, 
founded by the Arab traders. This is the town of Rnmbek, also called Rol, after 
the name of the river and its chief riverain tribe. It is the chief tovsTi of the 
Eg'i-ptian administrative Government. According to Felkin, the town population 
numbers about 3,000 individuals, and that of the neighbouring villages 30,000. 
In Eol dress is regarded as a religious privilege, and except the wives of the Arabs, 
no women have a right to be seen clothed. 

The Bongo. 

Towards the west, the great Bongo nation, also called Dor or Deran, occupy the 
hilly plains north of the Niam-Niam, watered by the Jau, the Tonj, the Jur, the 
Bongo, and their numerous affluents. Schweinfurth, who lived two years amongst 
the Bongo tribes, says that before the arrival of the slave-dealers they must have 
numbered at least about 300,000, but at present they appear to be reduced to 
100,000. Formerly disti-ibuted in countless little independent communities, and 
living in peace with each other, the Bongos never thought of uniting to resist 
hostile attacks. T^Tien the slave-dealers presented themselves with their bands 
armed with guns, they easily gained possession of the villages on the plain, 
established their zeribas at all strategic points, and the whole country was soon at 
their mercy. The whole Bongo nation threatened to disappear in a few years, so 
rapidly was the country wasted by the slave-trade and oppression. The local 
civilisation perished, and certain industries were abandoned. Schweinfurth feared 
that this original people, so remarkable in physical traits and usages, might have 
been discovered only to be lost to science. It seems, however, that thanks to 
several years of peace, the country has begun to revive, although now again 
threatened by the raids of the Arabs and their native allies. The Bongo families 
appear to be fairly numerous, owing, perhaps, to their relatively late marriages : 
the young men marry only between the ages of fifteen and seventeen, whilst in 
other tribes unions take place at thirteen or fourteen. 

The Bongo present a striking contrast to their northern neighbours, the Denka, 
although the two languages appear to point at a remote affinity. They are not so 
black, the skin being of a reddish brown, similar in colour to the ferruginous soil 
composing the terrace lands sloping northwards. Of smaller stature than the 
Denka, the Bongo are stronger and more thickset, the strong muscles of their 
thighs and calves presenting a marked contrast to the thin legs which give such a 
"stilted" appearance to the marsh tribes. The women have largely developed 
hips, and walk like animals, the tail they ornament themselves with, swinging about 
at each step, adding to the resemblance. AYhilst the Denka head is narrow and 
long, those of the Bongo are all brachycephalous, the skull being nearly round. 



110 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



According to Schweinfurtli, no other jjeople possess a higher cephalic index ; it 
would appear moreover that in certain districts the mothers compress the heads of 
their children into certain shapes. Unlike so many other peoples of the riverain 
regions, the men do not go naked, but wear a strip of cloth, and the iron rings 
which they wear on the arms, occasionally numbering several dozens, are so 
arranged as to form veritable pieces of armour. The women wear no loin-cloth, 



Fig. 36. — Chief Routes of Explorers in the Zariba Eegion. 
Scale 1 : 6,000,000. 

















mfs ,'. .1--, .> 7 ^v^;--;-: ■*»*•' 



\ KanCs J...i--, .>"•? 



v...--\ 



%f 



L . of (jreenwich 



50' 



120 Miles. 



merely attaching to the girdle a leafy branch or tufts of grass. Their ornaments 
consist of nails or metal plates, which they pass through the lower Up. Bongo 
women are often seen wearing, like the Botocudos of Brazil, inserted in the lip, a 
disc large enough to be used as a plate. The dandies also insert pegs into the sides 
of the lips, the nostrils, and other jirominent parts of the body. Persons are seen 
thus " pinned up " in a hundred different places. 



THE DIUE. Ill 

The Bongo are pei-haps one of the most kindly, gentle, and industrious people 
of Afi-ica. They are not possessed of the extraordinary passion for cattle which 
characterises the-Bari and Denka, but occupy themselves mostly with agriculture, 
men and women alike preparing the soil and cultivating their plants with the 
greatest care. The fertile red soil yields abxmdant crops of tobacco, sesame, dm-ra, 
and other alimentary plants ; but in spite of this variety of vegetable products, 
including -^-Qd roots and mushrooms, the Bongo despise no flesh, fresh or putrid, 
excepting that of the dog. They di-ive away the vulture to regale themselves on 
the remains of its meal of carrion, eat with relish the worms found in the entrails 
of the ox, devour scorpions, termite larvae, and all creeping and crawling insects. 
As amongst other tribes, earth-eating is also very common amongst them. The 
Bongo are the most skilled of African smiths, sujjplj-ing the Denka with their arms 
and ornaments. They build ingenious furnaces to direct a current of air across the 
iron ore, and manufacture with the aid of very simple tools articles equal in finish 
to the products of the Eui'opean workshops. Like the Logone people of the Tsad 
basiu, they have introduced the use of round pieces of this metal as money. They 
are also skilfid builders and carvers, erecting substantial dwellings with cii'Cidar 
ledges, which serve as terraces or balconies. Roimd the graves of their chiefs they 
carve stakes in the form of human beings, which bear a striking resemblance to the 
• divinities of the South-Sea Islanders. But these human figm-es of the Bongo are 
not gods, but merely symbols of the resurrection, a doctrine in which, together with 
metempsychosis, they are firm believers. The souls of old women are supposed to 
pass into the bodies of hyfenas, on which account these aniinals are regarded as 
possible family relations, and never killed. 

The Du-r. 

The Diur, that is to say, " Men of the Woods," " Savages," are so called by the 
Denka, who regard as inferior beings all tribes not possessing numerous herds of 
cattle. Their true name is Luoh or Lwo, and Kke the more southerly Belinda, 
who have encroached on the Niam-Xiam domain, they are immigrants of ShUluk 
stock. They still speak an almost pui-e Shilluk dialect, and some of the aged 
amongst them have preserved the traditional system of tattooing peculiar to that 
nation. 

The Diur occupy the last ferruginous terraces of the plateau between the Bongo 
and Dinka territories. Their domain is watered by several streams, the largest 
of which takes the name of this tribe. According to Schweinfurth, they number 
some 20,000, but increase rapidly in times of peace, because their families, remark- 
able for their mutual affection, are generally nimierous. The Dim-, much better 
proportioned than the Denka, are one of the naked peoples classed by the earlier 
explorers amongst the " tailed men," as they generally wear two attached to the 
girdle. Skilful smiths like the Bongo, they also manufacture rings for ornament- 
ing the arms and legs, but they no longer dress the hair after the complicated 
Shilluk fashion. Nearly all the men and women have very short hair. The ancient 



112 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

customs are disappearing. Thus, amongst others, the Diur have ceased to spit upon 
each other as a mark of affection ; and the " tree of death," to whose trimk the 
heads of enemies were nailed, no longer stands at the side of each village. 

Topography. 

Diur Ghatfas, the principal zeriba of the country, is well placed at the junction 
of the Bongo, Denka, and Diur territories, and in the intermediate zone between 
the marshy plains and the hilly terraced lands, with their alternate woods and grass)- 
stepjjes. Sixty miles to the north-east, at the Diur and Momvil confluence, sur- 
rounded by a labyrinth of canals, and to the east of an immense forest, stands the 
village and the group of depots called Mcshra-er-Rek, or " Station of Rek." Here 
begins the navigation of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and here is the starting-point for all 
the caravans proceeding south, south-west, or west, into the region of the Upper 
Nile tributaries. Before the war which cut off this region from Khartum, a steamer 
ascended the Bahr-el-Ghazal periodically as far as Meshra-er-Rek. North-west of 
Diur Ghattas, other zeribas follow in the Diur territory. Such are JTuchuk-A/i, 
where Gessi gained a final victory over the slave-dealer Suleiman, and where are some 
fine banana, lemon, and orange groves, planted by Schweinfurth ; and Wau, on the 
left bank of the Diur, surrounded by extensive forests, which furnished the materials 
for the flotilla in which Gessi sailed down the Diur to the port of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. 

The Sereh, Golo, axd Krej Tribes. 

West of the Bongo are the Sereh and Golo, whose territories are both boimded 
by the Ji or Pango tribe. The Sereh greatly resemble their neighbours the Niam- 
Niam, to whom they were for some time subject. They are a well-built, stout, cleanly, 
and industrious people. They are of a cheerful disposition, enduring fatigue, himger, 
and thirst without complaint. Of all Africans, they possess the fewest domestic 
animals, rearing poultry alone in their villages. 

In general, the Golo resemble the Bongo in appearance and customs, although 
speaking an entirely different language. Their roimd huts have very large eaves 
supported on a circidar row of posts, thus forming a complete verandah roimd the 
dwelling. They erect exceedingly elegant granaries in the form of a vase resting on a 
stool, and surmounted by a movable cover tapering to a point ornamented with plumes. 

West of the Golo dwell the Kredi or Krej, who wander in small bands in the 
heart of the forests, and whom Schweinfurth describes as the most repulsive and 
least intelligent Negroes he ever met. This region, however, which di-ains through 
the Biri and other streams into the Bahr-el-Arab, is one of those where the popida- 
tions have become most mixed, not by free crossings, but by promiscuous intercourse, 
forced migrations, and the passage of troops and slave- dealers. The whole of Dar- 
Fertit, a name usually applied by the Arabs to this part of the country, was recently 
little more than a camp of slave-hunters. The alEx Dem or Dwem, meaning " town,"' 
joined to so many names of places, indicates the zeriba or fortified stations main- 



I 



m 

(mi 

IJ./,f I 







lil"'i'iiiiiiii[iMiiiiiiiiiiiiii[ii;iiii 






I 



TOPOGRAPHY. 113 

tained by the slave-dealers. Don Idrix, the chief town of the Golo country, is one 
of the great centres of the ivory trade. "When Bohudorff , Juncker's fellow-traveller, 
escaped northwards towards the end of 1883, elephants' tusks were here heaped up 
in the stores. Had the river not been blocked by the revolt. Governor Lupton 
valued the merchandise that he could have forwarded to Khartum at 1"25 tons of 
ivory and 15 tons of indiarubber. 

Topography. 

Bern Zilcr, or Dem Suleiman, the chief town of the " Dwems," named after the 
two slave- dealers, father and son, whose power was overthrown by Gessi in 1878, is 
one of the largest places in the Xilotic basin above Khartum. The Egyptians have 
made it the capital of the province of Bahi--el-Ghazal. The king of Uganda's 
envoys on reaching this " great city " believed that they had arrived in England, 
of whose wealth and wonders they had heard so much. Its stores are stocked w^th 
European merchandise as well as with local produce, exotic fruits and vegetables 
accKmatised in the surrounding gardens. Here jewellers have estabKshed themselves, 
and sculptors here carve ivory tastefully as bracelets, sword and dagger hilts, and 
many other articles of vertu, and manage to keep within the law which claims 
elephants' tusks as the Khedive's property. Dem Suleiman is the only town of the 
riveraia countries possessing a mosque. 

To the north of Fertit, Gessi chose as the garrison station on the Arab frontier 
the town of Hiffi, situated iu the vicinity of large forests near the sources of the 
streams flowing towards the Bahr-el- Arab, but which run quite dry during a part of 
the year. The Togoi, one of the neighbouring tribes, belonging probably to the 
same race as the Krej, are savage, ugly, and debased ; whilst other peoples, such as 
the Inderi and Shir, have features which, according to Felkin, are almost " Euro- 
pean," and are distinguished for their high moral qualities. The village of Gondii, 
about 2-4 miles north of TTiffl, is a citadel of the Shir, perched on the top of a hill 
rising some 300 feet above the plain ; a rough path winds up the side of the hiU, 
which, however, the Arab invaders have vainly attempted to scale. The Shirs, with 
no other weapons than arrows and stones, have always repulsed their assailants. 
Having remained independent and retained their bravery, they have lost nothing of 
their good qualities. At the sight of a stranger they leave their work and rim for- 
ward, offering him refreshment and food. The Shir have little of the Negro type, 
their lips being thin and the nose shapely. They daub the body with oil and red 
ochre, which gives them a resemblance to their namesakes, the Shirs of the Xile Valley. 
Like the Madi and so many other peoples of the Upper Nile region, they pass a 
great part of their life in dressing their hair. Their favourite shape is that of a 
halo composed of long tresses. 

The Mandara, or ilandula, north of the Shirs in the direction of the Baggara 
Arabs, form the most advanced section of the Negro populations. According to 
Gessi, they are immigrants from Baghirmi, near Lake Tsad, who, fljTng from the 
slave-traders, took refuge in a country which, however, had been most devastated by 

VOL. X. I 



114 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



the slavers. It was a hunting-ground where the Sultan of Darf iir formerly hunted 
human beings to pay his debts. The Mandaras are nearly all Mahommedans, like 
their neighbours on the banks of the Bahr-el-Arab. They have allied themselves 
with the Baggara and Nuer to attack the Egj-ptian garrisons in the riverain 



Fig. .37. — I.VHABITANTS OF THE ZaBIB.4 ReGIOV. 
Scale 1 : 6,000,000. 




C. Perron 



120 MUes. 



countries, but they were repulsed many times by Governor Lupton near the village 
of Mayendut. 

The Fertit country forms the ethnological boundary between the clothed and 
naked populations. This contrast, combined with those of the physical features, 
impresses travellers, who here seem to enter a new world. To efJect its junction with 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Nile, the " River of the Arabs " in its lower course winds 
across Negro territories. Denka tribes and peoples of the great and warlike Nuer 
nation occupy the swampy plains along its banks. 



THE NTTEE. 115 



The Nueij. 



Of all the African peoples, the Xuer best deserve the term of " stilted," 
applied to the inhabitants of frequently inundated districts. Resembling the 
Denka in this respect, they possess even longer legs and flatter feet, which they 
raise above the high grass and place cautiously on the boggy groimd. Like most 
Negroes of the riverain countries, they go naked ; clothes would greatly incommode 
them in these damp regions. But they take great pride in the beauty of their 
hair, giving it a yellowish tint by applying cinders and other substances. Those 
who have short hair wear wigs of cotton dyed red ; they make incisions on the 
forehead, while the young women pierce the upper lip, inserting rods two or three 
inches long encrusted with glass beads. Like the Denkas, the Nuer, whose fields are 
above the flood level, possess large herds of oxen ; their most binding oath is 
taken on the breed of their cattle. There are also a few Nuer communities living 
in the midst of swamjDs on the floating islets of grass and reeds brought down by 
the river during the floods. Like the aquatic birds, they eat fish as well as roots 
and nelumbo seeds. Still all travellers have wondered how these half amphibious 
beings can settle down and bring up their families in the midst of mud and 
deca}-ing vegetable substances. Their life must indeed be a hard one. They are 
in general very sullen, strangers rarely receiving a gracious reception from them. 




I 2 



CHAPTER Y. 



SOBAT AXD TAL BASINS. 




HE Sobat, supposed by certain explorers to be the true "WTiite Nile, 
is occasionally even superior in volume to the main stream. It 
receives the drainage of an extensive basin, roughly estimated at 
70,000 square miles. This vast space is still a blank on the map, 
or exhibits little more than the names of tribes inserted merely on 
the authority of the natives and of travellers who have penetrated farthest into 
the interior. Debono ascended the river in a boat for over 80 miles, while a 
steamer advanced 140 miles beyond the confluence. Antoine d'Abbadie, Beke, 
and recently Schuver, have explored several tributary valleys on the western 
watershed of the Abyssinian highlands, and have, moreover, collected information 
from the Arab dealers and natives. The Yal, or Jal, which rises in the Anam and 
Berta highlands under the names of the Yavash or Kishar, that is " Great River," 
is even less known in its middle and lower course than the Sobat. The Arab 
traders call it the Sobat, like the much larger river flowing farther south. Its 
mouth is blocked by sand only during exceptionally dry seasons, such as that of 
1861. Between the Yal and the Blue Nile, for the space of more than five degrees 
of latitude, the White River receives only one perennial aflluent. The Nile and 
its two tributaries are fringed by deleb palms, tamarinds, ebony, and huge acacia 
forests, which though rich in gum are at present used only for the sake of the 
wood. One of these acacias is the " coftar " or flute-tree (^acacia fistula), whose 
ivory-like branches are drilled with holes by the insects living in the gall-nuts 
with which they are covered. The wind rushes through these openings, producing 
a soft mellow sound like that of the flute. These forests gradually disappear 
towards the mouth of the Yal, where the bare steppe stretches right and left, 
relieved only by the smoke of a few Arab camping-grounds. 



The Gambil and Koma Tribes. 

Most of the inhabitants of the Sobat basin are of Negro stock, the Gallas being 
met only in comparatively small isolated communities. The first plains watered 
by the Baro and Garreh afllucuts on leaving the Abyssinian mountains are occupied 



THE G.^MBIL AXD KO^L\ TEIBES. 117 

by Denka and other tribes, wlio have sought refuge at the foot of the hills against 
the slavers of the lower Sobat. These fugitives have intermarried and formed new 
tribes differing little from the original stock. The level plains, watered by the 
Bako, are inhabited by the Yambo or Gambo, whom d'Abbadie believes to be a 
branch of the Shi links, while Schuver affiliates them to the Denkas. Farther on 
the land rises into plateaux inhabited by the Kii-ims, Malas, Ishings, and Matze 
ilaleas, said to be of Xegro origin. One of these tribes is said to consist of dwarfs 
not exceeding 4 feet 7 inches in height. 

A community of the warlike Gambil people recently occupied the skirts of the 
vast TTaUega forest fringing the western foot of the Abyssinian highlands, under 
the same latitude as the Nile and Sobat confluence. The chief river traversing 
their territory to join the Sobat, they named the Komanji, or " Cow River," 
because their herds, during the dry season, finding no pasturage except on its 
banks, crowded down to the water's edge. To call down rain the Gambil used to 
throw a flayed cow into the stream, believing that the farther the blood spread, 
the more copious would be the rainfall. They were one of the Nilotic Negro 
nations most remarkable for their bodilv strength. Their distinctive tiibal sitms 
were two gazelle or goat horns fastened to the forehead, and they were also 
accustomed to extract the two incisors of the lower jaw. But of this tribe there 
are now very few left, the exterminating wars created by the Egyptian "civilisers" 
having extended even to the plain of Komanji. Eobbed of their cattle by the 
Arab traders, the Denkas of the Nile fell upon their Gambil neighbours to restock 
their farms. A ruthless warfare, waged for the purpose of plunder, ensued between 
the two nations, in which the Gambil were defeated. Some fled eastwards to the 
upland Abyssinian valleys, and sought refuge with the Legas, a GaUa people, 
who received them merely to reduce them to slavery. Others escaped to the south, 
a few only still wandering about their native plains. Theii- capital, Komaujok, is 
nothing but a ruin, like their old market-town Kepiel, where the Legas bartered 
their metal wares and glass trinkets. 

Better protected by their mountains, the Komas, occupying the north-east portion 
of the former Gambil territory, south of the Upper Yal atiluents, still form a con- 
siderable nation. The Arabs have as yet visited them only in the character of 
merchants, and the " Turk " is not sufficiently known to be feared. The Komas 
are, moreover, a peaceful nation, having been imdistui'bed by wars for some 
centuries. Having no need to defend their coimtry, and never making slave raids 
against their neighbours, they are bad archers. But though they do not distinguish 
themselves as warriors, they are skilful agriculturists, and their fine crops of igname 
and cereals are more than sufficient to support the people. They barter the wild 
honey abvmdantly furnished by their forests for iron, salt, and other articles. 

The Koma mountains, about 6,660 feet high, are one of the most pleasant 
regions in the whole of Africa, enjoying an equable climate, not too warm, and 
never so cold as to necessitate the wearing of heavy garments. The sloping land 
is extremely healthy, and the picturesque hillocks, verdant valleys, and limpid 
streams on every side combine to form a charming landscape. The huts scattered 



118 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



amongst the trees are a proof of the general security from the attacks of enemies 
or beasts of prey. In his many voyages across the world, Schuver nowhere found 
men whose simple pleasures, quiet life, and mutual kindness seemed to briag them 
more in harmony with the surrounding country. The Koma communities never 
quarrel with each other, and no jealous authority prevents the families from 
acting as they please ; the people are guided by the opinion, and in important 
matters by the decision, of a public meeting. 

The Komas extract the upper incisors. The men go naked, like most of their 
neighbours, but some wear a collar or necklace of teeth or pearls. From their 



Fig. 38. — Confluence of the Sobat and Yal. 
Scale 1 : 2,000,000. 















lo: 




^ Fashoda ^ 
(DenabJ^iJ^ 

ri/T Toura' 




.10° 




^^6*=^-?sk2isr- 


.•.y. Tew-flkTye 


^■ 








•-f'-- . • 


-^^^J^^^^^^^ ^ 








9°. 






^ 


JVc^^eisn 


9° 




jv a 


V £ Ji 




'%% 




-J of Greenw' 


ch 54°90' 




55°?0 





C Perron 



30 Maes. 



childhood the women are clothed with bark or cloth ; engaged and married women 
mostly wear an apron embroidered with pearls and rounded pieces of broken ostrich 
eggs. The women, moreover, ornament themselves with red pigtails of hair or 
vegetable fibres, with which they scourge themselves when mourning for the dead. 
Their cries and sobs are heard almost every morning, even before cock-crow. 
The dead, men and women alike, are kept over a period of seven to ten years in 
special huts, built so as to protect them from the ants, the relatives and friends 
occasional!}' bringing them presents of salt or pearls. But when the bones are 
buried all these gifts are sold by auction to defray the expenses of a public feast. 



THE SHILLUKS. 119 

The upland valleys of the Yal, north of the Koma, belong to the Amam, whom 
llateueci -nTonglv terms the African " Patagonians." Thej- are certainly tall, 
hut not so tall as the Xuer and Kij ; but they have so successfully repulsed the 
Eg^-ptians that they are described as giants and reputed cannibals. Their customs 
resemble those of the Komas. 

The Suro, -who roam on the border of Kaffa south of the Gambils, are said to be 
tributary to the latter state. They haye already been brought into the circle of 
Abyssinian political influences. Like all the tribes plundered by the Abyssinians, 
they are called " Shangalla " by the plateau populations ; but this designation 
implies no connection with the Shangalla of the north, such as the Bazeh. 
Although frequently visited by the Arab merchants, the Suro are still wild pastors, 
like the Shilluks. They go naked, excepting the women, who wear a narrow loin- 
cloth ; the chief alone wears garments, the insignia of power. Like several Nilotic 
Xegroes of the same race, the Suro extract two teeth from the lower jaw, and insert 
a disc of wood in the lower lip. They also pierce and thrust blades of grass through 
the lobe of the ear. Like theii' civilised neighbours of the plateau, they eat no 
other flesh but that of their herds. 

The riverain peoples of the lower Sobat, although bearing various tribal names, 
all belong either to the Xuer or Shilluk family. The formidable Gibhas, Bonjaks, 
and ilivaks are isolated Shilluk communities ; while the Baloks, settled more to the 
west, and the Xdiekens lower down, are Nuers. Lastly, the populations of the lower 
valley, near the confluence, are ShiUuks separated from the main body of the nation 
only by the breadth of the Xile. The Egyptian Government had formerly 
established the military post of I^asser on the Sobat, about 120 miles above 
the confluence ; but the expenses of maintaining it not being covered by the small 
trade, and the land being of little value, it was abandoned in 1876. At present 
the vast unexplored basin is claimed neither by Abyssinia nor Eg^-pt, and its political 
system is in the fragmentary and shifting state produced by the continual displace- 
ment of the tribes by emigration or by conquest. But these imexplored regions 
traversed by the Upper Sobat and its affluents, -n-ill doubtless become one of the most 
frequented parts of Africa, as it is here that the water-parting between the White 
yUe and the Indian Ocean can be most easily crossed. The border range between 
the Kaffa mountains and the volcanic highlands of the Masai country is partly 
interrupted by broad openings, at present occupied by fiei'ce Galla tribes, and forms 
a natural communication between the watersheds. 

The Shilluks. 

The Shilluks, who occupy the left bank of the Xile from below the Sobat junction 
to Abha Island for a distance of over 360 miles, are one of the largest Afi-ican races, 
and the only one on the banks of the Nile recognising a bando, or king, ruling aU 
the tribes, and selling as slaves those whom his anger or justice lights upon. 

The riverain zone inhabited by the Shilluks is only from ten to twelve miles 
broad, the plains of the interior bemg occujjied by the Baggara (Bagara), or 
" Cattle Arabs," pure or mixed, so called on account of their large herds of cattle. 



120 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



They possess none of the gentleness of their animals, however, being wild and 
daring horsemen, much feared by their neighbours the Shilluks. According to the 
rough census taken by the Egyptian Government in 1871, after the reduction of 
the land, the ShUluk nation is one of the most numerous in the world in proiDortion 
to the surface of the cultivated land. It possesses about three thousand villages, 
each containing from fifty to two hundred families, and the whole nation comprises 
a total population of at least one million twelve hundred thousand, a density only 
to be equalled in the suburbs of European industrial towns and districts. There 

Fig. 39.— SHiLLt-K Type. 




are few other countries where nature provides so abundantly for all the wants of 
man. The towns on the bank follow in succession at intervals of less than half a 
mile, like one huge city. Seen from the river, these collections of huts, all similar 
in form, resemble clusters of mushrooms, the white C3'linder of the building topped 
by a spherical grey roof heightening the illusion. In the middle of each village is 
a circular open space, where the villagers assemble in the evening, and seated on 
mats or ox-hides, smoke native tobacco in large pipes with clay bowls, and inhale 
the fumes of the fires lighted to keep off the musquitoes. To the trunk of the 
tree standing in the middle of this square are himg the drums, so that the public 



THE SHILLUKS. 121 

criers may immediately warn all the peoples of the surroimding towns in case of 
alarm. 

Hartmanu and most other explorers of this region of the Nile consider the 
Shilluks as the t}'pical representative of the group of Negro nations whose domain 
is bounded south by the Bantu, east by the Galla and other Ethiopian races, north 
by the Nubian and Arab tribes, and south-west by the Niam-Niam. The Shilluks 
are, moreover, by far the most numerous of these groups, and have migrated most 
frequently to all the surrounding regions. They are said to have come from the 
south-east plains watered by the Sobat affluents ; since the migration, the Luoh 
and Diur, a branch of the same stock, have occupied a portion of the south-west 
territory between the Bongos and Denkas. Other of their colonists have even 
crossed the Somerset Nile and settled in the U-Nyoro coimtry, imder the name of 
Chefalu ; they are now colonising along the right bank of the Nile below the 
Sobat, the districts of the Denka country wasted by the slavers. The population 
on both banks was described by Werne as " immense," " incredibly dense ; " even 
on the right bank, although the least crowded, hundreds of Denka villages followed 
each other at short intervals. But they were all delivered to the flames, this region 
ha\ing been completely wasted in 1862 by Mohammed Her, the chief of a band of 
adventurers, who had allied himself with the Abu-Rof Arab tribe occupjong, west 
of Senaar, a large tract between the two main streams. The Abu-Rof, stationed 
along the foot of the hills, drove the Denkas towards the Nile and Sobat, where 
the slave-boats were in readiness. The razzia was successful, not a soul escaping, 
and a district several thousand square miles in extent was thus depopulated. 
Gordon's regret at having contributed to spread the " benefits of civilisation " in 
these countries may easily be understood. " "We want neither your pearls, your 
friendship, nor your protection ; we only ask you to leave us," were the words 
addressed to him hj the delegates of a tribe he was annexing to Egj'pt. 

Although for some time in contact with the Arab Mussulmans, the ShiUuks 
have preserved their customs and religion. Like the Bari and Denka, they have 
refused the garments offered them by the Khartum merchants, accepting nothing 
but their glass or metal trinkets ; the women alone wear a calf-skin attached to 
their girdle. Instead of clothes, the poor besmear themselves with ashes, and are 
thus recognised at a distance by their grey colour, the real complexion of the tribe 
being ruddy. Like other riverain populations of the "White Nile, the Shilluks 
ornament their hair with grass and feathers in the most fantastic forms, such as 
that of a crest, a fan, a halo, a helmet, or even a broad-brimmed hat. At sight of 
Schweinfurth wearing a broad felt hat of the Panama type, the natives thought 
he was one of their tribe, and shouted with wonder when he took off his hat. The 
future form of the headdress depends mostly on the fancy of the mother. Before 
the children are weaned they fashion the hair with clay, gum, manure, and ashes, 
leaving its future care to the children themselves. 

The Shilluks are skilled hunters like the Baggara, not only chasing but even 
breeding the ostrich in their villages. The animal they fear the most is the 
buffalo. "When unable to evade the furious beast, they throw themselves face 



122 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

downwards on the ground and sham death ; the buffalo snifis round the body for 
some minutes and then goes away without touching it. The Shilluks beKeve in the 
supernatiiral, but pay little attention to it. They worship an ancestor whom they 
consider to be both a god and the creator of all thuigs ; they invoke the spirits of 
the stream and wash in its holy water, but only in fear and trembling speak of the 
spirits of the dead, which hover in the air and pass iato the bodies of animals and 
trunks of trees. The throne does not pass ia direct descent from father to son, 
but to the sister's child or to some other relative on the female side. Until the 
new king has been proclaimed the corpse of his predecessor remains enclosed in 
his tokul ; his daughters are forbidden to marry, and confined in a village set apart 
for the purpose. 

Topography. 

The town of Fashoda, established by the Egyptian Government in 1867, as the 
capital of its province of Bahr-el-Abiad, is in Shilluk territory. Although the 
residence of the Shilluk king, it was at that time the village of Denah, a mere 
group of straw huts ; it is now an imposing square fortress surrounded by palings, 
depots, and enclosures ; but at the beginning of 1884 it was a city of the dead, the 
war having caused the people to quit theii- dwellings. Here the Egyptian Govern- 
ment used to send those condemned to perpetual exile. Fashoda occupies a good 
strategic position on the left bank of the Nile, at the great bend which it describes 
in its northern course beyond the Bahr-ez-Zaraf and Sobat junction. The conflu- 
ence itself is defended east by the post of Tahifikiyah, so-called in honour- of the 
Khedive, and west by the village of Sohat, established ofiicially with a view to 
overlook the Negro slave-dealers. KaJia, recently the chief slave market of the 
Upper Nile, is the most important place in the Shilluk country ; it lies on the left 
bank of the river, near the northern frontier. 




CHAPTER YI. 



ABYSSINIA (ETHIOPIA). 




HE name " Ethiopia," like so many other geographical terms, has 
changed in value during the lajjse of centui'ies. Like Libya, it 
was once applied to the whole of the African continent ; it even 
embraced a wider field, since it included India and all the southern 
lands of the Torrid zone occupied by the " men blackened by the 
Sim," for such is the exact meaning of the term. " The peoples of Ethiopia, the 
most remote in the world," saj's Homer, " dwell some towards the rising, others 
towards the setting sun." The " wise men " occupying the Upper Nile, of whom 
the Macrobians, or " Men of Long Life," are a branch, whose manners and customs 
pertain to the Golden Age, and " those virtuous mortals whose feasts and banquets 
are honoured by the presence of Jupiter himself," are called Ethiopians by 
Herodotus. But he apj^lies the same term to the western Negroes, whose culture 
was scarcely superior to that of irrational beasts. However, according as our 
knowledge of Africa increased, the term Ethiopia became less vague, and was 
applied to a region of smaller extent. Now it is restricted to the uplands forming 
the water-parting between the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the middle NUe. 
This is the region known to the Arabs by the name of Habesh, or Abyssinia, a 
term supposed to denote a mixed or mongrel population, hence reluctantly accepted 
bj- natives acquainted with Arabic. The people occupying the plateau traversed 
by the Blue Nile and other large Nilotic aiHuents, conscious of a glorious past, 
proudlj' designate themselves as " Itiopiavian," that is, Ethiopians. Nevertheless, 
the term Abyssinia, like that of Germany, and so many others that the people 
themsehes did not give to their country, has acquired amongst foreigners the 
force of custom, and must be employed to avoid misunderstandings. 



Relief, Extent, Population of Abyssinia. 

The shiftings of frontier caused by the fortunes of wars and conquests have long 
prevented, and still prevent, these teiTus, Ethiopia or Habesh, from conveying a 
clear political signification. Now applied merely to the lofty chain of mountains 
whose central depression is flooded by Lake Tana ; now extended to all the sur- 



124 NORTH-EAST AERICA. 

rounding lands westwards to the Nilotic plains, and eastwards to tlie shores of the 
Red Sea, in its ordinary usage the term Abyssinia is specially employed in a 
political sense, its limits being indicated by the authority of the "King of Kings." 

The word Ethiopia has a still wider sense. From the geographical standpoint 
its natural frontiers are traced by the elevations, which at the same time serve as 
boundary lines between the surrounding floras, faunas, and populations. Speaking 
generally, the whole triangular space, rising to an elevation of over 3,000 feet, 
between the Red Sea and the Nde, may be called Ethiopia proper. On all sides 
the exterior escarpments of the plateau indicate the zone of transition between the 
Ethiopian and surroimdiug lands. To the north they consist of those spurs pro- 
jecting to the neighbourhood of the Red Sea, from which they are separated by a 
narrow strip of coastlands. Eastwards the rugged Tigre, Lasta, and Shoa high- 
lands are abruptly limited by uneven plains stretching seawards, which appear to 
have formerly been partly submerged. Wadies and marshes skirt the foot of the 
hills, like those channels which encircle the foot of recently upheaved rocks. To 
the west the declivities are less precipitous ; the highlands, breaking into ridges 
and headlands, fall in successive stages merging at last in the undulating plains, 
but reappearing here and there in isolated crags and masses in the midst of the 
alluvial strata. To the south the natural boundaries of Ethiopia are less distinctly 
defined, the plateau extending in this direction towards the uplands of the Masai 
country. Still, depressions are known to exist in this region affording easy com- 
munication from the Nile Valley through the Sobat to the lands draining through 
the Juba to the Indian Ocean. 

Until these little-known regions have been thoroughly explored, it wiU be 
impossible to accurately calculate the extent of Ethiopia in its wider sense. All 
we know is that, in their present political limits, Abyssinia and Shoa cover an area 
of about 80,000 square miles, or considerably less than half that of France. The 
KafFa coimtry and j)art of the region occupied by the Gallas and other tribes, as 
far as the water-parting between the Sobat and Juba, should be added to these 
countries as natural geographical dependencies. The lowlands, ancient political 
dependencies of the kingdom of Ethiopia, extend east of the Abyssinian mountains 
towards the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden over an area nearly equal to that of 
Abyssinia properly so-called. The whole of the region comprised between the 
Nile, the Takka steppes, the seacoast from Suakin to Zeila, and the irregular 
water-parting between the basins of the Awash, the Blue Nile, the Sobat, and the 
tributaries of the Indian Ocean, has a superficial area exceeding 240,000 square 
miles. Its population may be approximately estimated at about 9,000,000. 

Historic Retrospect. 

Separated^from the surrounding countries by the relief of its plateaux and moun- 
tains, Ethiopia also differs from them in its climate, vegetation, faima, inhabitants, 
and history. In this vast continent, where the people elsewhere intermingle like the 
waters of the sea, it rises like a vast highland citadel, constituting a world apart. 



HISTORIC RETROSPECT. 125 

The Abyssinians have had an historic evolution different from that of the nations 
surging round the foot of their highlands, like the waves dashing against the cliffs. 
AVars and revolutions have been developed below them without affecting them. But 
if Ethiopia seems to have lived an independent existence amid its African neigh- 
boiu's, it offers on the other hand a development singvdarlj' analogous to that of 
temperate Europe. It is very remarkable that the Abyssinians alone, of all other 
Afa'ican peoples, should have accepted and retained a religion which prevails under 
divers forms amongst European peoples. Not only its religious dogmas, but also its 
political institutions and usages, present a certain resemblance to those of mediaeval 
Europe. In certain respects Abyssinia is an African Eui'ope. 

But for many centm-ies the relations between Ethiopia and the countries north 
of Africa have been few and transitory. The Greeks were not brought into contact 
with the Abyssinian highlanders till the time of the Ptolemies, when the open ports 
on the neighbouring coast facilitated the exchange of merchandise and the propaga- 
tion of the Hellenic religion, as is attested by the inscriptions foiind by explorers in 
many parts of Ethiopia. Christianity and its predecessor, Judaism, were introduced 
into the country by the same routes. Numerous traditions have sirrvived from the 
period of Greek influence, and at the present day Ethiopians, the statements of travel- 
lers notwithstanding, are still inclined to believe that the Greeks are the most 
powerful nation in Europe. 

Shortly after their conversion, however, all relations ceased between them and 
the Byzantines, and it was through the Arabs that vague reports reached Europe 
of theii' African co-religionists. Even at the time of the Crusades a report was 
circulated that the King of Ethiopia was coming to the help of his Christian 
brethren. However, the statements made about these African Catholics were more 
legendary than historical, and Ethiopia, like the Mongolian plateaux, was supposed 
to have its "Prester John," rmder whom the happy populations were said to live 
in a second Golden Age. For nearly a thousand j-ears all direct intercourse 
between Europe and Ethiopia was suspended, and not resumed till about 1450, 
through the trade opened by the Italians with India. If Bruce is to be credited, 
the Venetian BrancaKone held theological discussions with the Abyssinian priests 
about the middle of the fifteenth century. Later on a Portuguese, Pedro Covillao, 
accompanied by a second BrancaUone, succeeded in reaching the plateau and the 
court of the Ethiopian king in 1487 ; but he was not permitted to return to his 
own country. At the same time Marcos, an Ethiopian pilgrim, journeyed from 
Jerusalem to Lisbon. In the following century the Portuguese penetrated to the 
plateau, where they foimded religious and military establishments in every 
direction. Relations with Europe, however, were not 3'et thoroughly cemented, 
when the Portuguese priests were accused of aspiring to political power and 
expelled from the country. They were no doubt followed in 1699 by the French 
physician, Poncet, invited by the King of Abyssinia to his court. 



126 XOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



MoDERX Exploration. 



But seventy years passed between Poncet's short visit and that of the Scotch- 
man Bruce, with whom begins the era of modem exploration. Since his time 
the country has been traversed by many European travellers, naturalists, traders, 
adventurers, soldiers, and missionaries, and Eui'opean military expeditions have 
even been made into the heart of Abyssinia. Commercial relations are rapidly 
increasiag, and many of the plateau districts have already been pointed out by 
explorers as a future field of emigration for Em-opeans. But it might be doubted 
whether the two races would continue to live on friendly terms, without the 
conflicts and wars of extermination generally preceeding the fusion of different 
peoples. 

Certain parts of Ethiopia are already much better known than any other 
African region lying beyond the colonies and maritime regions under European 
influence. Since Bruce's visit, the country has been thoroughly studied by 
explorers, such as Salt, Riippel, Rochet, Ferret, and Galinier ; Beke, Sapeto, 
Krapf, Combes, and Tamisier ; Lejean, Munziager, RafPray, Rohlfs, and Heuglin, 
who have brought back maps, charts and observations of every description. 
Moreover Antoiae d'Abbadie, during his twelve years' stay in Ethiopia, made a 
geodetic survey of the country, by a rapid but accurate method, hardly inferior 
in precision to the lengthy and delicate system of triangulation usually adopted 
in Europe. On d'Abbadie's map the Red Sea coast is connected with the moun- 
tains of the plateau as far as Kafia by a continuous series of triangles, fixing the 
latitude and longitude of about nine hundred points. The map is covered with a 
close network of geodetic lines and routes, the names of many localities being 
inserted with considerable accuracy. Detailed surveys were also taken by the 
British staff officers during the expedition of 1868 from Adidis Bay to the 
highland fortress of Magdala. 

Abyssinia Proper. 

Most European explorers who have visited the Ethiopian ujolands have 
penetrated from the east, where these highlands present the most imposing aspect. 
Above the samhar or mudun, a naked plain separating the coast from the plateau, 
the outer terraces of the escarpment are seen piled up in domes and pyramids, 
barren rocks or verdant slopes, whose sharp hazy crests seem to merge in a single 
irregular range. At the mouth of the ravines which cleave the rocky masses 
with their parallel furrows, the argillaceous plains are succeeded by rolled stones 
and boulders, with here and there a solitar}' tree, or patches of scrub or herbage 
■\-isible in the cavities occasionally flooded by the tropical rains. Still higher uji 
rise rocky or wooded slopes and steep precipices, round which wind narrow and 
dangerous paths. When the traveller at last reaches the summit he does not 
find himself on a ridge, as he might have expected, but on almost level pastui-e- 
lands interspersed with tall juniper-trees. At a height of from 7,000 to 9,000 
feet the edge of the plateau stands out in relief, on one side overlooking the grey 



ABYSSINLV PROPER. 127 

and naked plain, and on the other, the strange " chess-board " of the interior with 

Fig. 40. — Chief Routes of Abyssinian Exploreks. 
Scale t : 3,000,000.' 




C. Perron 



Itineraries of Antoine d'Abbadie, 
60 Miles. 



its irregular terrace-lands OTertopped by jagged cliffs and cleft asunder by deep 
gorges. 



128 XOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

The Abyssinian Plateau. 

On the whole, the Ethiopian plateau consists of numerous distinct table-lands, 
like the polyhedric prisms formed by the dessication of the clayey soil of plains 
exposed to the action of heat. These table-lands, intersected by precipices and 
surmounted by crags, stand at different elevations. Some of them form entire 
provinces, with towns and numerous populations; others, the so-called amha, are 
mere blocks or quadrangular masses some 800 or 1,000 feet high, similar to the 
drugs or " inaccessibles " of Southern India, or the isolated crags of Saxon 
Switzerland. In eastern Ethiopia the origin of these ambas is doubtless due to 
the disintegration of a thick layer of red or greyish sandstone, cleft into vertical 
masses, and revealing here and there stratas of lower schistose and crystaline 
formations. In the interior, and especially towards the west, where volcanic 
lands prevail, most of the natural cHifs consist, not of sandstone, like those of the 
eastern plateaux of India and of Saxony, but of lava, and terminate in basaltic 
columns, some disposed in converging clusters or else forming colonnades Kke the 
temples of the Acropolis. These crystaline rocks, whose upper terrace is large 
enough to contain arable tracts and form the source of rivers, have for the most 
part served as strongholds, where many a tribe or horde of robbers has remained 
for years besieged and cut off from the rest of the world. Other ambas have 
been chosen by the monks as the sites of their monasteries, and such holy places 
often serve as sanctuaries to those fleeing from justice or oppression. Lastly, the 
smaller basalt columns are frequently used as prisons for the great personages 
who have incurred the displeasure of the reigning sovereign. 

In Eastern Ethiopia the general face of the plateau is more broken and cut up 
into more secondary plateaux and crystaHne rocks than in the west. The escarp- 
ments of most^ of the isolated mountain masses slope more gradually westwards. 
They thus reproduce in miniature the general aspect of the whole region, which 
terminates abruptly towards the Red Sea, and slopes gradually towards the Nilotic 
plains. This general incline, however, can only be determined by accurate instru- 
ments, the aspect of the plateau and of the surrounding ranges being too irregular 
to enable the observer to detect its primitive outline. The ambas stand out at 
various elevations in bold relief against the blue sky like citadels and towers. 
Lower down, the verdant base of the plateau breaks into abrupt precipices, 
whose walls present from a distance the aspect of regular quadrangular lines. On 
these harder rocks rest the soft foundations, here scored by avalanches of falling 
rocks, elsewhere clothed with verdure. The Abyssinian landscapes, like those of 
the Rocky Mountains, consist of superimposed terrace-lands and vast strata of 
monumental aspect. Near Magdala the eastern edge of the Talanta plateau is said 
to terminate abruptly in a vertical wall of basaltic pillars over three thousand 
feet high. 

The Kwallas and River Gorges. 

The height of the Ethiopian plateaux varies greatly, presenting between the 
Simen range in the north and those of Lasta and Go jam in the south-east and 



NORTHERN ABYSSINIA. 



la 



Ui 










CPerran. 



• under "OOC m o r «? 5000 w o f^cr 5000 m. 



LONDON. J. S, VIRTU E 



TKE ABTSSrSTAN PLATEAU. 



129 



west, a mean altitude of about 8,000 feet. All the regions attaining or exceeding 
this height are called dcga, a term analogous to the Persian sarhad and Arab ncjd. 
Below the altitude of 6,000 feet, the intermediate valleys and gorges dividing the 
plateau, excavated by the mountain torrents to various depths, take the name of 
kiraUa, kolla, or kulla, a zone of " hot lands " corresponding to the ghermsir of 
Persia, or to the tehamas of Arabia. Between these two zones stretches the vdina- 
dega, or temperate region. In many jjlaces the rugged escarpments present a 
sudden conti-ast between the degas and the kwallas, the difference of their relief 
being heightened by that of their climate and vegetation. The cataracts, such as 
that of Davezut, near Debra-Tabor, fall either in a single sheet or through a suc- 
cession of rapids from one zone to another. Most of the partial granite or basalt 
masses of the plateau have outer walls formed of cliffs and superimposed talus, 
which give the hills the appearance of step-pyramids; but some of these kwallas 
are little more than fissiu-es or gorges, like the ITorth American canons. Such 
chasms appear to be but a stone's throw across ; their true size, however, can only 

Fig. 41. — Profile op Abyssinia from East to West. 
Scale 1 : 6,000,000. 




C Perron 



The scale of heights is 250 times larger than that of distances. 
^^^^^^^—^^^^^^-^ 6 MileB. 



be seen on descending into the abj-ss, walking for hours on the edge of giddy 
precipices, crossing the torrents at the bottom, and then scaling their abrupt sides. 
The defiles are occasionally blocked by masses of rock swept down by the mountain 
torrents, and presenting serious obstacles to the local trafiSc. The most remark- 
able ravines occur along the eastern edge of the j)lateau, where the total fissure 
exceeds 6,500 feet, measured from the simimit of the degas down to the sea-level. 
Xowhere else can a more convincing proof be observed of the erosive action of 
running waters. The two walls of certain gorges, rising nearly vertically within 
a few feet of each other to a height of some hundi-eds of feet, represent an erosion 
of hard rock amoimting to at least ten thousand five hundred million cubic feet. 
Nevertheless, the waters have regulated the fall of the channel, which averages not 
more than one in forty yards. This incline is easily ascended, but several of the 
defiles remain blocked for months together by the mountain torrents ; every year 
new paths have to be formed across the debris, while some have had to be entirely 
abandoned. The route to KumaUi, through which the English army marched to 
the Abyssinian jilateau, had probably not been occupied by a military force since 

VOL. X. K 



130 



NOETH-EAST APEICA. 
Fig. 42.— Davezut Falls, xeak Samara (Debra-Tabor). 







the tuue of the Greeks. Ethiopia is thus divided by gorges into uumerous natural 



THE NOETHEEN HIGHLANDS. 131 

sections. Instead of facilitating communication, as in the lowlands, the Abyssinian 
rivers become so many defiles difficult to traverse, and often completely cutting off 
two conterminous provinces for weeks and months at a time. 



Orographic System. 

From a geological point of view, the Ethiopian highlands present a striking 
resemblance to those of Arabia facing them. The rocky formations are identical, 
and consequently the mountains have much the same outlines, the same general 
aspect, and almost the same vegetation ; while the populations, of common origin 
on both plateaux, have been developed in almost identical surromidings. The back- 
bone of the whole Ethiopian plateau, still appearing on some old maps under the 
name of " Spina Mundi," is formed by the eastern edge of the mountains over- 
looking the low coastlands of the Red Sea. For a distance of about 600 miles 
this edge, precipitous on one side and developing a gentle incline on the other, 
runs north and south nearly in the direction of the meridian. West of this range, 
which also forms the water-parting, the whole of the plateaux gradually slope 
towards the Nile, as indicated by the kwallas through which flow the waters of 
the llareb, Takkazeh, Beshilo, Abai, Jemna, and their affluents. On the eastern 
slope the escarjjments are intersected at intervals by the deep valleys of the 
wadies rising on the plateau, which thus affords an accessible route to the heart of 
Ethiopia ; but one river alone, the Awash, rises far west of the chain. The valley 
of this watercourse describes a regular semicircle south of the Shoa highlands, 
thus forming a natural barrier between the Abyssinian and southern Galla 
territory. 

The Northern Highlands. 

In its northern section the axis of the range is scarcely sixty miles broad, 
including the spurs and the lateral ridges. Its lowest eminences overlook the 
plain of Tokar from the south, where the river Barka loses itself in a marshy delta. 
Rising in abrupt terraces, it presents a steep face to the coast-Une, which is here 
indented by inlets and broken into rugged headlands ; the jagged crests leave only 
a narrow passage at their base, blocked by rocks and interrupted by wadies 
interspersed with quagmires. This region would prove an Ethiopian ThermopyliB 
for an army endeavom-ing to reach the mountain regions on this side. Farther 
south the sea retires from the mountains, leaving a strip of lowlands known, as in 
Algeria, by the name of Sahel, which stretches at a mean breadth of twelve miles 
along the base of the gneiss, granite, and schist escarpments ; a few volcanic cones 
are scattered between the hills and the seacoast, while lava-streams here alternate 
with the sand and clay beds of the arid zone. The mountain range rises to a height 
of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above the Sahel. The Rora, as the parallel chains are 
here called, expand in some places into plateaux, which, from the abundant rainfal 
and fertility of the soil, would amply repay the laboui' of cultivation. Thus the Rora 

K 2 



132 



XOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



Azgedeh, miming parallel with the coast, is connected by ridges with the Rora 
Isallim, or " Black Mountain," which lies still nearer the coast. They jointlj' 
bound the upland plain of Nalcfa, about 5,000 feet above the sea, which drains into 
the Red Sea through one large torrent. At present a desolate district consisting of 
nothing but pasture lands, the Xakfa, " the most delightful region ia Abyssinia," 
appears to be suitable for the culture of coffee, cotton, mulberries, the vine, and 
tobacco. A few mountain masses project ia lofty headlands west of the Rora 
Azgedeh. Such is Hagar Abei Nejran, that is, " Capital of Nejran," over 8,000 
feet in height, which is now covered with ruias, but which formerly contained the 
celebrated monastery frequented by pilgrims journeyiag from Aksimi to Jerusalem. 

Fig. 43. — XoRTQERN SpfKS OF THE AbTS.SIXIAX HiOHLANHS. 

Scnle 1 : 1,600,000. 




L . ot Ijreeow C 



Depths. 



to 160 
Feet. 



160 to 320 
Feet. 



320 to 640 
Feet. 



. 30 Miles. 



640 Feet 
and upwardfi. 



Farther south the valley of the Anseba is dominated east by the Debr-Abi, or 
" Great Mountain," another almost solitary cliff, known also by the name of Tem- 
belleh. 

Bounded westwards by the valley of the Barka, the moimtain range, for min g a 
contiauation of the Rora Azgedeh, is intersected by numerous headstreams of that 
river. The most important of these affluents, notably of the Anseba and the Barka 
itself, rise west of Massawah on the plateau, 4,000 feet high, which forms the 
north-east corner of Abyssioia proper. On this base another group of superb 
granite mountains rises to an elevation of some 16,000 feet. Such is the famous 
Debra Sina, or "Mount Sinai," to the east of Keren, and capital of the Bogo country. 



THE HAMASEN AND SIMEN UPLANDS. 



138 



The crest of this mountain is a chaotic mass of rocks of all sizes, which misrht be 
supposed due to volcanic eruptions, hut which are indebted for their present form 
to slow meteoric action. These rocks, Ij'ing obliquely on each other, form the 
arched roofs of numerous caves, which have been artificially worked into dwellings 
and in many places connected by galleries. One has even been hewn into a 
monastery and a church, which is annuallj^ visited by thousands of pilgrims from 
every part of Abyssinia. South of Keren stands the Isad Amba, or " TVTiite 
Fortress," another rock famous in the religious annals of Abyssinia. This 

Fig. -44. — The Simen Highlaxds. 
Scale I: 1,000,000. 




CPer 



mountain rises almost verticallj^ about 4,000 feet above the Barka Valley, its sharp 
peak scarcely afEording sufficient space for the site of the convent waUs. 



The Hamasex axd Simen Uplands. 

In Abyssinia proper, commencing at the Hamasen plateau, the base of the 
uplands is at once broader and more elevated than in the Bogo (Bilen) country, 
its mean height exceeding 7,460 feet. Like most of the Ethiopian mountain 
masses, Hamasen is covered with trachytic or basaltic lavas, which are themselves 
overlaid by a reddish or yellowish earth. There can be little doubt that this 
ochrous soil covering the Abyssinia plateaux consists of decomposed lava, like 
the vast laterite masses stretching over the Dekkan and most of southern India. 
In various localities basaltic columns are found partially changed to masses of 



134 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



Fig. 45. — L.^KES OF East Abyssinia. 
Scale 1 : 1,500,000. 



12' 

50' 









reddi.sh clay. Red is the normal colour of the Abyssinian rocks, the very veins 
of quartz being often of a pink hue, caused by the oxide of iron. According to 
Heuglin, at least one of the craters, from which were formerly ejected the Hamasen 
lavas, has been perfectly preserved. Rising midway between Keren and Adua to a 

height of about 400 feet, it is stated to 
present the appearance of a crater but 
recently extinct, although Rohlfs, follow- 
ing the same route, failed to discover it. 
To the south, on the eastern edge of the 
plateau, rise the isolated cones of other 
volcanoes. Some of the Tigre crests 
are veritable mountains, not merely in 
absolute altitude, but also in their eleva- 
tion relative to the surrounding plains. 
Thus east of Adua, the cleft cone of Sema- 
yata attains a height of 10,306 feet, or 
over 3,000 feet above the town occupying 
a depression of the plateau at its base. 
Eastwards, near the outer ledge of the 
uplands, are other lofty hills, one of which, 
Aleqwa, rises to a height of 11,250 feet. 
To the west, between the Mareb and Tak- 
kazeh, the plateau gradually falls, the 



relative heights of the mountains dimin- 
ishing in proportion. 

The loftiest headland of northern 
Abyssinia is separated from Tigre in the 
north and east by the semicircular gorge 
of the Takkazeh, while the affluents of 
this great river encircle the plateau on 
the south-west, thus isolating the Simen 
(Samen, Semen, Semien, or Semieneh), 
that is the " northern " or " cold region." 
The mean height of its escarpments ex- 
ceeds 10,000 feet, whilst the surrounding 
valleys of the Balagas to the south and of 
the Taldiazeh to the north, are respectively 
5,000 and 6,000 feet lower. Hence the 
waters flowing from the snowy Simen 
uplands have a very rapid course, in many 
One of these cataracts Heufflin describes as fallins: some 




51 



[ ^f Gri'en^ ,.h 59°40 



C Perron 
. 30 MUes. 



places broken by cascades. 
1,500 feet into a chasm which appears to have been a crater partly destroyed by 
erosion. Like most of the other fragments of the Ab3'ssiQian plateau properly so- 
called, the Simen uplands consist entirely of volcanic, basaltic, trachytic, phonolithic. 







<: 

El 

> 
I 



THE EASTERN BOEDER RANGE. 135 

rocks and piimice, although their snowy peaks contain no craters. Till recently 
the Ras Dajan, probably over 15,000 feet, was considered the highest point in this 
district, but this distinction belongs probably to that of Buahit, or Abba-Tared. 
The highest peaks of these two mountains, rivalHng Mont Rosa or Mont Blanc of 
the Eiu'opean Alps, are 'streaked with snow, and according to the natives, snow 
rests on them throughout the year. The aspect of the Simen highlands is scarcely 
so impo.sing as that of the Alps. They rise little more than from 1,500 to 2,500 
feet above the base of the plateau ; but at the escarpments of the terrace lands, 
from which they are separated by deep gorges, these mountains, with their 
fantastic towers, peaks, and successive vegetations of every climate clothing their 
flanks, stand out in all their sublimity. From the pass of Lamalmon on the 
Gondar route, the traveller on turning a rock comes suddenlj^ on this amazing 
prospect, and utters an involuntary cry of admiration at the sight of the snowy 
peaks piercing the clouds. 

The Eastern Border Range. 

East of Tigre, the chain forming the eastern escarpment of Abyssinia is 
continued regularly north and south, interrupted by breaches some 8,000 or 10,000 
feet high, which would facilitate commimication with the plains on the Red Sea 
coast were the country not occupied by the dreaded Afar tribes. This border 
chain maintains its normal elevation for a distance of about 180 miles, but at 
certain points it merges in a rugged upland plain whose depressions are flooded by 
lakes such as Ashangi, Haik, and Ardibbo. Eastwards the mountainous tableland 
of Zebul, some 3,000 feet high, and dominated by peaks rising from 1,000 to 2,000 
feet higher, advances far into the country of the Somali. Although their escarp- 
ments are so precipitous, and so densely clothed with matted vegetation, as to 
render them almost inaccessible, the Zebul heights are not to be compared with 
the majestic Abyssinian mountains. The Bekenna, or Berkona, an afiluent of the 
Awash, rising in the watershed near the sources of the Takkazeh and Beshilo, 
separates the border chain from the Argobba, a lateral ridge which projects far 
into the lowlands, forming in the south-west the last spur of the Abyssinian 
highlands. 

The line of transverse depressions, indicated on the coast by the Gulf of 
Tajurah, and in the interior by the bed of Lake Tana, is well defined on the 
border terrace by a nucleus of diverging vaUeys constituting the main point of 
radiation of aU the Abj-ssinian rivers. Near the hot spring forming its source 
rise other tributary rivers of the Takkazeh ; the chief afliuents of the Beshilo or 
Beshlo, which with the Abai forms one of the main headstreams of the Blue Nile, 
also originate in these mountains, while their eastern slopes give birth to many 
tributaries of the Awash and of the Gwalinia, or Golima, which latter finally runs 
dry in the plains of the Afars. 

In the vicinitj- of Lake Haik, east of the fortress of Magdala, the range is 
crossed by a pass said to be considerably less than 7,000 feet high, thus forming the 



130 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

lowest breach in the border chain of Eastern Abyssinia. But on this side, where 
the regions are broken up into distinct fragments by the deep river gorges, many 
mountains attain a height inferior only to those of the Simen and Gojam. Thus 
east of Lake Ashangi, on the almost isolated upland province of Lasta, which is 
almost surrounded by the Takkazeh and Tzellari rivers. Mounts Eiala and 
Gavzigivla exceed 12,600 feet ; while the heights of Abuna, Yosef, and Imaraha, 
not far from the source of the Takkazeh, attain an elevation of over 13,000 feet. 
South of the Takkazeh an irregular plateau stretches westwards, terminating in 
Mount Guna, one of the highest Abyssinian summits (14,000 feet). Its western spur, 
sloping towards Lake Tana, forms the famous Debra-Tabor, or " Mount Tabor," 
site of the present military capital of Abyssinia. To the north rise the Beg- 
hemeder Mountains, beyond which are the still little-kno^vn Belessa highlands, 
connected with those of Wagara and Kwalla Wagara, the whole series forming 
a successive series of terraces towards the Nilotic plains. 

Central and Western Highlands. 

West of the Galla Wollo plateau, supposed to be a vast lava 'field, the slopes 
incline gradually towards the Blue Nile, interrupted, however, by secondary 
chains. Abruptly intersected southwards by the deep semicircular gorge 
containing the waters of the Abai, or Blue NUe, the plateau reconmieuces more 
to the west, rising in terraces up to the Gojam Mountains, which, jointly with 
those of Simen and Lasta, form the culminating points of Abyssinia. The chief 
range of this moimtainous province extends in a semicircle, concentric to that 
described by the Blue Nile ; its highest crest, the Talba Waha, probably exceeds 
12,000 feet. But although one of the peaks takes the name of Semayata, that is 
" Heaven-kissing," it does not appear to be ever covered with snow ; nor do any 
of the summits in this region, between 11° and 12° of latitude, seem to reach the 
snow-line. 

Like most other Abyssinian ranges, the Talba Waha Mountains fall in steep 
escarpments east and north, whilst on the west they slope gently towards the 
territory of the Gumis and Bertas. The rest of the plateau is broken in the 
north and north-west by watercourses into countless fragments, forming a suc- 
cession of steps overlooked by a few pyramids of a relatively slight elevation. 
The Waldebba height, in the north-west angle of Lake Tana, exceeds 7,000 feet. 
The whole of this region is of volcanic origin, terminating towards the lowlands 
in abrupt masses with vertical walls from 80 to 100 feet high, surmounted by 
basaltic columns. Beyond the promontory of Ras-el-Fil, that is, " Elephant 
Cape," skirted by the river Rahad on the south-west, the level steppe presents 
an extraordinary appearance, from the fantastic crags, peaks and needles covering 
it. The most advanced of these remarkable formations is the comjjletely isolated 
granite mass of Gana or Jebel Arang, whose sides and summit to a height of nearly 
2,000 feet are clothed with large forest-trees, including the baobab, which here 
reaches its northern limit. 



THE ABYSSrSTAX SEABOAED.— LAEE AIALBED. 137 

The Abtssixiax Seaboard. 

Beyond the Abyssinian plateaux in the vicinity of the Red Sea rise such pro- 
montories and isolated headlands as the Gadam, or Gedem, formerly an insular rock, 
but which now forms a promontory between the Gulf of Massawah and Adulis 
Bay, terminating in an abrupt incline. This granite mass, although visible from 
Massawah, has not yet been accurately measured, the estimates of travellers varying 
from 2,700 to 3,300 feet ; but d'Abbadie has geodetically determined its highest 
point at over 5,000 feet. The Buri headland, bounding Adulis Bay on the east, 
also terminates in the imposing volcanic cone of Awen, the Hurtow Peak of the 
English maps, which, although apparently extinct, is said by the natives still to 
emit steam and sulphureous vapours. Copious hot springs flow from its sides, while 
thousands of jets at a temperature of 168^ F. bubble up amidst the surf on the 
beach. 

South of the Bm-i peninsula are other ii-regular hills composed of volcanic rocks 
completely separated from the mountains of Abyssinia proper. But a still active 
volcano, known to the Afars under the name of Ai'tali, or Ortoaleh, that is, " Smoky 
Mountain," rises at the extremity of a spur of the Abyssinian plateaux, south-west 
of Hanfila (Hamfaleh) Bay, attesting the existence of imderground energy, of 
which so few examples still occur on the African coast. It is described by HUde- 
brandt, the only explorer who has approached its crater, as a cone of blackish lava 
seamed with crevasses, and ejecting dense volumes of whitish vapom-. In its 
vicinity stands another now quiescent sulphureous mountain, from the deposits in 
its crater known as Kibrealeh, or " Sidphur Mountain ; " whilst farther north, 
near the salt plains, are the isolated soKataras of Delol, or DaUol, whence the 
Abyssinian highlanders obtain the sulphur with which they manufacture their 
gunpowder. Finally, to the east, near the small harbour of Edd, a chaotic mass of 
solfataras and craters gives the district the appearance of a storm-tossed sea. Sea- 
farers speak of lavas ejected within "a day's march " of Edd, especially in 1861, 
but their origin is unknown, imless they proceed from the already mentioned 
Mount Ortoaleh, which lies, however, not at a day's journey, but fully sixty miles 
inland. These volcanoes are greatly feared by the natives, who believe them to be 
the abode of evil spiiits ; under the giiidance of their wizards they sacrifice a cow 
to them, but directly the animal is placed on the flaming pyre they run away, 
lest evil shoiild befall them if they saw the spirits devouring their prey. 

Lake Alalbed. 

Although Ortoaleh is not situated on the sea-coast, it rises above the district of 
Rahad, a lacustrine plain which was formerly a marine inlet. This depression, 
which Munzinger called Ansali, from an isolated mound rising in its midst, stretches 
over a superficial area of about 1,000 square miles at a mean level of some 200 
feet below the Red Sea. This plain, a miniature " ghor " similar to that flooded by 
the Jordan and the Dead Sea, is almost entirely surrounded by a sinuous belt of 



138 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



gypsum cliffs, here and there intersected by wadies. Their summits are crowned 
with feathery dum palms, and from their sides flow perennial springs. A verdant 
circle thus surrounds this desert waste, where nothing is visible but a few acacias 
and brushwood. At some distance from the cliffs are saline efflorescences, which 
become gradually solidified towards the middle of the plains, where they acquire 
the consistency of slabs some two feet thick. Here and there they present a greyish 
tcsselated appearance, the interstices being filled with dazzling white crystals. At 
the lowest level of the depression, between the Ansali promontorj^ and Mount 
Ortoaleh, are collected the waters of Lake Alalbed, or Allolebed, whose size varies 
according to the quantity of water brought down by the torrents. Its mean 
depth is said scarcely to exceed 40 inches. The dessication of the old bay of 



Fig. 46. — Lake of Alalmed. 
Scale 1 : 1,500,000. 




H^Wi^^ 



'""My^^ 









W^At, 







W 



iSiaty 



VA 











dQ'dO 



L V ot b'*een//ic''i 



J. . i8,- 



Lf 



40°30' 



. 30 Miles. 



Ansali may be explained by a gradual upheaval of the coast west of the Hed Sea, 
as well as on the east side in Arabia. The coral banks and recent shells found at 
the north of the plain attest the presence of marine waters on the now upheaved 
depression between the plain of Ragad and Auwakil Bay. The rivers flowing 
from the Abyssinian chain are not sufficiently copious to repair the loss by 
evaporation, and thus the old lake, formerly of some extent, has gradually become 
a shallow swamp. The Taltals, who inhabit the surrounding district, assure the 
Abyssiuians, possibly to protect themselves from their visits, that the lake 
occasionally "walks away" from its old bed in search of a new one; and woe to 
the caravans overtaken by this sudden inimdation ! Besides, even at some 
distance from the lake, travellers run the risk of sinking into the treacherous 
soil, and whole conij)auies of men and beasts are said to have thus disappeared. 



DAHLAK ISLAND.— CLIMATE. 139 

However, the banks of the lake are traversed in safetj' by hundreds of Taltals, 
vrho here procure nearly all the salt required for the Abyssinian market, and the 
little salt bricks used as a small currency in southern Abyssinia. According to 
Munzinger, they procure from the bed of this lake some thirty millions of bricks 
annually, equivalent at Antalo, on the plateau, to a sum of £320,000. 

Dahlak Island. 

The islands of the neighbouring coast, notably that of Dahlak, the largest in 
the Red Sea, which shelters Massawah Bay from the east, are partly of coral and 
partly of volcanic origin. They are skirted by headlands and lava streams, and 
in many places the land is intersected by deep crevices, apparently due to sub- 
terranean disturbances. The two walls of these chasms do not always stand at 
the same elevation, in some instances showing discrepancies of some fifty feet. 
During the rainy season the water collects in these hoUow.s, and when evaporated 
verdant meadows spring up from the damp soil, contrasting pleasantly with the 
bare rocks surrounding them. The island of Dahlak is subject to earthquakes, 
which the natives say are caused by the movements of the " buU who supports the 
world." Hot springs are found in the interior, in which fish are said to live, 
although their temperature exceeds 172" F. 

Clim.\te. 

Abyssinia, whose summits rise above the snow-line, while their base sinks to 
the level of the Torrid zone, naturally presents every diversity of climate according 
to the altitude and aspect of its uplands. On the slopes of the plateaux and 
moimtains, the seasons are diversely distributed, continually overlapping the net- 
work of isothermal lines so regularly placed on our climatological maps of 
Abyssinia. How often have travellers, facing the bitter cold wind of the plateaux, 
succumbed to that frosty sleep which ends in death ! On military expeditions 
whole battalions have been frozen whilst crossing these snowy passes, and 
d'Abbadie quotes a chronicle, which states that a whole army thus perished in 
Lasta. But at the bottom of the narrow amhas death is more frequently caused 
rather by the intense heat, for under the sxmimer sun these gorges become verit- 
able furnaces, the soil glowing at times with a heat of some 190^ to 200' F. The 
air is generally calm in these apparently closed ravines ; but if the equilibrium is 
suddenly disturbed, a raging tempest tears up the valley, the air soon returning to 
its former tranquillity. The absence of regular currents sweeping away the impuri- 
ties of the air, renders the amhns extremely dangerous to traverse. Before or after 
the rainy season they must be crossed rapidly, in order to reach the slopes above 
the fever zone. Although exposed to an aknost equal degree of heat, the plains 
bordering the Eed Sea are much more salubrious, and are dangerous only in those 
years when the rainfall is excessive. 

But these extremes of heat and cold are iminown in the central districts, where 



110 



NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 



nearly all the urban populations are concentrated, with the exception of the towns 
that have sprung up round the mountain strongholds, or places of pilgrimage. The 
inhabited zone — that is, the vo'ina-dega, or " wine region," between the degas and 



Fig. 47. — IxTEnMEDiATE Abyssixiax Plate.\lx and Valleys. 
Scale 1 : 3,500,000. 




L- . of breen 



KiKilla. 



i.^ 



J 



Voinft-dega. 



Uefc-a. 
. 60 Miles. 



kwallas — lies mainly at a height of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet. At these elevations 
the mean temperature corresponds to that of the ^Mediterranean sea-coast, with this 
difference, that the changes of season are much less noticeable. As the plateaux 



CLIMATE. 141 

He within tlie tropics, tlie suu's rays maintain their intensity throughout the year, 
the discrepancies between winter and summer being very slight, and due mainly to 
the purity of the air and density of the clouds. As in the West Indies and in all 
countries subject to regular monsoons, the Abyssinian year is regulated by the 
appearance and disappearance of the rains. 

The rainy season varies in time and duration according to the height, latitude, 
and position of the various provinces. Some regions have even two rainy seasons, 
being lands of transition belonging at once to two meteorological domains. The 
southern Abyssinian uplands have two wiuters, the first commencing in July, when 
the sun is nearly vertical above the soil, and ending in September ; the second and 
shorter falling in Januarj^ Februarj', or March, when the belt of clouds formed at 
the zone of contact between the trade-winds and polar cui'rents is deflected south- 
wards. In the central region the winter, or azmara, commences usually in April, 
continuing, with a few interruptions, tiU the end of September ; but at the north- 
west base of the mouutaius, in the Bogos, Galabat, Gedaref, and Senaar j)rovinces, 
this rainy season is broken into two, one beginning ia April or May, the other, 
accompanied by tremendous downpours, lasting throughout the months of July, 
August, and Sei^tember. The rains, brought by the wind blowing from the Red 
Sea or Indian Ocean, fall nearly always in the afternoon, accompanied by tempests, 
but soon clear off, leaving the sky unclouded dm-ing the night and following morn- 
ing. On the eastern slope of the mountains, however, the seasons are reversed, the 
rains brought by the north wind falling in winter, which lasts from November to 
March. 

The African coast of the Red Sea lies within the zone of the Mediterranean 
winter rains, whilst those of Arabia,' the interior of Egypt, and Upper Abj-ssinia 
belong to a different climatic system. Certain mountains situated on the boundary 
of the two zones are alternately beaten by winter and summer rains, and the Abys- 
sinian shepherds have but to go round the mountain to find, according to the 
season, the herbage necessary for their flocks or land ready for culture. During 
this period the air enveloping the lowland plains is excessively damp, the hygro- 
meter never indicating a less proj)ortion than 60 per cent., while the air of the 
plateaux is, on the contrary, usually dry. 

In the districts where the annual rainfall has been roughly estimated, it is 
found to varj' from two to three inches yearly. But the discrepancy must be much 
greater in some upland vaUe3's, where the rainclouds are driven together by the 
winds. Here hailstorms are very frequent. Floodings are known to be extremelj^ 
dangerous in valleys surmounted by precipitous and barren rocks ; but on the 
eastern ledges of the Abyssinian border ranges these sudden deluges rushing 
through steeply inclined watercourses are even more dangerous than elsewhere. 
During the rainy season all communication ceases between the plateaux, which 
are divided one from the other by deep kwallas. In the plains of Samhar the 
caravans, journeying through sand, saline clays, and lavas, are occasionally stopped 
by the intolerable heat reflected from the earth or rocks, or else by the sandy 
whirlwinds of the kharif, or columns of red sand sweej^ing over the desert. 



142 NORTH-EAST AFBICA. 



Flora. 



Thanks to its variety of climate, the flora of Abyssinia is extremely diversified. 
The two chief zones of vegetation are naturally those of the upland plateaux and 
lowland valleys ; but many of the species flourish in both regions. Each plant 
has its particular zone, differing in range and vertical height along the slopes. 
The shores of the Eed Sea have their special flora, characteristic of which are the 
kudel {cassijwurea africaiia') and the shora (^adcennia fomeiiiosa^, trees growing 
on the strip of coast which is alternately flooded by the tides. On the shores of 
Hawakil Bay these trees are similar in appearance and nearly as large as the 
European beech. At the foot of the range in the Sahel zone, often described as 
barren, the vegetation consists merely of scrub, except in the vicinity of the 
streams. The flora of the kwallas is distinguished especially by its wealth in 
deciduous trees, whose leaves fall in the drj- season. Here flourish the sycamore 
and the fig ; here the tamarind and acacia intertwine their thorny branches along 
the banks of the mountain torrents. Here and there the huge baobab, " giant of 
the vegetable kingdom," which, nevertheless, in many respects presents the 
appearance of a grass, raises its bulging stem, often hollow and filled with water, 
its tufted branches terminating in wi'eaths of foliage. When blown down bv the 
wind its huge trunk, some 60 to 80 feet in circumference, affords a refuge to the 
shepherds and their flocks. 

The palm scarcely penetrates into the kwallas, being confined mostly to the 
Red Sea coast. Hence the Abyssinians import theii- dates from Arabia. The 
cereals are of a particular species, or else of varieties very different from those of 
Europe, and flourish best in the middle zone, where nearly all the Abyssinian to\^Tis 
are concentrated. The Shoa and Amhara peasants are said to possess twenty-eight 
varieties of millet, twenty-four of wheat, sixteen of barley, and several kinds of rye 
and maize. The most general cereal is the dalmssa, an eleusina, which is now made 
into beer, but which formerly supplied bread exclusively for the royal family. 
The tef (tief), a species of poa, is also largely employed iu the manufactui'e of 
farinaceous foods. The potato, introduced by Schimper, after flourishing for 
some time, was attacked by blight, and its culture has now been almost completely 
abandoned. The miisa ensete, a species of banana growing in the kwallas, rarely 
bears fruit, probably because it comes originally from the Galla lowlands. The 
leaves are utilised for forage, and its roots taste like the potato when cooked. The 
European fruit-trees, or their corresponding varieties, generally produce excellent 
crops. The vine, doubtless introduced from Europe, as attested by its Greek name 
of voina (oi'nos), was formerly widely diffused throughout the whole intermediary 
zone, which was thence known as " vine-land." But this plant has almost dis- 
appeared, ha^-ing been destroyed \>y the oidiuiu. Some travellers have also accused 
King Theodore of having uprooted it, on the pretext that wine should be reserved 
for beings superior to mortals. Lastly, coffee does not appear to be indigenous, 
and is cidtivated only in Gojam, in the Gondar district, on the southern shore of 
Lake Tana, and in a few other regions of the plateau. 



FLORA. 143 

One of the most characteristic wild plants of Abyssinian scenery is the 
kolkwal, or branching euphorbia, similar to the giant euphorbias of the Canaries 
and Azores. The fleshy branches of these trees interlock so tenaciously that they 
are trained round villages to protect them from sudden attacks. Many attain a 
height of over 40 feet. Their mQky sap is a rank poison, much employed in the 
Abyssinian pharmacopoeia, while the wood serves for the manufacture of gun- 
powder. Another plant, the jibara (vhijncliopeialum moiifainon^, an anniial 
similar in appearance to the palm, clothes the mountain sides to a height of some 
11,000 feet. It is remarkable for a gorgeous display of lilac blossom clustering 
round a floral stem shooting from 10 to 16 feet above a topmost tuft of sword-like 
leaves. Another characteristic plant of the uplands is a giant thistle {echinops 
giijanteus^, with a stem like that of a forest-tree, and flowers the size of a man's 
head. Still larger are the furze-bushes, which attain a height of some 26 feet. 
On the upland terraces also flourishes the majestic kiisso (^Brayera ant/iehniiitica), 
whose dense foliage, interspersed with innumerable bunches of pink flowers, is 
employed in Abyssinia, and even in Europe, as an infusion, as recommended by 
Brayer, against the tape-worm ; the Jicus dara, a species of fig, resembles the 
Indian banian, with its aerial roots forming fresh stems and developing forests 
capable of shelteriug some himdreds of people. The wanzeh (^cordia Ahi/mnica), 
is a tufted tree usually planted round houses. The conifer family is represented 
on the ujjland plateaux by the yew, and especially by the juniper, whose huge 
trunk rises from 100 to 130 feet, and in Shoa even to 160 feet. 

Some regions of Abyssinia, especially the hiUy Zebul district east of the border 
range, are covered with vast juniper forests, which present an unique appearance, 
for in no other part of the globe are conifers resembling those of the northern zone 
to be found matted together with a network of tangled creepers resembling those 
of the tropical forests. But, on the whole, Abyssinia is a disafEorested country, 
the destruction of nearly all its upland woodlands being due to the common 
African practice of firing the prairie tracts. The landscape seen from the uplands 
is in many places relieved only by the green oases surrounding the ^-illages or the 
sacred groves of the churches. Besides, but few varieties of trees are included in 
the Abyssinian flora, merely some 235 known species, of which thirty belong to the 
voina-degas, and ten to the degas. But thanks to the variety of climates and vege- 
tation on the slopes and uplands, Abyssinia may possibly one day become a vast 
botanic garden for the cultivation of all European trees, alimentary and useful 
plants. A poor mineral comitry, containing little else but iron, salt, and sulphur 
in the volcanic regions, and some gold dust in Gojam and Damot, it is amply com- 
pensated by the abundant resources vielded by its diversified flora, Em-opean on the 
uplands and Indian on the lowlands. But these resources will be of little use till 
easy routes of communication are opened between the Abyssinian plateaux and the 
outer world. Even in the favourable season, when the rains have not swollen the 
torrents and converted the paths into quagmires, the traveller crossing Abyssinia 
from the Red Sea to the plains sloping to the Nile has a journey of some months 
before him. The stages and provisions are regulated by the king, and many a 
traveller has had to wait some weeks for the permission to continue his route. 



144 XORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



Fauna. 



The tlivcrsity of climate and flora naturally gives rise to a corresponding 
variety in the animal kingdom. On the lowlands the fauna resembles that of 
Arabia or the Sahara, on the outer spurs that of Senegal, that of the Mediterranean 
on the plateaux, whilst it is almost European on the mountain summits. On the 
lower plains are foimd the giraffe, the zebra, the wild ass, and the ostrich. Of 
the nimierous sjjecies of antelopes inhabiting Abyssinia, few advance far up the 
plateaux, although the wild goat is found on the crests of the Simen range, at a 
height of over 13,000 feet. Numerous varieties of the monkey family, amongst 
others the coluhus guereza, noted for its beautiful black-and-white fur, are confined 
to the lowland forests of Shoa, Gojam, and Kwalla-Woggara. But a certain 
species of cynocephales are fovmd at an altitude of some 6,000 feet. The rhinoceros 
has also been met at an elevation of 8,000 feet. The elejjhant also frequents the 
moimtains, although he prefers the thickets of the valleys, where he commits 
extensive depredations on the plantations. But this pachyderm is disappearing 
before the attacks of the himter, who eagerly pursues it, as much for the sake of 
its ivory as to retaliate for the havoc it commits on the cultivated lands. Accord- 
ing to the Arab lowlanders, the elephant knows when to expect the caravans laden 
with diirra/i, attacks them from its ambuscades, and takes possession of the supplies. 
The hippopotamus is also forced by want of water as far into the interior as the 
foot of the cascades, and is also numerous in Lake Tana, where, however, it does 
not grow to such a size as those of the large African rivers. 

The lion is rarely found above the lowlands or beyond the Beni-Amer territory 
in the north. It differs from its Central African congeners by its deep black 
mane ; indeed, one variety, infesting the banks of the Takkazeh, is almost entirely 
black. A more dangerous animal is the leopard, which roams throughout the 
country to a height of 11,000 feet. Like the Indian tiger, these carnivora often 
become man-eaters, for when they have once tasted human flesh they prefer it to all 
other prey. A still more formidable beast is the irobo or abasambo, believed by 
Lefebvre to be a wolf, and said to partake of the qualities of the lion and the 
leopard. The spotted hyaena is also very common. The buffalo, which frequents 
chiefly the riverain kwallas, is of all other savage beasts the readiest to attack 
man ; it fears no enemy, and its furious rush is checked neither by quagmires, 
rocks, nor prickly thickets. The wild fauna also includes the wild boar, which, 
to sjjite the Mohammedans, is occasionally eaten by the Abyssinian Christians, 
although usually regarded as impure. The Abyssinians also reject the flesh of 
the tortoise, and of all animals show the greatest repugnance to the hare, in this 
latter respect strictly adhering to the law of ]\Ioses. It is usually stated that 
Africa possesses no song-birds, but Ab3'ssinia best shows how erroneous this state- 
ment is, as it possesses numerous varieties of these birds, nearly all of gorgeous 
plmnage. The sacred ibis (^geronticus wthiopieus), no longer seen on the banks of 
the Egyptian Nile, is still met in the Upland Abyssinian valleys. The branches 
of trees overhanging rivers and pools are covered with the nests of the tv.etor alvdo, 



INHABITANTS. 145 

or ploceiis aureus ; Stecker has coimted as many as eight hmidred and seventy-two 
of these basket-nests on a single acacia. 

According to the altitude of the country that they inhabit, the Abyssinians 
rear different domestic animals. Camels are used only on the lowlands, never 
being found beyond a height of 5,000 feet. The Abyssinian horse, bred 
throughout all the inhabited regions, is evidently of Arab stock, but smaller and 
stouter, of dog-like fidelity, and almost as strong and surefooted in climbing rocks 
as the mule. The donkey has also been introduced into the plateau, but it is 
weak and useless as a pack animal, possessing none of the qualities of the 
European variety. 

Thaulvs to its immense and succulent pasture-lands, Abyssinia is an excellent 
cattle-breeding countrv, and some of its breeds, differing in stature, shape, length 
of horn and colour, abuost rival the finest European species. In many parts of 
the plateau are found the two kinds of sheep, the short and fat-tailed, besides an 
intermediate variety. The goat is also bred, its skin supplying the parchment on 
which most of the sacred books are written. There are neither pigs, pigeons, 
ducks, nor geese, but poidtry is found in every village, and in some churches 
cocks are kept to announce the hour of morning prayer. Excepting the sheep-dog, 
which is large and courageous, the domestic dog is small and of indifferent 
qualities. The Abyssinians occui^y themselves with apiculture in some districts, 
but the honey has poisonous properties whenever the bees obtain it from the 
flower of the branching euphorbia. An analogous phenomenon has been observed 
for ages in the Caucasian and Pontine mountains. 



Inhabitants. 

Elements of the most diverse origin have been blended in the present popula- 
tions of Abyssinia. Immigrants from the Arabian peninsida, the banks of the 
Kile, and the surroimding uplands and lowlands, have here become intermingled 
in divers proportions with the aborigines. Amongst those still regarded as of 
native origin are the Agau, that is " The Free," still forming the fundamental 
element of the Abyssinian nation, and found chiefly in the provinces of Lasta on 
the Upper Takkazeh, and in Agaumeder, west of Lake Tana. According to some 
Egj-ptologists, the Agau are the descendants of the Uaua, the Nubian people 
spoken of on ancient monuments who were gradually diiven towards the Upper 
Nile and neighboui-ing highlands. Manv of their sacred ceremonies are said to 
betraj' traces of the uninterrupted influence of the ancient Egyptian religion. 
The Agau hold feasts on the banks of the Blue Nile and Takkazeh in honour of 
these sacred rivers ; they Hkewise worship the serpent, which plays so important 
a part in primitive EgjqDtian mythology, and which is even still adored by 
numerous nations of the old and new worlds. They speak a peculiar dialect, the 
hamfeuga or hamca, which, however, is allied to the same stock as the amhariiia, 
the current si^eech of Abj'ssinia. 

VOL. X. L 



146 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

The Felashas. 

The Fehi.t/iax, or " Jews of Abj'ssinia," variously estimated at from 10,000 to 
20,000, are very probably of the same stock as tlic Agau. They are found throughout 
the plateaux, and even in Shoa and Gurageh, divided into three religious sects, each 
with its high priest. In southern Abyssinia they are called Fenjas, but are no 
longer found in the Simon mountains, where they still predominated towards the 
close of the sixteenth century. The national name, Felasha, signifies "exiles," 
and in point of fact they claim descent from the ten tribes banished from the 
Holy Land. On the other hand, they are fond of quoting legends to prove that 
their ancestor was Menelik, the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Of the 
explorers who have visited them, several consider their type similar to that of the 
eastern Jews ; but observers have generally failed to notice any striking difference 
in features between them and their neighbours, except perhaps that their eyes are 
a little more oblique than those of the Agau. Their language, the kuara, hitara, or 
huaraza, said to be dying out, also resembles that of the Agau, and lends additional 
force to the hypothesis of the two peoples springing from a common stock. But 
their religious zeal connects them so closely with the Jews that it would not be 
surprising to find other Israelites regarding them as of kindred race. In any case, 
there was a complete religious cohesion between the numerous Jewish communities 
of Palestine and Ab}'ssinia at the period when uninterrupted communications 
existed between the Moriah of Jerusalem and the numerous "Moimt Sinai's" of 
the African plateaus. Intercourse was maintained chiefly by means of the power- 
ful Jewish republics then occupj-ing a large part of the Arabian peninsula. One 
of these states still existed in the Himyaritic country fifty years before the birth 
of Mohammed. Their religion was spread from the east beyond the Red Sea, and 
at the period of their decadence the " chosen people " held their groimd best in 
the west. The Felasha religion no longer predominates in Abyssinia, and their 
d3Tiasties survive only in the popular traditions ; still, unlike the Arabian Jews, 
they are not a hated race persecuted by the other sections of the commimity. 

In nearly all the provinces they hold themselves aloof from the Abyssinians, 
occupying separate villages or else separate quarters in the towns. The mosques 
are divided into three compartments of unequal sanctity, like the primitive Jewish 
tabernacles, and are recognised from a distance by an earthenware vessel placed 
on the highest pinnacle. Desirous of preserving the purity of their race, the 
Felashas never marry women of alien religions ; they are even forbidden to enter 
Christian dwellings, and when they have been polluted by such a visit, are bound 
to purify themselves before returning to their own homes. 

Pol}'gamy Is not practised, and marriage is much more respected by them than 
by the Abyssinians, although the women have more personal freedom. Early 
marriages, so common amongst the Christian families, are rare amongst them, the 
men marrying between the ages of twenty to thirty, and the women from fifteen to 
twenty. Like the Mohammedans, their morals are generally superior to those of 
their Christian masters, but unlike other Jews, they have no taste for trade. Thej'^ 



THE BOGOS. 147 

are mostly artisans, smiths, masons, carpenters, potters, and weavers ; some also 
are farmers and cattle-breeders, but all mianimously reject the mercantile profes- 
sion as contrary to the laws of Moses. Their interpretation of the holy books 
does not correspond to that of the rabbis of Europe and Asia ; besides, however 
zealous they are to obey the precepts of the "law," many of their practices are 
intermingled with numerous ceremonies borrowed from the native Chi'istians. 
They are zealous in the strict observance of the Sabbath, in the sacrificial offerings 
on the holy stone of the temple, and adhering to the traditional rites in purifying 
themselves by frequent ablutions. Each family possesses a hut outside the village, 
where all sick persons must be removed for a stated term, a practice often causing 
the death of the aged, who are thus deprived of the services of their relations. 
But these religious customs will soon probably be but a memory of the past, as the 
Abyssinian Government considers that the subject should profess the same religion 
as the king. According to the reports of late travellers, a royal manifesto com- 
pelling the Felashas to become Christians was about to be issued. 

The caste of the Kamants, believed to be of Agau origin, are found in small 
commimities in the mountains surrounding Gondar, in the kwallas of the north- 
western slope of Abyssinia, as well as in Shoa. They speak the same language as 
the Felashas, whom they resemble in physical appearance ; their traditions are 
the same, and like them they claim descent fi-om the prophet Moses. If they do 
not celebrate the Sabbath, they at least abstain from work upon that day ; some are 
also said to do no work on Christian feast-days. However, they are considered as 
pagans by Jews and Christians alike, and are said to practise certain ceremonies in 
the recesses of the mountains. At the besinnine: of his reig'n Theodore intended 
to forcibly convert them to Christianity ; but he was ad^-ised that it would not be 
proper to treat as equals before God these despised people, the hewers of wood and 
drawers of water to the families of Gondar. The Kamants are far more indus- 
trious than the Abyssinians, who consider themselves their superiors, and Gondar 
and the sui'roimding towns are dependent for their daily supplies on the labour of 
this tribe. Like the Orejones of the New World, and Like the Wa-Kwafi of the 
Kilima N'jaro district and many other Bantu tribes, the Kamant women distend 
the lobe of the ears with wooden discs, causing the outer cartilage to reach the 
shoulders. 

The Woito, on the banks of Lake Tana, hippopotamus hunters and fishermen, 
who till recently still spoke the Agau dialect, belong also to the aboriginal 
populations. They do not circumcise their childi-en, and eat the flesh of animals 
clean or unclean. The Tsellans, in the same region, are wandering shepherds. 

The Bogos. 

The Mensa, and Bogos, or Bilens, who occupy the northern slope of the 
Abyssinian moimtains in the Senhit (Sennahe'it or "beautiful") coimtry, which 
separates the Sahel from the Barka Valley, are also said to be of Agau origin, 
although d'Abbadie connects them with the ancient Blemmyes. The Bogos, or 

L 2 



148 NOETH-EAST APEICA. 

rather the Boasgors, that is "Sons of the Boas," say that their ancestor was an 
Agau of Lasta, who is said to have fled from his country towards the middle of 
the sixteenth century to escape the vendetta. Situated as they are, between the 
hostile lowland Mohammedans and upland Christians, the Bogos have been 
almost exterminated. In 1858 they numbered merely some 8,400, but this 
remnant have kept their Bilen language and a few of their Christian practices. 
Although reduced to a few faniilj' communities thej- have been studied most care- 
fully, their customs being taken as typical of those found among all the peoples of 
Northern Abyssinia. 

The community is divided into two classes, the Shumaglieh, or " elders," and the 
Ti(jre, or " clients ; " these latter probably conquered Abyssinians or immigrants 
that have been received into the tribe. The Tigre is the slave of the Shumaglieh, 
who, however, cannot sell him, though he may peld him with his lands to another 
master ; he is even bound to protect him and avenge his insults. The life of a 
Tigr^ is valued at that of another, or at ninety-three cows, whereas that of a 
Shumaglieh is worth another Shumaglieh, or one himdred and fifty-eight head of 
cattle. The eldest son of a Shumaglieh inherits his father's two-edged sword, 
white cows, lands, and slaves, but the paternal dwelling falls to the lot of the 
youngest son, the daughters recei\'ing nothing. Female virtue is highlj- esteemed, 
but women have no personal rights or responsibilities, being regarded merely as so 
much property, and are classed with the hyasna, the most despised animal through- 
out Abyssinia. The Bogo husband never sees the face or pronounces the name 
of his mother-in-law, whilst it is criminal for the wife to mention the name of her 
husband or father-in-law. According to tradition the picturesque country now 
occupied hy the Bogos was once the country of the Roms, who are still com- 
memorated in song as daring warriors, who " hurled their spears against heaven." 
These ancient Roms were, perhaps, the advanced pioneers of Byzantine civilisation, 
or else Adulitains driven into the interior by the Mussulman conquest. 

The Mexsas axd Mareas. 

North of the Bogos, and occuppug the same uplands, dwell the Takueh, also of 
Agau stock and speaking the Bilen language, whence their name of Bilen, some- 
times given to them by the Bogos. Like most of their neighbours, and probably 
with good reason, they pride themselves on being a nation of conquerors, but they 
have been aborigines of African extraction since time immemorial, and lands 
formerly belonging to their families are stiU shown in Hamassen. The Dambellas 
in the west are also Abyssinians, whilst the Mensa highlanders of the east and the 
Marea in the mountainous region bounded north by the Anseba river, claim to be 
of Arab origin, and even trace their descent from an uncle of the Prophet. Although 
peasants, they are half nomads dwelling in tents. Yet the Mensas and Mareas 
were formerly Christians like the Takueh and Bogos, and the work of converting 
them to Mohammedanism was not imdertaken till the first half of this centurj'. 
Since their conversion, in times of peril they still often pray to Ezgiabeher, their 



THE HABABS— THE BENI-AliIEES. 149 

former god, instead of to Allali, and have also ceased to raise mounds over their 
dead, like the Bogos. They number about 16,000, and are divided into two tribes, 
the " Blacks " and the " Reds." These last, forming the southern division, by a 
strange contrast, cultivate a blackish soil, whilst the former, or northern division, 
occupy a reddish soil. Their language is identical with that of their slaves, the 
conquered Tigre, who possess no rights, in spite of the precepts of Mohammedanism, 
which confers the title of brothers on all the faithful. On the death of a Marea 
the head of every Tigre family is bound to present a cow to his heirs. The 
Mareas exceed all other races in aristocratic i^ride. Death without defence is the 
only punishment they will receive, for they refuse to humble themselves by 
appearing before any tribunal and offering any excuses for their conduct. If the 
blood of the tribe is sullied by an illegitimate birth, father, mother, and child are all 
destroyed. 

The Hababs. 

North of the ilensas and Mareas are the Az-Hibbehs or Hababs, pastors 
wandering over the mountainous plateaus bounded east by the Sahel plains of the 
Eed Sea, and west by the Barka Valley. These people also are connected with the 
Abyssinians by their language — which, like the Tigre, is a Ghez dialect — as well as 
by their traditions. They were Christians, at least in name, down to the middle of 
the nineteenth centurj^ but on adopting a nomad life they also conformed to the 
religion of the surroimding tribes. Divided into small republics, their only wealth 
consisting of cattle, the Hababs roam amongst the surrounding mountains and 
plains in search of water and pastures. During the winter the lonely Nafka 
jjlateau, which may be considered the centre of the Habab country, is completely 
abandoned to the wild beasts. 

Nevertheless, the remains of buildings and graves disposed in three or four 
circular stages prove that this region was once permanently occupied. These ruins 
are attributed to the Bet-Maliehs, or " People of the wealthy abode," a small tribe 
believed to be of aboriginal extraction. Like the Habab people, the elephant of 
this region is also nomad ; during the winter rains its herds frequent the 
eastern slopes of the plateau bordering the Sahel, in summer returning to the 
Nafka heights on their way westwards to the Barka Valley and the slopes of the 
Abyssinian moimtains. 

The Beni-Ameks. 

In the lowland districts north, west, and east of the Hababs dwell the Beni- 
Amers, who appear to be of mixed Abyssinian and Beja origin, speaking a dialect 
half Beja, " Bedouin," and half Tigre, locally known by the name of Hassa. 
Amongst the Nebtabs of the Sahel — all nobles, and recognised as such by their 
neighbour's — both languages are also current. The Abyssinian element is more 
strongly represented according as the Beni-Amer tribes approach the great plateau, 
and those living in the plains of Samhar, near the Mensas, speak Tigre almost 



150 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

exclusively. They marry the women of the Bogos and other mountain tribes, but 
are too proud to give their daughters in marriage to the Abyssinians. In these 
regions of transition, as well as in the slave-markets surrounding the plateaux, 
strikingly different types are met, such as the broad faces and high cheekbones 
of the Agau, and the high forehead, hollow cheeks, delicate nose, and savage 
eye of the Arabs, or of those assimilated to the Arabs, such as the Hadendoas and 
Shaikiehs. 

The Sahos. 

The Sahos or Shohos, occupying the slope of the llama ssen plateau west of 
Massawah, live by cattle-breeding and acting as guides between the seaport and 
the highlands. Some authors look upon them as true Abyssinians, but most 
explorers connect them with the Afars, or even with the Gallas. Their dialects, 
of Afar origin, resemble those spoken throughout the southern region as far as the 
Awash River. Although very frugal, they have full features with a fresh and 
healthy complexion. Like all the other peoples of the coast, they are mostly 
Mohammedans ; nevertheless, near the plateau there are some who intermingle 
Christian traditions with their Mussulman faith, whilst a few villages, where the 
missionaries reside, have become Catholic. 

Although nominally subject to the " King of Kings," the Shohos are really 
independent, even the chiefs possessing merely a nominal authority over their 
subjects. All the members of the tribe have an equal voice in the assemblies, and 
anyone trying to dictate to another would be excluded or put to death. The 
observance of their hereditary customs and the respect of public opinion, unite the 
Shoho tribes in a compact nationality. The law of blood for blood is rigidly observed ; 
a murderer must either die or pay the price fixed for a life, and if the assassin has 
no relations to answer for him, his tribe draw lots for a substitute. In some 
instances, however, the family of the murderer consents to his execution, and in 
this case his parents and friends assist in putting him to death, so as to share in the 
responsibility of his punishment. 

The Shangallas. 

West of the Abyssinian plateaux, on the spurs facing the Atbara, the Rahad, 
the Dender, the Blue River and its affluent the Tumat, the Abyssinian peoples no 
longer intermingle with the Arabs and Afars, but with Negro elements. The 
name of Shangalla, or Shankalla, by which these natives occupying the western 
slope of the mountains are known, is indiscriminately applied to numerous tribes, 
differing in appearance, language, and origin, their only resemblance lying in their 
almost black skins, relatively barbarous condition, warlike aud slave-hunting pro- 
pensities. From time immemorial it has been and still continues to be the custom 
of the Abyssinian barons living near the Shangallas to descend into the forests with 
their marauding hordes, plundering and killing those who dare to defend themselves. 



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LIBRARY 



THE SHANGALLAS. 



151 



and presenting their captives to their king, or selling them to the slave merchants. 
Near the plains the Shangallas have other enemies to fear, the Arabs, who have 
also reduced a considerable portion of the black population to slavery. Lastly, the 



Fig. 48. — Inhabitants op Abyssinia. 
Scale 1 : 3,500,(100. 




C.Pe 



. CO Miles. 



land has also been frequently wasted by the invasions of the Gallas or Ilm-Ormas 
from the south. Some of these Gallas, however, such as those west of the Abai 
River, and those in the province of Mecha, have settled in the districts depopulated 
by them. 



152 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

The Tigre and Amharas. 

The ci^•ili.sed Abyssinian Highlanders are divided into two main groups, differ- 
in »■ from each other in speech and traditions — the Tigre nation, occupying the 
north-east highlands, and the Amharas and Shoas of the western and southern 
reo-ions. The features of the Tigre, who have given their name to their province, 
are perhaps somewhat more characteristic than those of the other Abyssinians, from 
whom, however, they cannot easily be distinguished. But they speak the Tigrina, 
a peculiar form of speech derived from the Ghez, the classical language, in which 
arc written all the religious works and liturgies of the Abyssinian nation. Like 
the Tigrie (Tigre, Tigrai), a kindred dialect current amongst the peoples of the 
northern slopes along the headstreams of the Barka, the Semitic roots of the Ghez 
are found more or less intermingled in the Tigrifia, with Galla and other elements 
of foreign origin. The " Bedouin " language of the Hababs is a well-jjreserved 
form of Ghez, and many Abyssinian theologians have resided amongst these humble 
highland shepherds in order to study the origin of their sacred language. The 
Hassa, another dialect of the same familj', differing slightly from Tigrie, has sur- 
vived amongst the Beni-Amers of the Samhar plains on the coast of the Red Sea. 
In this direction the Abyssinian linguistic domain is being gradually encroached 
upon by the Arab, just as the Christian religion itself has recently A'ielded to 
Mohammedanism . 

Of the two chief Abyssinian languages, the Tigrina and the Amharina, the 
latter, also derived from Ghez, predominates, thanks to the higher civilisation and 
political preponderance of the Amhara people. The Amharina is the language of 
trade, diplomacy, and literature, possessing a special alphabet of thirty-three letters, 
each with seven forms, or two hundred and fifty-one characters altogether, written 
from left to right, like the European languages. ^^Tiole libraries of books have 
been written in this tongue. The most important works are found in Europe, 
especially in the British Museum, which possesses as many as three hundred and 
forty-eight, obtained chiefly from the collections of King Theodore. Most of the 
Amharina books have been -WTitten for the edification of the faithful ; but magic, 
history, and grammar are also represented in the national literature. Science 
already possesses three dictionaries of the Amharina language, the last a philological 
work of great importance on which d'Abbadie spent more than twentj--five years. 
The Tigrina dialects possess no literature. 

The Abyssinians. 

The inhabitants of the various Tigre and Amhara provinces present striking 
contrasts according to their locality, trade, food, and racial crossings. But apart 
from the extremes, varying from the pure N'egro to the Em-opean tj'pe, the 
Abyssinian on the whole may be considered as possessing shapely limbs and regular 
features. They are mostly of middle height, broad-shoiddered, ^vith somewhat 
slender bodj-, and of very graceful action and carriage. They wear the shuma, a 



THE ABYSSESTAXS. 153 

garment resembling the Roman toga, -which they fold gracefully round the body 
in divers fashions. In general the forehead is high, the nose straight, or even 
aquiline, the lips thick, the mouth somewhat pouting, and the chin pointed. The 
head is dolichocephalous, and covered with slightly frizzled, almost woolly, hair, 
often arranged in little tufts, which the ilussulman slave-dealers call " pepper- 
corns." Like most other Africans they are rarely bearded, but in common with 
them have the habit of lowering the eyelids, which often gives them a treacherous 
and deceitful appearance. The colour of the skin varies greatly, from the deep 
black of the Xegro to the pale complexion of the ilediterranean coast peoples, but 
is generally of a darkish yellow hue, clear enough to admit of blushes being 
observed. Most of the women when young are very graceful, but their beauty 
does not last long ; they are shorter than the men, their height, according to 
Hartmann, rarely exceeding from -1 feet 11 inches to 5 feet. 

The Abyssinians, both men and women, are subject to internal parasites, probably 
due to the practice of eating raw flesh, common to all the natives, excepting those 
of the northern province of Seraweh, whose diet consists almost exclusively of 
vegetables. In the last century Bruce's account of these feasts of Irondo, or 
steaks cut fi-om the living animal and eaten with pepper and pimento, were 
discredited ; but his statements have been confirmed by all subsequent explorers. 
To free themselves from these internal pests, the Abyssinians make decoctions of 
the kusso leaf, bitter barks, and various other herbs ; but they prefer to expose 
themselves to this disorder rather than abandon their savoury brondo. Leprosy, 
amongst other diseases, is very common in the kwallas, and more especially in the 
Felasha villages. Like those of Europe and South America, the Abyssinian 
highlanders, and especially the women, suffer much from goitre. According to 
Dr. Blanc, an Englishmen who was for some time a prisoner of King Theodore's, 
the women frequently die in pai'turition, whilst in the neighbouring countries they 
pass easily through this ti-ial. "Woimds heal slowly, the sKghtest contusion 
often causing bone diseases of long standing, although amputation of the arms 
and legs, and even the mutilations of eunuchs, are rarely mortal, and in general heal 
rapidly. The peoples of the upper plateaux dread the feverish atmosphere of the 
kwallas as much as Europeans, and rarely descend below a height of 3,000 feet 
during the rainy season. The danger these mountaineers run under the deleterious 
influence of this damp heat is the best safeguard of the lowlanders against the 
attacks of the Abyssinian marauders. W hen the " king of kings " has occasion 
to pimish one of these lowland peoples, he despatches a band of Galla warriors, 
accustomed to a similar climate in their forests of southern Abyssinia. However, 
the elephant hunters and slave dealers, whose pursuits bring them to these regions, 
are said to brave the miasmas with impunity, protecting themselves successfully 
against the marsh fever by daily fumigations of sulphur. 

ilost Eirropean observers describe the Amharas and Tigres as distinguished by 
their great intelligence, much natural gaiety, and easy address. Although imtutored 
in elocution, they express themselves with a remarkable fluency, rendered the more 
impressive by their commanding height and appropriate gestures. Tain, selfish. 



154 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

and irritable, they are easilj' led into foolhardy enterprises. Their ambition is 
insatiable, but when unsuccessful they resignedly accept their ill luck. The sad 
political state of Abj-ssinia fully accounts for the xdces of its peoples. Continual 
wars put a stop to all peaceful labours ; the soldiers live by plunder, the monks by 
alms ; hence all work is despised and left to the women and slaves. Like the 
Egyptian fellahin, the haughty Abyssinians do not consider themselves degraded 
bj' asking for presents, remarking cynically, " God has given us speech for the 
purpose of begging." Amongst the Shohos the love of bakshish is pushed to such 
an extent that many of the chiefs are buried with the hand projecting from the 
grave, as if still soliciting from their tombs. Disregard of truth is another 
national vice, veracity being little respected in this coimtry of theological quib- 
blings, where each interpretation is based on a sacred text. " Lying gives a salt to 
speech which the p\u-e truth never does," said an Abyssinian to d'Abbadie. 

Agriculture. 

Although the Abyssinians rank as a " civilised people," their agriculture is stUl 
in a very rudimentary state ; many of the ploughs have merely a stick or iron 
lance for the share, which tears up the soil without turning it over. Aiter the seed 
is sown, the land is never touched tiU harvest time, whilst certain useful plants are 
left to grow ■wild. Even the harvest is neglected, and the gums, j'ielded abun- 
dantly by the acacias on the Sahal and Samhar slopes of the Abyssinian chains, are 
gathered only in the immediate vicinity of the trade routes between Massawah and 
the plateaus. However, numerous varieties of vegetables are known to have been 
introduced into the country, notably the vine, at the period of its trade with 
Byzantium. During the present century Schimper has spread the culture of the 
potato, the German missionaries have brought over the red cabbage, and Munzinger 
has introduced several new plants into the country of the Bogos. Were the 
arable lands cultivated, like those of the more flourishing European colonies, the 
Abyssinian highlands might supply the markets of the world with coffee and 
quinine, and the valleys of the advanced spurs might rival the United States in 
the production of cotton. 

The Arts and Ixdustrtes. 

The industries, properly so called, are in the same state of neglect as agriculture, 
although the Abyssinians themselves are sufficiently intelligent and skilful to utilise 
their own raw materials instead of exporting them to foreign maniifacturers. 
Incessant wars compelling all the able population to bear arms, and the contempt 
for labour and workmen existing in all feudal and slave countries, have prevented 
the Abyssinians from developing their natural skill and taste for the industries. 
All the masonrj', carpentering, and upholstering, as well as the manufacture of 
tools, weapons, and instruments, are left to the Felasha Jews, who are rewarded for 
their services by being hated and persecuted as hudus — that is, were- wolves — or else 



RELIGION AXD EDUCATION. 155 

as sorcerers. A few families of Hindu extraction, and naturalised Armenians, 
ornament the shields, swords, and saddles ■with filigree work, make trinkets, and 
prepare the jewels, necklaces, and bracelets of the women ; whilst a few European 
workmen, residing at the court, also contribute somewhat to the industrial products 
of Abyssinia. The fine cotton tissues used for the sIkiduis and other articles of 
clothing are manufactured in the country, but the red and blue cotton fringes with 
■which the borders are ornamented are usually imported. Like the Mohammedan 
peoples of the surrounding districts, the Abyssinians are yery skilful in the prepa- 
ration of all kinds of leatherware, such as shields, saddles, and amulets. Most of 
the people are their own tailors, and bleach their own cloth by means of endot seeds, 
which answer the purpose of soap. It is a point of honour amongst them on feast- 
days to wear clothes of spotless whiteness. 

Art, in the strict sense of the term, is ■wrongly supposed to be unknown to the 
Abyssinians. Most European explorers speak in yery contemptuous terms of the 
work of the natiye painters, and certain barbarous frescoes are doubtless of a 
character to justify their sneers. Nevertheless, the Abyssinian school, sprung from 
the Byzantine ecclesiastical art, has produced several works which show at least 
imagination and vigour. In the ruins of the palace of Koskoam, near Gondar, 
remains of Portuguese frescoes and native paintings are still to be seen side by side, 
and here the foreign artists, with their insipid saints, scarcely compare favourably 
with the natives. Nor are there lacking in Abyssinia innovating artists who 
protest by theii- bold conceptions against the stagnation of the traditional rules. 
They even treat historic subjects, and produce battle-scenes, painting the Abyssinians 
in full face, and their enemies, such as Mohammedans, Jews, and de^"ils, in profile. 
They also display much skill and taste in bookbinding, copying and illuminating 
manuscripts. As to the asmari, or stroUiug minstrels, they live on the bounty of 
the nobles, whose mighty deeds it is their duty to sing. Hence their poetry is a 
mere mixture of flattery and mendacity, except when they are inspired by the love 
of war. Abyssinian bards recite before the warriors, inspiring their friends and 
insulting their adversaries, whilst female poets mingle with the soldiers, encouraging 
them by word and deed. 

E.ELIGIOX AXD Education. 

In spite of the encroachments of Mohammedanism, which besieges the Abyssinian 
plateaux like the waves of the sea beating against the foot of the rocks, the old 
religion of " Prester John " is still professed. Introduced in the fourth century, 
at the period when the political preponderance belonged to Constantinople, and 
communications were easily established between Aksum and " Eastern Rome " by 
way of the Red Sea, the Arabian peninsula, and Syria, the doctrine of the Abyssinian 
Christians is one of those which at one time contended for the supremacy among the 
Churches of Asia Minor. The Abyssinian Christians, like the Copts of Eg\-pt, jointly 
forming the so-called " Alexandrian Church," are connected with these primitive 
communities through the sects condemned by the council of Chalcedon in the middle 
of the fifth century. The Abyssinian " Monophysites," following the doctrines of 



156 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

Dioscorus and Eutyctiiis, differ from the Greek and Roman Catholics by recognis- 
ing one nature only in Jesus Christ, and in making the Holy Ghost proceed from 
God the Father alone. Christ, however, although he became man, is none the less 
considered as God, thanks to his double or triple birth, the manner and succession 
of which have given rise to so many endless disputes between theologians, and have 
even caused sanguinary wars. Gondar and Aksum have often had recourse to 
arms to settle the vexed question of the "double" or " trijile birth." Following 
the interpretations, the words, at one time taken in the proper sense, at another 
translated into a mystic language, completelj- change their value ; and European 
Catholic or Protestant missionaries have often been able to explain, to the applause 
of theii' hearers, that there was no essential difference between the Abyssinian faith 
and that which they wished to introduce. For the Roman Catholics especially the 
process is easy enough, for have they not, like the Abyssinians, the worship of 
Mary, the veneration of images, the intercession of the saints, fasts, purgatory, 
indidgences, and begging communities ? Received like a native, Bermudcz, the 
first Catholic missionary, who arrived in Abyssinia about 1525, caused himself to be 
consecrated by the Abyssinian jDrimate, and became for a time his successor. 

MeanwhUe the Mohammedan Gallas, led by Ahmed Graneh, that is, " the Left- 
handed," who possessed firearms, invaded Abj'ssinia, destroying its armies, sacking 
and burning its villages, and tlie empire would probablj' have been destroyed, had 
not 400 Portuguese, led by Christopher de Gama, son of the famous navigator, 
hastened to restore the balance of power. These events took place in 1541. The 
Gallas were beaten, but the Portuguese demanded as the price of their services a 
fief comprising a third part of the kingdom, and the conversion of all the Abys- 
sinians to the Catholic faith. Thus began the religious wars between the Alexan- 
drian and Roman sectaries. One of the first Jesuit missions was compelled to leave 
the countrj^ before securing the recognition of the Pope's authority ; but a second 
was more successful, and in 1624 the "king of kings" abjured the Monophj-site 
faith and issued an order for the universal adoption of Romanism. The Inquisition 
was introduced, and revolts, barbarously suppressed, stained the kingdom with blood. 
For eight years Abyssinia was officially a province of tlie Catholic world ; but after 
a terrible massacre of the jDcasauts, the Emperor Claudius, wearied of bloodshed, 
issued an edict of toleration, and all the Abyssinians soon returned to the old faith. 
The Catholic priests were exiled or died violent deaths, excepting the Patriarch, 
whom the Arabs captured, and for whom they obtained a heavy ransom from the 
Portuguese of Goa. 

During the present century the Catholic and Protestant missionaries have 
returned to Abyssinia, but being regarded with suspicion as strangers, have never 
been tolerated for any length of time. The Abyssinians are usually verj^ indifferent 
to religious matters, and would readily allow churches of divers denominations to 
be built by the side of their own, but they fear lest conversion might be the fore- 
runner of conquest. Prince Kassa, afterwards the famous King Theodore, is stated 
to have said, " The missionaries will be welcome in ra}' kingdom, on the condition 
that my subjects do not say, ' I am a Frenchman because I am a Catholic,' or ' I 



RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 157 

am an Englishman because I am a Protestant.' " Later on he even forbade 
foreigners to preach, tolerating them only as artisans. His o^\^l fate justified the 
sentiment he so often repeated — " First the missionaries, then the consuls, and then 
the soldiers ! " Abyssinian territory is now interdicted to priests of foreign 
religious, and Europeans, like Schimper, dwelling in the country, have been obliged 
to adopt the national religion. 

Till recently the Mussulman propagandists seem to have been more successful 
than the European missionaries. Nearly all the frontier peoples had embraced 
Islam, retaining but a vague recollection of their Christian faith, and even in the 
interior the Mussulmans threatened to acquire the ascendancy. According to some 
writers, they already formed a third of the nation, and in the towns they prevailed 
throiigh their numbers, influence, and wealth, whilst all the trade was in their hands. 
In virtue of the fundamental law of the coixntry, they failed to attain j)olitical 
power only because rulers must profess the Christian religion ; but in the middle of 
the century the master of the country, Has Ali, was seen to abjure Mohammedanism 
only with his lips, whilst distributing offices and the plunder of the churches to the 
disciples of Islam. The reaction against Mohammedanism was principally caused 
by the invasion of the Egyptian armies, when the hatred of foreign enemies 
reflected upon those of the interior. An order for a general conversion was issued, 
and all the Abyssinian Mussulmans were obliged apparently to conform to the 
established Church, and to wear, imder pain of exile, the match, or " sky-blue " cord, 
the Christian badge. The Mohammedans who remained faithful to their religion 
fled to the frontier states, especially to Galabat, on the route to Khartum. Abyssinia, 
the refuge of Mohammed's disciples in the fifth year of persecution, has not, there- 
fore, justified the praise the Prophet awarded it in calling it "a country of upright- 
ness, where no man falls a victim to injustice." 

The abulia, that is " our father," head of the Abyssinian clergj', is not an 
Abj'ssinian, for since the reign of Lalibala, some seven centuries ago, this prelate 
has always been a foreigner. It was doubtless feared that he would acquire too 
much power in the coimtry were he a native of royal descent ; hence a Coptic priest 
is sent them by the Patriarch of Alexandria in return for a considerable sum of 
money. Thus his precious life is most carefully guarded to save further expense to 
the State, and on the death of an abuna the pontifical chair has often remained 
empty for many years. The duties of this high priest consists in ordaining priests 
and deacons, in consecrating altars, and in excommxuiicating criminals and blasphe- 
mers. For these services he possesses an entire quarter of Gondar, and receives the 
revenues of numerous fiefs, besides perquisites, regulated by a strict tariff. 
Although highty venerated by the natives, his power is not equal to that of the 
negus; and Theodore, when excommunicated by the abuna, was seen to coolly 
draw a pistol and cover the prelate, demanding a blessing, which it is needless to 
add " the holy father " hastened to grant him. 

The abuna's power is held in check by the king's political spies, as well as by 
the echagheh, the national priest and a religious rival, his equal in dignity and 
power of excommimication, although he cannot confer orders ; ho also j)ossesses a 



158 NOETH-EAST APKICA. 

quarter of Gondar. The echagheh governs the numerous convents of Abyssinia, and 
rules over the numerous (lnhtard, or " literati," who form the best instructed and 
most influential class of the countrj'. They are laymen, but they usually possess 
more authority in the Church than the priest himself. The dabtara enjoys the 
usufruct of the ecclesiastical fiefs ; he hires by the month, pa^-s, reprimands, or 
dismisses the priest who celebrates mass, and often occupies the post of parish 
priest, which is quite a temporal office in Abyssinia. He composes the new hymns 
for each feast, and often introduces sarcastic remarks levelled against the bishops, 
and occasionally even warnings against the king. 

Exceptmg the high dignitaries, the Abyssinian priests are not bound to celibacy, 
but are forbidden to make a second marriage. There are also numerous religious 
orders, comprising about 12,000 monks, without counting the nuns, who are mostly 
aged women driven by domestic troubles to retire from the world. Deposed princes, 
disgraced oiRcials, and penniless soldiers also seek a home in the monasteries. A 
large part of the land belongs to the priests and monks, and would lie fallow were 
not the peasantry compelled to cultivate it. 

The churches and convents are the schools of the country, and with the excep- 
tion of those chosen from the dabtara class, all the teachers are priests or monks. 
They teach choral singing, grammar, poetry, and the recitation of the texts of their 
sacred books and commentaries, the classic lore of the Abyssinians being limited to 
these subjects. But although restricted, education is at least gratuitous, the 
teacher's duty being to give voluntarily to others the instruction imparted to him 
in the same way. It is also the duty of the ecclesiastics to give food and shelter to 
whomsoever asks it. Convents and even the ecclesiastical domains were formerly 
inviolable places of refuge ; but degrees of sanctity have been gradually established 
in these refuges, and at present there are very few from which the sovereign can- 
not tear his victim and deliver him up to the executioner. Many convents which 
formerly attracted crowds of pilgrims are now no longer visited. A few, however> 
are still visited for the combined purpose of worship and trade, every place of 
pilgrimage being at the same time a " camp-meeting." 

The Abyssinian theologians, more versed in the Old Testament than the New, 
are fond of justifying their surviving barbarous customs by the examples supplied 
by the lives of their pretended ancestors, David and Solomon. The bulk of the 
faithful, although far from zealous, and extremely ignorant of their tenets, rigidly 
observe the outward forms of their religion. They submit to the penances imposed 
by their confessors, purchase pardon for their sins by almsgi'S'ing to the Church, 
and observe the long fasts ordered them, unless indeed they can afford to pay for a 
substitute. They have two Lents, the most rigorous lasting forty-five days, besides 
two days of the week being set apart for the ordinary abstinence. As in Russia 
and Rumania, more than half of the year consists of days of feasts or fasts, apart 
from those set aside for the celebration of births, deaths, and marriages. 

Every man has a baptismal and ordinary name, the former taken from their 
national saints, the latter comjiosed of the first words spoken by his mother after 
his birth. The chiefs have a third name, consisting of their war-cry. Religious 



GOVERN}*IEXT. . 159 

marriage rites, which are also celebrated by communion and regarded as indissoluble, 
are of rare occurrence, not one in a hundred unions being solemnised by a priest. 
Legally the husband or wife can only be divorced three times, but in reality they 
dissolve the marriage as often as they please, and in this case the father takes the 
sons, the daughters remaining with the mother. In the case of a single child, if 
under seven he goes to the mother, but if older to the father. Of all their reKgious 
practices the most important are the funeral rites. The most upright man would 
be thougbt unworthy to enter heaven did his relations not pay for masses to be said 
for his soul and for a splendid funeral banquet. The poor people pinch themselves 
during lifetime to save enough to acquit tbis sacred duty of the "teskar." As in 
Christian Europe, the enclosures surrounding the churches are used as cemeteries ; 
and the conifer trees, such, as the cedar, yew, and juniper, planted on the graves of 
the Abyssinians, are said to be also considered in the East as sepulchral trees. 

Go\'i:rxmext. 

The royal power is by right absolute, although in practice restrained by force 
of custom, and especially by the powers of a thousand restless vassals and feudal 
communities of landed proprietors armed with shields and javelins, whom the 
least change in the political equilibrium might league against the king. Until 
the plateaux are connected one with the other by easj- routes over the moimtains 
and through the gorges, the country will not obtain the cohesion that it lacks, and 
Abyssinia will be condemned to the feudal system. Each isolated mass covered 
with villages or hamlets, but cut off by deep ravines, constitutes a natural fief, held 
in awe by an amba, or "mountain fort," denoting the dwelling of the master. 
From this eyrie he overlooks the surrounding lands, calculating what retui-n the 
crops of the fields below will j'ield him, and watching for travellers, on whom he 
levies black-mail. However, the sovereign endeavours to grant these great military 
or ecclesiastical fiefs only to members of his family or to devoted servants. Besides, 
he surroim^ds himself with a permanent armv of wofioader or mercenaries, now 
armed with modem rifles, and " accustomed to stand fire," like the Egj-ptiau 
soldiers, which enables him to dispense with the support of the restless feudatories 
or the free landholders. He also endeavours to keep at his court the vassals he 
most mistrusts. However, the modern history of Abyssinia shows with what 
rapidity the power shifts from suzerain to vassal. Although these )>egus-»egest, that 
is, " kings of kings," these sovereigns of Israel, all endeavour to prove their descent 
from Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, n^other of ^lenelik, first king of Ethiopia, 
and bear on their standards "the Lion of the tribe of Judah," they have not 
sufficient time to impress their subjects with awe. In reality, the king of 
Abyssinia is master only of the ground on which his army is encamped, and of the 
more exposed towns, where his mounted troops can show themselves at the slightest 
alarm. Such is the reason why the present sovereign, like his predecessor 
Theodore, has no other capital than his camp, where the first stroke of the war- 
drum sufiices to put the whole army on the march. 



160 NORTH-EAST APEICA. 

Administration of Justice. 

As the Abj'ssinian sovereigns are theoreticallj^ autocrats, so the governors of 
provinces, landholders, and the shum or " chiefs " of each village, have also the 
right to do as they please, being responsible only to their superiors. Nevertheless 
there is a code of laws, the " King's Guide," attributed to Constantino, and which 
certainly dates from the period when Byzantine influence preponderated in the 
Eastern world. According to this code, which contains many ordinances of the 
Pentateuch and extracts from the laws of Justinian, the father has the right of life 
or death over his children, as the king has over his subjects. The rebeUion of the 
son against the father, or of the vassal against his lord, is punished by blinding or 
death ; the blasphemer or liar, taking the name of God or of the king in vain, is 
punished with the loss of his tongue ; the thief loses his right hand ; the assassin 
is delivered up to the family of the murdered man and killed in the same way as 
be disposed of his victim, but if the crime was involuntary, blood-money must be 
accepted. The amputated limbs of prisoners are always baked imder their eyes 
and returned to them steeped in butter, so that they can preserve them to be buried 
with the rest of the body, and thus rise unmutilated on the last day. Smoking is 
forbidden, " because tobacco originated in the tomb of Arius," and fanatic chiefs 
have caused the lips of transgressors to be cut off. Chiefs rarely condemn anyone 
to prison, which consists of a chain with a strong ring at each end, one being fixed 
to the prisoner's right wrist, the other to the left hand of his gaoler, who thus 
becomes a captive himself ; accordingly he strives promptly to get rid of his 
unwelcome companion either by a compromise or by an absolute judgment. When 
one Abyssinian wishes to complain of another, he attaches his toga to that of his 
adversary, who cannot get released without pleading guilty. He must follow his 
accuser before the judge, and, both uncovering the back and shoulders so as to 
await the blows which will fall upon one or the other, beg for the magistrate's 
decision. Each conducts his own defence, as it is thought disgraceful to emploj' a 
third person to plead, the title of lawyer being considered an insult. The 
Abyssinians often aj^peal to a child to judge between them : being himself innocent, 
the child is held as the best judge of good and e^•il. After having gravely listened 
to the suitors and the witnesses, he pronounces sentence, which aU receive with 
the greatest deference, and which is occasionally accepted as a definite judgment 
between the parties. 

Slavery. 

Slavery still exists in Abyssinia, but it affects the blacks alone, who constitute 
but a small portion of the popidation. The master has not the right of life and 
death over his slave, and woidd even be liable to capital punishment by selling him. 
After some j'ears' service the slave usually recei^^es his liberty, together with 
sufficient implements and money necessary for his support. On becoming a freed- 
man he increases the importance of his former master. Before their enforced 
conversion all the tiaffic in human flesh was carried on by the Mussulmans. Like 



TOPOGE.VPHT— GOXDAE. 161 

the Aniericau abolitionists, but for au eiitirelj' dift'erent purpose, they had 
established a " subteri-anean route," that is to say, a series of secret depots under- 
ground or in the woods, stretching between Gondar and Metamneh. The convoys 
of slaves were carefvdlj- imprisoned all day in these depots, passing from one to the 
other only under cover of night. 

Topography. 

The natural centre of Abyssinia, which has also at various epochs been the seat 
of empire, is the fertile basin whose central depression contains the waters of Lake 
Tana. The mean height of this favoured region exceeds 6,600 feet ; it forms the 
voina-dega zone, which corresponds to the temperate zone of Europe, although 
eujo}-tng a more equable cHmate and a richer vegetation. Thanks to these happy 
conditions, the land yields the most abundant and varied crops in Abyssinia, and 
here have been built the most populous towns, which in this feudal region are 
elsewhere estremelv rare. Another great advantage of this district is its relative 
facility of access. From Khartiim to Lake Tana the direct route rises gradually, 
crossing only one steep ridge, that of Wali-dabba, north-west of the great lake ; 
but it would be difficult to foUow the route made through the gorges of the Blue 
yUe, an immense semicircle described bv the river beyond Abyssinia into the 
country of the Ilm-Ormas and Bertas. 

G0XD.\E. 

One of the cities of the central Abyssinian basin is Gondar, or rather Gireiuhr, 
usually designated as the capital, although it is merely the chief religious centre. 
Gondar is not of ancient origin, dating onlv from the beginning of the seventeenth 
centTiry, although it has already more ruined buildings than houses in good 
condition. Most of the churches were destroyed by Theodore in a fit of rage, and 
on the rounded hUl overlooking the town from the north are the remains of a 
gimp, or " stronghold," which, ia spite of its dilapidated condition, is still the finest 
building in Abyssinia. Its reddish sandstone walls with basalt parapets, round 
towers, square keep, and lofty gateways in the Portuguese style, give it an impos- 
ing appearance ; but it is being gradually overgrown by trees and shrubs, while 
entire portions have been svstematicallv demolished. " Since we must no longer 
build moniunents," said a queen in the middle of this century, " why should we 
allow those of others to exist ? " Seen from afar at the foot of its picturesque 
ruins, commanded by churches, and dotted with clumps of trees, Gondar presents 
the appearance of a picturesque European town, with its amphitheatre of hills, its 
silvery ri^-ulets winding through the prairies of the Dembea, and the glittering 
surface of the neighbouring lake. 

Gondar is situated at a height variously estimated at from 6,300 to 6,800 feet, 
on the southern and western sides of a gently sloping hill. Its houses are built, 
not in groups so as to form a town properly so-called, but in separate quarters, 
between which intervene heaps of rubbish and waste spaces, where leopards and 

VOL. X. M 



162 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



panthers occasionall_v venture at night-time. Although it could easily accommodate 
some 10,000 families, its present population is estimated at only from 4,000 to 
7,000 Christians and Jews, each occupying a special quarter. The houses of the 
rich citizens are mostly one-storied round towers, with conic roofs thatched with 
reeds ; the domestic animals occupy the ground-floor, which also serves as a store 
for utensils and provisions. Being an ecclesiastical centre, Gondar has no foreign 



Fig. 49.— Gondar. 
Scale 1 : 65,000. 




r. - of ureenwich 5/'°5l 



C Perron 



2,200 Yards. 



trade beyond what is required for the local wants. Most of the mechanics, smiths, 
masons, and carpenters are Kamants and Jews. For five months in the year 
Gondar would be completely cut off from the southern provinces, but for the bridge 
built by the Portuguese over the Magech, the chief river of the plain of Dembea, 
which has hitherto resisted all the inundations. South of Gondar are the villages 
of Fenj'a and Jenda, which lie in a well-cultivated district. 



CHELGA— AMBA-MAEL\M— IFAG— DEBEA-TABOR. 163 

Chelga — Amha-Maktam— Ifag. 

Towards the north-western angle of the Dembea jDlain are the scattered hamlets 
forming the town of Chelga, which, though less famous than Gondar, is of more 
commercial importance. Lyiug near the water-parting between the Blue Nile and 
the Atbara, it is frequented by the Abyssinian merchants and the traders from 
Gulahat and Galavcf, who reach it from Wolini, the first station on the Abyssinian 
frontier. In the ujiper valley of the Goang, which flows to the Atbara, are beds 
of excellent coal, disposed in layers some two to three feet thick, and very easy to 
work. From the plateau which rises west of the town to a height of over 8,800 
feet, a view is commanded of the vast circle of hills and valleys enclosing Lake 
Tana, the Tsaua of the Tigre. At the foot of the basalt crag of Gorgora, rising 
near the north-western shore of the lake, stands the large village of Changar, 
which possesses a port serving as the outlet for Gondar, Chelga, and other towns of 
the province. 

The only communication between the plaia of Dembea and the riverain districts 
east of the lake is by a defile, in which stands the custom-house of Ferka-her, much 
dreaded by travellers. Beyond this post the towns and villages belonging to this 
lacustriae region are built away from the banks at a considerable height above the 
bed of the streams. Amha-Mariam, or the " Fort of Mary," with its famous 
church, stands on a level and treeless table-land, at whose base the villages of the 
district of Etnfms nestle amongst the tufted vegetation. Ifag, or Eifag, forms a 
group of villages encii'cling the foot of a barren volcanic rock some 1,600 feet 
high, which commands from the north the abrupt plateau of Beghemeder. 
Situated at the northern extremity of a fertile plain watered by the copious rivers 
Reb and Gumara, and commanding the narrow passages which wind round the 
base of the mountains at the north-eastern angle of the lake, Ifag is an important 
commercial emporium with a central custoui-house. The caravans stop and reform 
at the town of Darita, farther east. The plains of Fogara, stretching southwards, 
are said to produce the finest tobacco in Abyssinia, while also yielding rich 
pasturages for the numerous herds. Like Koarafa, farther south, Ifag was 
formerly celebrated throughout Abyssinia for the excellence of its wine, obtained 
from plants introduced by the Portuguese ; but the vines, which generally grew to 
a gigantic size, nearly all perished in 1855 of o'idium, at the same time that the 
European vineyards were wasted by this destructive fungus. 

Debka-Tabor. 

South of the plains of Fogara stretches a ridge running east and west, and over- 
looked from the east by the cloud-caj)ped cone of Mount Guna. This broad ridge, 
covered with a thick la3'er of black earth and furrowed by the rivulets flowing 
from the marshy sides of Guna, is the plateau of Debra-Tabor, or " Mount Tabor," 
so-called from a church formerly a place of pilgrimage, but which, since the time 
of Theodore, has become the chief residence of the Abyssinian kings. From a 

M 2 



164 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



strategical point of view the position has been admirably chosen. To the west 
stretch the riverain plains of Lake Tana, the most fertile in the kingdom. From 
the summit, exceeding 8,600 feet, on which his palace is perched, the sovereign 
overlooks the lands which furnish his army with supplies. From this point he 
can easily reach the Upper Takkazeh valley towards the east, or the vaUey of the 
Abai and the routes of Shoa to the south. The capital of a country engaged in 
perpetual warfare could not be more fortunately situated. But the royal camping- 
ground has often been shifted on the plateau of Debra-Tabor. 

The village of Debra-Tabor, where the " king of kings" often resides during 
the rainy season, bears the name of Samara ; some miles to the north-west is the 
village of Gafat, formerly inhabited by blacksmiths who were reputed sorcerers. 
Theodore had assigned it as a residence for a numerous colony of Protestant 



Fig. 50. — Debra-Taeor. 
Scale 1 : 350,000. 



12' 



II r 

55 



■ ^^00' 








TEBRA TABOR] _ -~^\ V 



.^'^ f .f. ^-^ f- "- t^f 



38° 



L ^ oT breenvvich 



38°I0' 



C Perron 



6 Miles. 



missionaries, employed, not for the evangelisation of the inhabitants, but for the 
manufacture of harness, weapons, and materials for war. Gafat was at that time 
the arsenal of Abyssinia. 

The watercourses of Debra-Tabor flow to Lake Tana through the Eeb, which 
latter river, not far from Gafat, forms a superb cascade nearly 70 feet high. West 
of Debra-Tabor, on a lowland promontory of the plateau, are the ruins of the Castle 
of Arengo, the " Versailles of the Negus," built beneath some large trees, on the 
edge of a precipice over which falls a cascade, its waters disappearing in the ^'irgin 
forest below. Thermal springs from 100° to 107° F. abound in this region. 
The most frequented are those of Wanziglieh in the valley of southern Gumara. 
The neighbouring village is the only place in Abyssinia where vines have been 
introduced. 

MaHDERA-MaRI-VM — KOARATA. 

The basin of the Gumara, like that of the Reb, has also a town famous in the 
local records. Mahdera-Mariam, or " Mary's Rest," stands between two affluents 



MAHDERA-ilAELlM— KOAEATA. 



165 



of the Gumara on an enormous basalt rock, " grouping its garden -encircled houses 
around the clumps of junipers which mark the sites of churches." The town is 
surrounded on three sides by chasms, but connected with the neighbouring plateau 
on the fourth by a narrow isthmus which might be easily fortified. Mahdera- 
Mariam is no longer a royal residence, but its two churches — those of the " Mother " 
and the " Son " — are still much frequented by pilgrims, and nimierous merchants 
visit its fair. Two distinct quarters were till recently occupied by Mussulmans, 



Fig. 51. MAHUERA-i[.\RLVM. 

Scale 1 : 20,000. 











' ' '-'.- ''i 












w^ 



-y^*_ 



1;° 

'48 
501 



55°00 50- 



C Fe''»^on 



. 550 Yards. 



who differ from the other Abyssinians merely by their peacefid and business-like 
habits. The hot springs of Mahdera-Mariam are retailed by the priests, who also 
practise the medical art. 

The most important commercial town on the eastern bank of Lake Tana is 
Koarata, situated about six miles north-east of the spot where the Abai emerges 
from the lacustrine basin, and near the mouths of the Gumara and Eeb. TTere 
Abyssinia well provided with routes, this town would form the converging point 
for the routes of many river valleys. A rounded basalt hill stands in the middle 
of the plain, its western spur projecting into the lake. The town covers a con- 



166 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



siderable extent ; the dwellings of the better classes are surroujided by large 
gardens ; the streets form shady avenues, whence are perceived the conic roofs of 
the houses amidst the dense foliage of cedars, sycamores, and fruit trees. Koarata, 
" the pleasantest town in Abyssinia," was till recently the most populous. At the 
time of D'Abbadie's visit it numbered some 12,000 inhabitants, which in 1864 
were reduced to 2,000 according to Raffray, and from 800 to 1,000 according to 
Stecker, whilst in 1881 all the jSIussulmans were forcibly exiled. Nevertheless it 
is still the centre of a brisk trade, and the numerous fankuan hauled up on the 
beach attest a considerable movement between Koarata and the towns dotted round 



Fig. 52. — Koarata and Southern' Shore of Lake Tana. 
Scale 1 : 600,000. 




37°i5- 



E ■ of Ureenv- 



■toA:^...,HH^fei#-.^^fe:h < .' ;■' 



37°4t 



C Parnjn 



12 MUes. 



the lake. Koarata owes its importance as a commercial depot to a venerable 
church, which was formerly a place of sanctuary respected even by the sovereign. 
On the roads leading towards the sacred hill, large trees designate the boundaries 
of safety, into which the bishop and the emperor are the only persons who dare 
venture on horseback. In the vicinity of Koarata are the red sandstone quarries 
which supply the stone used for the palaces and churches of Gondar. The coffee 
of this town is exquisite, far superior to that of the hilly Zighch peninsula, which 
is visible on the other side of the lake about 6 miles to the south-west, and which 
is one vast plantation. The town of Zighch was destroyed by Theodore. 



DEBRA-MAELAJM— ISMALA— MOTA— DIMA— BISHAEA. 167 

DeBRA-MaRIAM — IsMALA. 

At the point where the lake narrows to escape through the rapid current of the 
Abai, two towns face each other — JDebra-Mariam, or " Mountain of Mary," on the 
east, Bahrdar to the west. Several villages, neater and more cleanly than those of 
the interior, follow in succession along the southern shore of the lake. The islet 
of Dek, some 16 square miles in extent, forms a low volcanic rock covered with 
tufted vegetation, and skirted by conic hills. Here the priests of Koarata have 
deposited their treasures ; hence few explorers have received permission to visit 
this island, whilst that of Dcga, consecrated to St. Stephen, is holy soil, forbidden 
to all profane visitors. Mafraha, another holy island in Lake Tana, lies close to the 
north-eastern shore, and viewed from between branches of trees covered with the 
swinging nests of the weaver-bird, presents a most charming appearance. But the 
holiness of this island did not prevent Theodore from shutting up all its inhabi- 
tants in a monastery, which he then set on fire. To the south-east of Lake Tana, on 
one of its affluents, Ismala, the capital of Absha/er, is very much frequented for its 
hot springs and mineral waters. 



MOTA — DiMA BlSIIARA. 

Beyond the basin of Lake Tana the Abyssinian towns belonging to the watershed 
of the Abai or Blue Nile are mostly situated on the plateau or on the broad grassy 
terraces of the extensive plaias bordering the right bank of the river, and afford- 
ing pasturage for herds of large cattle and horses. Mota, one of the most important 
markets in the " kingdom " of Gojam, is situated on an elevation at the extremity 
of the plateaux which bound the northern base of the Talba Waha Mountains ; its 
regularly built houses are, like those of Mahdera-Mariam, surrounded by leafy trees, 
while a large park with long s}Tnmetrical avenues encircles the church. Below the 
terraces of Mota are the ruins of a bridge, which spanned the Abai River with nine 
arches, of which the central arch, some 66 feet broad, has been broken ; but the 
merchants have stretched a rope over the gap and manage to pass themselves and 
their commodities over this frail temporary substitute. Farther south, the village 
of Karaneo and a few neighbouring hamlets are peopled with Francis, or Francs, 
that is to say, the descendants of the Portuguese soldiers who arrived in the six- 
teenth century with Christopher de Gama. Martola-JIan'am, one of the local 
churches, the sculptures of whose interior are said by Beke to be of exquisite work- 
manship, is undoubtedly of Portuguese construction, although the people invest it 
with much greater antiquity. 

Facing the eastern curve of the Abai follow in succession the two religious 
towns of Debra- Werk and Bima, celebrated the former for its seminary, and the 
latter for the curious paintings in its church of St. George. Debra- Werk, buUt in 
amphitheatral form on the side of a hill, possesses the highest and best-built 
houses of any other Abyssinian towns. Bishara, some miles south of Dima, is a 






168 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

market-town greatly frequented by the Gallas. The surrounding district is the 
richest and best cultivated in Gojam, whilst its mixed Abj-ssinian and Galla 
population presents the most remarkable types of female beauty. 

ASHFA — GUDARA — BaSSO. 

South of Mount Naba, highest peak of the Talba "Waha Mountains, Br/mbads/ia 
is much frequented by i\Iohamraedan caravans, and possesses a sanctuary like that 
of Dima. Close by to the south-east stands Monhorcr, the fortified residence of the 
King of Gojam, whilst farther to the north-west are the towns of Manhusa, Biiri, 
and Giidara, the last mentioned standing on a volcanic crag near an intermittent 
lake and the sources of the Abai. Anhfa, situated west of Gudara, in the midst of 
picturesque valleys, groves, and pasture lands, is the capital of the province of 
Agaumeder, which is peopled with Agau emigrants from Lasta. These populations, 
still half pagans although each village has its church, are the bravest, and the only 
Abyssinians who succeeded in evading the razzias ordered by the ruthless Theodore ; 
in no other region of Abyssinia are the people more distinguished for courage and 
honesty. South of Gojam, in tl^e vicinity of the Liben Gallas, are situated in two 
tributary valleys of the Aba'i, close to its southern bend, the two neighbouring com- 
mercial towTis of Yejibbeh and Basso, where Abyssinians and Ilm Ormas assemble 
to barter the products of their respective lands. The merchants of Damot and 
Kaffa bring a little gold-dust to Basso ; hence the country where this precious metal 
is foimd is looked upon as a land of marvels by its covetous neighbours. Arch- 
bishop Bermudez, formerly the Catholic Abuna of Abyssinia, tells us that the 
El Dorado of Damot is also in the popular estimation a land of unicorns and griffins, 
where amazons contend with fabulous monsters, and the phoenix springs again from 
its ashes. At the end of 1883, a bridge was constructed by an Italian engineer 
over the Abai, between Gojam and Gudru. 

Magdala. 

East of the Abai', on a promontor}' above the upper valley of the Beshilo, stands 
the famous fortress of Magdala, which was, like Debra-Tabor, one of Theodore's 
residences, where he preferred death at his own hands whilst still free, and defj'ing 
his English assailants. The amba of Magdala, rising to a height of 9,100 feet, or 
3,300 feet above the Beshilo, resembles the rock of Mahdcra-Mariam, although 
higher, more difficidt of access, and of a more imposing aspect. Apparently insur- 
mountable, the basalt cliff terminates westwards in an almost vertical crescent-shaped 
wall sloping north-westwards, where it culminates in an isolated peak. The 
portion of the plateau on which the fortress is built is connected with the southern 
part, which is occupied by the Gallas of the WoUo tribe, merely by a narrow path, 
all the other approaches to Magdala being blocked by fortifications. The upper 
platform, some two square miles in extent, bears the arsenals, barracks, prisons, 
magazines for corn and other provisions, and blockhouses for the king's women 






DOBAEIK— L.\LIBALA. 



169 



aucl cliiiclreu ; cisterns and wells sunk in the soil sujjjily it with water, whilst the 
fertile neighbouring valleys furnish provisions in abundance. It was at Magdala 
that Theodore kept for two years the English prisoners, for whose rescue an Anglo- 
Indian Army was dispatched in 1868. The fortress of Magdala, destroyed by the 
English, and afterwards conquered by the King of Shoa from an independent chief, 
and ceded by him to his sovereign, the King of Abyssinia, has since been restored, 
on account of its great strategic importance. It forms an advanced outpost in the 
Galla country, which is traversed by the shortest route to the kingdom of Shoa. 
At the eastern base of the rocks of Magdala, in a gorge commanded eastwards by 

Fig. 63. — Magdala. 

Scale 1 ; 300,000. 








/. 



39°I5 



E . of br 



59°2S 



C. Perron 



other basalt promontories, stands the village of Tunta, or Tenia, peopled by 
merchants who supply the citadel with provisions. 



DoB.illlK — Lai.ibala. 

The Abyssinian towns standing on plateaux intersected by the gorges of the 
Takkazeh and its affluents are, like those of the banks of the Blue Nile, mostly of 
military or religious origin. Besides, they are few and far between, and some of 
them, after enjoying a long period of prosperitj-, have been abandoned and now 
contain more ruins than inhabited houses. The least populous region of this slope 
is that whose waters flow eastwards into the Takkazeh between the Beghemeder 
and Simen uplands. This province of Belessa has been traversed by few explorers 
on account of the lack of resources and the imhealthiness of the kwalla, which 
must be crossed amid the various sections of the plateau. But in Simen the chief 
towns of this mountainous province, Inshatkah the capital, Fara-s-Saber and Dobarih\ 
near the Lamabnon Pass, have been frequently visited, thanks to their situation on 



170 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

the route between Gondar and Massawah bj' way of Tigre. Dobarik is the place 
where Theodore caused two thousand persons to be massacred in cold blood in revenge 
for the death of his two English favourites, Bell and Plowden. North of Simen are 
scattered the ^nllages of the province of Waldebba, one of the " holy lands " of 
Abyssinia, the personal propertj' of the echaghe, and mainly peopled by monks. 

Lalihala, east of and not far from the sources of the Takkazeh, is another 
sacred region. This town stands on a basalt upland terrace, forming a spur of 
Mount Asheten, whose wooded slopes rise to the south-west. Seven irregularities 
in the soil serve as a pretext for its priests to boast that, like Rome and Byzan- 
tium, their city is built on seven hills ; like Jerusalem, it has its Mount of Olives, 
on which stand trees with huge trunks, brought from the Holy Land many 
centuries ago. The town and the churches are surrounded with trees which, 
together with the perpetual spring of this temperate region, combine to make this 
place a charming and salubrious residence. Still Lalibala is very sparsely popu- 
lated ; its old buildings are crumbling away amidst the rocks, while its under- 
ground galleries have no longer any outlets. The inhabitants consist almost 
exclusively of priests, monks, and their attendants. The churches of Lalibala are 
the most remarkable in Abyssinia, each being hewn out of a block of basalt, with 
altars, sculptures, and columns complete. Unfortunately the rock has been 
weathered in many places, and of the monolith peristyle of one of the finest 
churches nothing survives but four columns. The buildings of Lalibala evidently 
belong to various periods, but it seems certain that most of these monuments must 
be attributed to the king whose name is preserved by the city, the Abyssinian 
"St. Louis," who reigned at the beginning of the thirteenth century. The work- 
men who carved out these curious subterranean churches are traditionally stated 
to have been Christian refugees from Egypt. 

KOBBO — GUEA SOKOTA. 

East of Lalibala, the depressions of numerous passes, running over the Abyssi- 
nian border-chain into the Angot and Zebul countries, contain the waters of the 
picturesque lakes Ardibbo, Haib, and Ashango. In this region of alternate forests 
and pasture-lands are several large villages wherein the sovereigns of Abyssinia 
have often resided. A convent, formerly one of the richest in Abyssinia, stands 
on the woody " Island of Thunder " in Lake Hai'k. On the bank of this lake is 
the \'illage of Dehm-^Taruim, chiefly occupied by the priests' wives, who are not 
allowed to visit their husbands in the monastery. The waters of the lake were 
inhabited by a solitary hippopotamus at the time of Lefebvre's visit, respected by 
the natives and dreaded by navigators. Lower down, on the eastern slope of the 
Red Sea, stand the large markets of Kobho, G/ira, and Wahlia, frequented alike by 
Abyssiniaus and Gallas, and described by Lefebvre as veritable towns. 

Sokofri, capital of the province of Wag, stands at a height of 7,500 feet, north 
of the Lasta Mountains, on both banks of the River Bilbis, which flows to the 
Takkazeh through the Tsellari. Sokota is a commercial town, as till recentlv 



ADUA. 171 

attested bj' its Mohammedan settlers. The Agau, who form the basis of the local 
population, are not sufficiently energetic to trade or work the coalfields in the 
neighbourhood. The market of Sokota, which lasts three days everj^ week, is 
mostly visited b}^ the merchants and dealers in salt which serves as the chief small 
currency of southern Abyssinia, whereas in northern Tigre bales of cloth are 
emploj-ed. The amoleh, or salt money, shaped like French whetstones, is procured 
from the salt lake Alalbed. The mean weight of each block is a pound and a 
quarter, and it naturally iacreases in value as it penetrates farther into the 
interior. Whilst the Danakil quarries of the Taltal tribe supply over a himdred 
of these amoleh for a Maria-Theresa talari, they are occasionally sold on the 
western banks of Lake Tana at tenpence a-piece. When Sarzec and Raffray 
crossed this country in 1873, they were worth at Sokota about threepence half- 
pennj' ; but eight j^ears afterwards, at the time of Rohlf s' visit, their value had 
diminished by three-fourths. When the means of communication shall have 
become more easy, they will entirely lose their conventional value in the barter 
trade, and will be exclusively used as a condiment. The Abyssinian proverb, " He 
eats salt," applied to prodigals and spendthrifts, will then have lost its point. 
The packers are very careful to protect the salt bricks from moisture ; they lay 
them in parallel rows on copper plates, made like cartridge boxes, which are 
placed ia layers on the back of a mule and covered with an awning. 

Sokota has recently been greatly impoverished ; devastated by epidemic fevers, 
it has lost three-fourths of its popiilation, which from 4,000 to 5,000 in 1868 had 
fallen to not more than 1,500 at the time of Rohlfs' visit in 1881. In the vicinity 
of Sokota a monolithic church, like those of Lasta, has been hewn in the granite ; 
its crypt contains the mummies of several kings of the country. The roads are 
bordered with dolmens similar to those of Brittany. One of the neighbouring 
Agau tribes bears the name of Kam, or Ham, after whom D'Abbadie applies this 
term to the whole group of "Hamitic " languages, of which the Ham, or Hamtenga, 
is regarded as typical. 

Adia. 

From Sokota to the country of the Bogos another caravan route, passing about 
60 miles to the west of the Abyssinian border-range, traverses Abhi-Addi, capital 
of the province of Tembien, on the route to Adua, present capital of the Tigre, and 
next to Gondar and Basso, the largest market in all Abyssinia. This town stands 
nearly in the middle of the region of plateaux separating the two large curves 
described by the Takkazeh and the Upper Mareb. The River Assam, a tributary 
of the Takkazeh, winding through the naked but fertile plain of Adua, flows 
southwards, whilst to the north of the hill on whose side the town is built (6,500 
feet), stands the isolated and precipitous Mount Shelota, or Sholoda, 9,000 feet 
high. Eastwards, overtopping the other summits, stands the lofty Semayata, 
10,300 feet high. Adua, with its steep winding streets lined with small stone 
houses thatched with straw and encircled by slate terraces, scarcely presents the 



172 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



appearance of a capital. Small churches surrounded by thickets stand here and 
there, and on the top of a hill a cathedral, a huge building with a conic roof like 
most of the civil residences, has been recently built by an Italian architect. In 
the gardens flourish numerous exotic plants imported from Egypt and Syria. 
Not far from Adua are the ruins of Fremona, the seminary of the Jesuits driven 
out of Abyssinia in the seventeenth century. These ruins are avoided by the 
peasantry, who believe them to be the abode of evil spirits. Xear the town Prince 
Kassai gained the decisive battle which made him the present Emperor of 
Abyssinia. 

Aksum. 

Adua is heir to a city which was the seat of an Abyssinian empire at one 
time stretching from the banks of the Nile to Cape Guardafui. Aksum, although 



Fig. 54. — Adla and Aksim. 
Scale 1 : 270,000. 







58°45- 



IT . of L:'reenwich 



58° 55 



C Pe'ron 



. 6 Miles. 



fallen from its former state, is still regai-ded as holy ; it is the citj- where the 
coronation of the emperor takes place, and fugitives here find a sanctuary more 
respected than most of the convents. Its monasteries are inhabited by eight hun- 
dred priests, and by hundreds of youths who are being educated for the same 
profession. Aksum, the Aksemeh of the Abyssinians, lies some 12 miles from 
Adua on a romantic site 1,000 feet more elevated above the sea. Here its groups 
of houses and churches, each surrounded by groves and gardens which clothe the 
slope of the hill with verdure, are enframed on one side by dark basalt walls, 
forming a striking background to this charming picture. According to tradition, 
Aksum was founded by Abraham ; a dignitary of the church, hardly inferior in rank 
to the cchaghe or to the abuna, here claims to be the guardian of the " tables of 






LIBRARY 

ILLINOIS. 



AKSrM. 



173 



the law," aud of the holy ark of the Jews brought back from Jerusalem by 
Menelik, son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. But Aksum possesses some 
genuine antiquities, which the inhabitants watch over with jealous care. A 
column bears a Greek inscription, now almost illegible, which commemorates the 
■\-ictims of a certain King Aeizanas, " son of the iuvincible Ai-es." Is this 
Ae'izanas identical with La San, the Christian king who lived in the middle of the 
foui-tb century of the vulgar era, or did he belong to the earlier pagan dj-nasty, as 
might be supposed from his claim to the title of the son of Mars ? Howsoever this 



Fig. 55. — Akscm. 
Scale 1 : 30,000. 



^.'^oAat^''>':>''%, 



¥?ii \ 




1 . of Green.-, c^ 



ia°~b 



C Per.-uO 



l.inn Tards 



be, this precious inscription, reproduced for the first time by the explorer Salt, is a 
proof of the ancient relations existing between Abyssinia and the Greek world. 
Another column, discovered by Ferret and Galinier, is engraven with Himyaritic 
characters, also nearly effaced by time. According to D'Abbadie's reading it per- 
petuates the memory of the valiant " Halen, king of Aksxmi and of Hamer," that 
is to say, of the country of the ffimyarites. South-western Arabia and Ethiopia 
formerly constituted one empire. On the plateau of Aksum, near an enormous 
sycamore whose trimk is 50 feet in circumference, stands another curious monmuent, 
which has been appealed to in proof of an ancient Egyptian culture in Abyssinia. 



174 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

It is a monolithic obelisk some 83 feet high, but of a style entirely difEereut from 
that of the Egj-ptian obelisks. Its ornamentation consists of a nine-storied tower 
pierced with windows and surmoimted with a small p}'ramid with fluted base, curved 
and spherical sides. About fifty other obelisks are scattered over the neighbouring 
space, some fallen down, others leaning against the trunks of the trees, with ancient 
altars still standing amidst these ruins. Not far off imfinished carvings are still to 
be seen in the trachytic quarry whence the workmen obtained the materials for 
these obelisks. Amongst its other buildings Aksum also possesses, in the enclosure 
of its gedem or sanctuary, a Portuguese church flanked by an embattled tower. An 
aqueduct is cut in the rock, and close to the town the side of a mountain is under- 
mined by catacombs which are said to be the tombs of the kings, and the place 
where " the great serpent, the ancient King of Abyssinia, is concealed." 

Antalo — Senafeh. 

Aiifalo, the former capital of Tigre, is situated at a height of some 8,000 feet, 
on an amba surrounded by deep gorges, where rise the afiluents of the Takkazeh. 
A higher plateau, crowned by the natural fortress of the Aradom amba, rises to the 
west, whilst to the south and east stretches the vast fertile plain on which the 
EngKsh established their head-quarters during the expedition of 18G8. Antalo has 
since been abandoned, and its quarters, separated from each other by deep ravines, 
are nearly all in ruins ; its inhabitants have migrated to Chalikut, about 6 miles to 
the north-east, one of the most charming towns in Abyssinia, its houses and 
churches surrounded by gardens and thick masses of trees. 

Situated on the border-chain of eastern Abyssinia, at the very fringe of the 
terrace-lands sloping to the plain of the Danakils, Antalo and Chalikut are of some 
importance as dejiots for the salt merchants passing from the coimtry of the Taltals 
to Sokota. Between this latter town and Chalikut the chief marts are Samreh, 
situated near the former lacustrine plain of Samra; then the lowland towns of 
Atshi, or Absehidera, and Fisho. The new town of Makaleh has been built by the 
present negus on the very crest of the Abyssinian chain, and like Debra-Tabor, 
Adua, and Magdala, occasionally serves as a temporary capital of the kingdom. 
Here an Italian engineer has erected a palace in the " European " style of architec- 
ture. From this commanding site King Johannes overlooks a large portion of the 
still unreduced Danakil territory. He has even made some conquests in these low- 
lands, and on one of the four terraces, which fall in a series of gigantic steppes 
down to the plain, he has founded the market of Sekct, much frequented by dealers 
in salt. 

North of Antalo and Chalikut, and parallel to the border chain of Abyssinia, 
several other commercial towns follow at long intervals on the main road which 
connects the uplands with the forts of Zidla and Massawah. Some of these miser- 
able collections of huts have acquired a certain importance in the history of Abys- 
sinian exploration as the camping-grounds and places of observation of European 
travellers. One of the most j)opulous of these villages is Hdiisscn, situated on a 



AXTALO— SENAFEH. 



175 



56. — KuMAi'Li Valley. 
Scale 1 : 650,000. 



plateau intersected by deep ravines. Farther on comes Addigrat (^Add' Igmt) or 
Attegra, standing in a fertile valley about 8,000 feet above tlie level of the sea, and 
commanded west and south-west by heights rising to a still farther elevation of 
over 3,000 feet. To the west, on a sandstone amba whose terminal escarpment, 
some 100 feet high, can be scaled only by means of ropes, lies the monastery of 
Debra-DciDio, one of the most 
celebrated in Abyssinia. Here Fig 

all the surrounding populations 
come to deposit their wealth on 
the least indication of war. The 
summit of this rock, covered with 
a vegetable soil and provided 
with one hundi-ed and fifty peren- 
nial wells, although carefully cul- 
tivated, 3'ields but an insuiEcient 
crop, so that the monks have to 
trust to the generosity of the 
faithful on the plains. Formerly 
the j'ounger members of the 
reigning house were banished to 
this amba. 

Seiiqfe/i, a town situated still 
farther north, occupies a sheltered 
position at the foot of precipitous 
rocks. As the first mountain sta- 
tion on the route followed by the 
Englisli army to rescue the pri- 
soners in the hands of Theodore, 
the camp of Senafeh, during the 
campaign of 1868, was one of 
the greatest strategic importance. 
When the English carriage road, 
from Adulis Bay to Senafeh 
through the gorges of Kumaili 
is repaired, this village will pro- 
bably become a flourishing city. To 
the west Hala'i, or the " ascent," 
which was till recently entirely 
Catholic, and Digsn (^Digsan^ are 

the first upland towns on either branch of the river Hadas, and have also gained a 
place in the history of Abyssinian exploration. 

The capital of Tigre is connected with the Red Sea coast by two routes. The 
shortest rims north-east towards Senafeh ; the other takes a northern direction, 
crossing the Mareb at an elevation of about 4,000 feet, and thence ascending the 




to 32 Feet. 



Depths. 



32 to 64 Feet. 64 Feet and 
upwards. 
12 Miles. 



176 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

valley of this river along the heights of the western slope. North of the point 
where the river is crossed, the escarpments of the plateau are broken into basalt 
headlands, columns, and peaks of fantastic shape. On these detached crags are 
the scattered villages belonging to Gundet, a district famous in African history. 
Here began the series of military disasters which, combined with financial loans 
and extortions, crushed the power of Eg3'pt, making the countrj' the sjjort of 
bankers and Eui'opean dij)lomatists. At this period (^1875) the Khedive of Cairo 
was one of the great potentates of the world so far as regarded the extent of his 
dominions. His captains had penetrated up the Nile as far as Lake Albert 
Nyanza and the watershed of the Congo. Egyptian garrisons had been stationed 
at the ports on the west coast of the Red Sea, and even farther south had gained a 
firm footing in the Harrar district and Somaliland. The invaders had already 
enclosed Abyssinia on the south, and thought the time had come to take possession 
of the plateau; biit they were utterly routed at the battle of Gudda-GiuhU, or 
Gundet. Nearly the whole of the invading army perished, together with its two 
leaders, Arakel Bey and the Dane Arendrup. The invasion, which was to have 
once for all reduced Abyssinia, restored its political unity from Hamassen to Shoa, 
and revived Christianity throughout the whole of this upland region, which seemed 
already a prey to Islam. In 1876 a second army, commanded by Hassan, son of 
the Khedive, again scaled the Hamassen plateau and occupied the strong strategic 
position of Gura, east of the Upper Mareb. But the lower part of their camp 
being surrounded by enemies, the Egj'ptian troops were almost entirely exter- 
minated. They left their cannons and small-arms on the battlefield, and Prince 
Hassan only succeeded in obtaining his liberty by paying a heavy ransom. Ac- 
cording to a report, which appears however to have been groimdless, circulated 
immediately after the battle, Hassan and all the other prisoners were tattooed on 
the arm with the sign of the cross, a symbol of victory over the crescent. 

Debaroa — Kasex — Arkii.o. 

The most populous and commercial town on the route from Adua to Massawah, 
by way of the western slope of the Upper Mareb, is Kodo Felassi (^Godo Felameh\ 
capital of the province of Seraweh. As a trading station it has replaced the town 
of Debaroa, farther to the north, which, although now of little importance, was 
formerly the residence of the Bahr-Nagash, or " Sea Kings," as the governors of 
the maritime provinces were called. Unlike the round houses of Central Abys- 
sinia, with their stone walls and thatched roofs, those of Debaroa are parti}' 
subterranean, resembling the dwellings in many districts of Caucasia and Kurdis- 
tan. The slope of the mountain is cut into steps, and the rectangidar space thus 
obtained is transformed into a house by means of a clay roof, which at the back 
rests on the ground, and in front is supported by pillars ; the smoke escapes by 
means of an aperture made in the roof, which is closed in rainy weather, excluding 
light and air, and converting the dwelling into a loathsome cavern. The houses 
of all the Hamassen villaa:es are constructed in this fashion. 



DEBAEOA— KASEN. 



177 



The camp of tlie ras, or chief, who governs the province of Tigre, is situated at 
Atsaga (9,460 feet), at the junction of the routes ascending from the coast at 
Massawah, and from the countries of the Bogos and Mensas. A short distance to 
the east stands the town of Asmara, present residence of a shum, or chief, who 
claims the title of " King of the Sea." Asmara lies on the extreme edse of the 
Abyssinian plateau, at the point where the route entering on the Red Sea water- 
shed winds down to the plain. 

Like Asmara, a few other hamlets serve as intermediary stations for the caravans 
on their arrival at the crest of the Tigre plateau. Kasen, standing on the last spur 
of the Hamassen uplands north-west of Asmara, also commands one of the routes 
leading to ilassawah. This post is occasionally dimly visible at a distance of 45 
mUes in a straight line between the haze of the horizon and the marine vapours. 



Fig. 57. — Bogos Territory. 
Scale 1 : 500,000. 







38°eO' 



h^., » of o reeg w i c h 



38°40' 



CPer 



. 9 imes. 



From Kasen another caravan route runs north-west to the Senhit uplands, and to 
Keren, capital of the Bogos territory. This place, surrounded by olive-groves, 
ali-eady lies in the kwalla zone at a height of 4,800 feet above the sea. A fortress 
named Senhit, like the country itself, has been built by the Egyptians at the side 
of the town ; but in virtue of the treaty concluded with the English it is to be 
evacuated and surrendered to the King of Abyssinia. Keren was the centre of the 
Catholic missions in northern Abyssinia, and its large seminary supplied numerous 
native priests for the churches scattered throughout the provinces of the empire. 
Nearly all the inhabitants of the Bogos and Mensa territories have abandoned 
their Mahommedan practices to re-embrace the Christian religion as taught in its 
new form by the Lazarist missionaries. 

The route descending from Asmara to the Red Sea, encircles on the north a 
group of projecting uplands, on one of which stajads the famous monastery of Bijan 

VOL. X. N 



178 NOETH-EAST APEICA. 

or Bizan, founded in tlic fourteentli century, and often mentioned by Portuguese 
authors under the name of the convent of the " Vision." It takes this name from 
a gilded cloud said to have been seen hovering in mid air by the traveller Poncet 
and other pilgrims in the year 1700. Nearly a thousand monks live in the convent 
and the adjacent buildings. 

At the foot of the mountains, but separated from the littoral plain bj' a chain 
of hills, stands the village of Ailef, in a lonely valley which would amply repay 
cultivation. In the neighbourhood, three miles farther south, are hot springs 
(138° F.) sufficiently copious to form a stream; the surrounding ground within 
a radius of 155 feet from the orifice is too hot to permit of its being traversed 
barefooted. When descending the plateau the Abyssinians are accustomed to 
plunge into the source of the river Ailet, and even occasiouall}' to wash their sheep 
in it. A poisonous beetle lives in a part of the hot spring where the temperature 
cools down to 118° F. Northwards in the Samhar district are many ancient ruins, 
chiefly tombs, some of which resemble the megalithic monuments of France. An 
ancient town, now abandoned, at one time covered a space of several miles in cir- 
cumference. 



Massawah. 

On the plain a few stations follow along the route to the coast at Massawah. 
Such are Saafi, or the " Fens," so-called from the pools of water which are usually 
found in the beds of the dried-up watercourses during the dry season ; M'Kidu, 
which the Europeans of Massawah have chosen as their health-resort, and have 
surrounded with groves of tamarinds and other trees ; Hotumlu, headquarters of the 
Swedish missionaries and their schools. To the south, nestled amidst mimosa-trees, 
is the town of Arkilo, a kind of capital, where resides the na'ib, a descendant of a 
dynasty of chiefs who, since the end of the sixteenth century, have negotiated all 
commercial transactions between Abj^ssinia and Massawah. The inhabitants of this 
territory owe a double allegiance to the traders of the neighbouring seg,port and to 
the Abyssinians of the plateau, whose claim to the ownership of the lowlands has 
been maintained from age to age, and annually renewed by raising winter crops in 
the district. The Turks, having conquered the uplands and the coast in 1557 
attempted at first to govern the coast populations directly ; but finding themselves 
powerless against nomads ever on the move, they surrendered their authority to the 
chief of the Belaus, a branch of the Hababs who roamed over the neighbouring 
plains. Even the garrison of Massawah, mainly composed of Bosniaks, was gradually 
absorbed with the Hababs bj' marriage. Made na'ib, or " lieutenant," of the ^aceroys 
of Hejaz, the chief of the Belau received a regular subsidy from the Turkish 
Government conditionally on his protecting the Turkish or Abyssinian caravans 
against the attacks of the neighbouring tribes, remitting to the suzerain a portion 
of the taxes paid by the merchants, and supj^lying the island with the necessary 
water. Frequent quarrels arose between the naib and the Massawah islanders ; 
the aqueducts were often cut, and the naib himself, driven from Arkilo, was often 



MASSAWAH. 



179 



obliged to take refuge in the interior. It also happened that the Abyssinian 
sovereigns, in whose interests it is essential that the port of Massaicah should 
remain open to the outer world, have wasted the country to retaliate on the slave- 
dealers and corsairs. By virtue of recent treaties, the approach to Massawah, now 
an Italian port, although the Egyptian flag still flies on the walls, is to be made 

Fig. oS. — ^SLiSSAWAH. 
Scale 1 : lOO.COO. 




C Pe 



Depths. 



Oto3SFeet. 



32 to SO Feet. 



SO Feet and npwards. 
-2i titles. 



completely free to the trade of Abyssinia. This port of the Eed Sea is therefore, if 
not politically at least commercially, more than ever a natm-al dependency of 
Abyssinia, and its importance, already considerable, cannot fail to increase rapidly 
if peace is maintained on the plateaux. Detached forts command the approaches 
of the town and mark the limits of an intrenched camp in which the Egj-ptian 
governor formerly maintained a corps of 3,000 troops. 



X ^ 



180 XOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

The town of Massawah, the Arabian Medsawa, or Mussawah, and the Abyssinian 
Mutogna, occupies a coral islet about 3,300 feet long from east to west, but scarcely 
more than 1,000 feet broad from north to south. Stone houses of Arab con- 
struction, and branch huts, are crowded together on this rock, which is connected 
by a dyke with the still smaller island of Taulud. Taulud itself is attached to the 
mainland by means of a pier about 5,000 feet long, over which is carried the pipe 
by which the cisterns of Massawah are sujjplied with water from M'Kulu. But 
both aqueduct and pier, like the barraclcs, fortifications, and other buildings 
built some twenty years ago under the direction of Munzinger Pacha, are in a very 
dilapidated condition. As in their own country, the Egj'ptians imderstand the art 
of constructing, but neglect the duty of repairing, their public buildings. The 
Abyssinian trade with the Greek, Banian, and other foreign merchants settled at 
Massawah is conducted by means of caravans. These caravans, laden chiefly with 
the valuable products of the Galla coimtry — coffee, gold, and white wax — set out at 
the end of winter, so as to cross the Takkazeh before the floods. Thej' take two or 
three months to accomplish the journey, and return at the end of the autumn, 
resuming their annual journey the following spring. In 1861 the value of the 
Abyssinian exchanges, including slaves, through the port of Massawah, was 
estimated at £40,000, and twenty years thereafter, in 1881, they had risen to 
£280,000. The chief exports are skins and butter for Arabia, and mother-o'-pearl ; 
that of ivory has greatly fallen off. Mules of Abyssinian stock are also exported 
to the plantations of Mayotte and the Mascarenhas Islands. Early in the year 1885 
Massawah and the surrounding district was occupied by the Italians, with the 
consent of the English and Egyptian Governments. 

The Dahlak Islands. 

The large coraline islands of Dahlak east of the Gulf of Massawah, the chief 
of which are Dahlak and Nora, have lost nearly all the commercial importance 
they enjoyed before the Turkish rule. At that time they were inhabited by a 
Christian population of Abyssinian origin, whose chapels are still to be seen, and 
whose dialect, although in a corrupt form, is still current in the archipelago, At 
present the people, all Mohammedans, number 1,500, whose only resource is the 
milk and flesh of their goats, and the products of their fisheries. The Persian and 
Indian traders make yearly voj^ages to these islands to purchase the pearl oysters 
from the fisheries of the surroimding bays ; the depot stands on the eastern shore 
of the larger island, at the village of Domolo. Like the pearl-divers of Bahrein, 
those of Dahlak never commence operations till after the rains, as they say that 
the pearlj' secretion is formed by the mixing of the fresh with the salt water. 
The natives also fish for the turtle, but neglect the sponges with which the bed of 
the sea is here thickly covered. The people of Dahlak and the surrounding 
archipelago possess large herds of camels, asses, and goats, which they allow to 
roam in a wild state over the island, or else confine to desert islands. On one of 
these islets are even found a few cows. 




iiailiiliiilliiili'SliBliiiiiiM 





mm 




4^' 1^' J*^ 




Cii feM,^/l;Wil J 






LIBRARY 



I 



ADULIS— ZULLA— H-AINrFILA. 181 

Adulis — ZuLLA — Haxfila. 

The long and narrow ba_v stretching from the north southwards some 30 miles 
inland, which the Disseh islanders call the " Gulf of Yelret " possibly on account 
of the calmness of its well-sheltered waters, is much nearer to the upland Abys- 
sinian plateaux than ilassawah, and the commercial exchanges have often taken 
this direction. This inlet of the seaboard, the Anneslej- Bay of the English, is 
more commonly known by the name of Adulis Bay, as it was called some two 
thousand years ago, when the fleets of the successors of Alexander rode at anchor 
in its waters. A Greek inscription, copied in the sixteenth century by the 
Egyptian monk Cosmas Indicopleustes, celebrates the great king Ptolemy, son of 
Ptolemy and " Arsinoe." A second, which relates the glorious expeditions of the 
Abyssinian king " Eb Aguda," is of the highest geographical importance, as it 
contains a series of twenty-three Abyssinian names, the first elements of the 
comparative geography of the country. Mariette has proved, by identifying many 
of the names engraved on the gates of Karnac with those of the Adulis inscription, 
that Egj-pt had certainly established relations with Abyssinia as far back as the 
time of Thotmes III., in the eighteenth century of the old era. A few capitals cut 
in the lava, and marbles sculptured by the Byzantine artists, are all that has been 
brought to light of the buildings of the ancient city, which now stands more than 
three miles inland, a fact probably due to an upheaval of the coast, or else to the 
gradual increase of the alluvial deposits. Its ancient name still exists under the 
form of ZuUa. To the south on the heights are the remains of a town, which was 
probably the sanitorium of Adidis. During the second half of this century Adulis 
has often been regarded as a future French colony, because the strip of land round 
the bay, together with the island of Disseh, was conceded to France in 1840 by a 
sovereign of Tigre ; but this written concession was followed by no act of occupa- 
tion, and England is the power which, under cover of the Egyptian flag, possesses 
this corner of Abyssinian territory. In no other region has Great Britain given a 
more striking proof of her widespread power than on this arid coast of the Red 
Sea. In this baj-, where are scarcely to be seen a few wi'etched boats or fishing 
rafts comj)osed of three boards nailed together, some hundreds of vessels rode 
at anchor in 1867 and 1868. A landing stage, of which a few traces still remain, 
stretched over half a mile into the sea; a railway ran southwards as far as the base 
of the escarpments ; and huge reservoirs, dug at the foot of the mountains, served 
as watering-places for the elephants and forty thousand beasts of burden. Zulla 
was the place where the British army landed and re-embarked, having brought to 
a happy conclusion an expedition without parallel in the history of England and 
modem times, not only for the justice of the cause and mathematical precision of 
the operations, but also for its complete success, almost without bloodshed, and the 
disinterested conduct of the victors. This march of an armed European force over 
the Abyssinian plateaux ended without conquest, and the traces of the passage of 
the English were soon effaced on the sands of Zulla. jSTevertheless with this 
passing visit of the stranger begins a new era in Abyssinian history. 



182 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



The coast of the Red Sea, which is deflected in the direction of the south-east, 
is here and there indented by bays and creeks where sea-ports might be established, 
were the caravans unfortunately not compelled to traverse the burning and danger- 



Fig. .59. — Annesley Bav. 

Scale 1 : 600,000. 




L .of Greenwich 



3g°50- 



C. Perron 



Depths. 



to 80 Feet. 80 to 160 Feet. 160 to 320 Feet. 320 Feet and upwards. 
12 MUes. 



ous Danakil territory before reaching the valleys of the Abyssinian watershed. 
The bay of Hawakil, explored by the English at the time of the Abyssinian 
expedition, is obstructed by volcanic cones surroxmded bj^ rocks and lavas very 



I 



ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS. 183 

difficult to traverse. Ilaiifili, which is supposed to be the ancient port of Aiiti- 
pliyUm, is useless except for working the saline lake Alalbed and the neighbouring 
pearl fisheries. The little harbour of Edd, some 120 miles from the Abyssinian 
chain, is also surrounded, like Hawakil Bay, by volcanoes and rugged rocks which 
render the coimtry almost inaccessible. A trading company of Nantes had 
acquired possession of this port, but, being unable to derive any advantage from 
it, offered it to the French Government, which declined the costly present. The 
company ultimately ceded all its rights to the Khedive. 

Admikistkative Divisions. 

The political and administrative divisions of Abyssinia undergo endless changes 
according to the power of the vassals and the caprice of the sovereign. Certain 
chiefs rule over several provinces and even possess the title of king, like the ras of 
Gojam, who was crowned in 1881, whilst others are fain to rest satisfied with a 
simple canton. In 1882 the largest fiefs numbered twenty- four, of which foiu- were 
governed by ras (chiefs) of the first rank, five by those of the second rank, and fifteen 
administered bj' chiefs bearing the title of shum. But in spite of the political vicissi- 
tudes, most of the Abyssinian districts have retained their names and their general 
contours, as indicated by the very relief and nature of the geological formations 
themselves. Without including the vassal reahn of Shoa, the tributary states 
beyond the Abai, the Galla districts and the northern territories recently annexed, 
the Ayssinian empire at present comprises the four governments of Amhara, 
Gojam, Lasta, and Tigre, which, with theii- several proAonces, fluvial basins, and 
chief towns, will be found tabulated in the Appendix. 




CHAPTER VII. 

SHOA, COUNTRY OF THE DANAKILS, NORTHERN GALLA STATES. 




HOA or Shawa, and the hilly country of the northern Gallas, form a 
part of the Abyssinian plateaux. From a political point of view 
Shoa, after having been independent for some length of time, has 
again become attached and pays a regular tribute to the Abyssinian 
empire, the king of Shoa humbling himself before the " king of 
South of the Abai' most of the ci^■iHsed or barbarous tribes have been 
subjugated to Northern Abj-ssinia by victorious expeditions, and ambassadors bring 
to Debra-Tabor or Makaleh a yearly tribute of ivory or other valuable commodities. 
On this side the whole of southern Abyssinia even beyond Kaffa is thus bounded by 
fluctuating frontiers ; the area of Shoa has been increased threefold, and the king- 
dom of Gojam has been enlarged in the same proportion, although the Abai 
interrupts all commimications between Abyssinia and the coimtry of the Ilm- 
Onnas for seven or eight months in the year. 

The peoples of these countries, mostly differing in origin, speech, religion, and 
customs, should be studied apart. The lowland tribes, however, comprised between 
the main Abyssinian range, the Red Sea coast, the Gulf of Aden, and the water- 
shed south of the basin of the Awash, form a group clearly defined by the way of 
life the soil and the climate compel them to follow ; but as intermediaries of the 
trade between the plateaux and the sea, they are indispensable to the inhabitants 
of Shoa. Thus, however different the two coimtries may be, they form a part of 
the same social organization. 



The Shoa Highlands. 

South of the Angot and the Zebul the main Abyssinian range penetrates into 
Shoa, here diverging slightly from the line of the meridian towards the south-west, 
parallel with the course of the Awash. This part of the border-chain is called 
Shakka, or Amba-Shakka, and, according to Beke, attains a mean height of from 
8,000 to 9,000 feet, several of the crests even considerably exceeding this elevation. 
The highest mountain, at least in the vicinity of Aukober, is Mount Metatiteh 
(11,000 feet), which overlooks the greater part of the kingdom of Shoa Ijing at 



\ 



VOLCANIC FORMATIONS. 185 

its feet, and the lower terrace-lauds slojjing towards the Awash Valley and the 
affluents of the Abai. In no other region of Abyssinia is the land more cut up 
into distinct sections by the running waters. From some of the heights on the 
plateau the country seems at a distance like a vast and almost level plain, where 
the valleys are scarcely suggested by the interrupted vegetation, but on a nearer 
approach these valleys develop into vast chasms of enormous depth. One of these 
gorges, some 36 miles north-west of Ankober, is over 5,100 feet iu depth, with a 
breadth scarcely exceeding 2,000 feet. Amongst the abysses occurring in this 
rocky region are Tegulet-Wat, near the ancient capital of Shoa, a fissure some 
600 feet long with a breadth of less than 3 feet. Stones dropped into this rent 
are never heard to strike the bottom. The rivers rising on the eastern slope of 
the Amba-Shakka, some of which have to descend from an altitude of about 6,600 
feet ou their way to the Blue Nile, rush through these chasms in a series of 
foaming cascades or magnificent rapids. 

Voi.cAxic Formations. 

East of the main range, the base of Amba-Shakka is flanked by a collection of 
rounded hills, while parallel chains, such as the Argobba, rise in its immediate 
vicinity. Farther on an undulating plain stretches away towards the Gulf of 
Aden, here and there studded with volcanic cones which have ejected vast 
quantities of lava. One of these extinct craters, near the right bank of the 
Awash north-west of Ankober, forms a vast chasm many miles in circumference. 
Another much smaller crater still emits vapours from the summit of an isolated 
crag ; this is the Dofaneh volcano, which lies on the left bank of the Awash some 
36 miles north-east of Ankober. Its state of activity may be compared to that of 
Volcano in the Lipari Islands. On its sides are deposited layers of sulphur, pre- 
senting everj^ shade from bright yellow to reddish brown. The group of Mintshar 
volcanoes, in the southern district of Fatigar, contains other craters in which the 
sulphur becomes sublimated. One of these igneous mouths, that of Winzegur, 
forms an enormous caldron, according to Harris nearly 6 miles in circumference, 
with walls rising to a height of from 800 to 1,000 feet ; two breaches in the 
enclosure have given vent to streams of molten lava and black scoriae which wind 
amid the surrounding vegetation. The pool of Burtshatta in the vicinity fills a 
circular bed of black and yellow lava surrounded by vertical cliffs ; the rock is 
honeycombed with hundreds of caves, whose entrances are half concealed by the 
climbing plants growing to its sides. Through one of the extinct craters the 
elephants and rhinoceroses have opened a passage to the brink of this lake. In 
the western district of Dembi, Antinori describes another volcanic group inter- 
spersed with niunerous lakelets, but their water being destitute of fish they are 
evidently of recent origin. Farther on to the south-west the isolated Zikwala 
peak, about 10,000 feet high, already mentioned on Fra Mauro's famous map, 
encloses a lake in its terminal crater, on the margin of which stands a monastery 
founded by a " vanquisher of demons." Many hot springs rise in these volcanic 



186 NORTH-EAST APEICA. 

lands of Shoa, three of which in the country of the Finfini Gallas, close to the lofty 
and isolated Mount Entotto (9,956 feet), spout forth like geysers with a temperature 
of 170 F. To the action of these warm mineral waters are probably due the 
fossUised siliceous trees occurring in so many places on the plateau between Lasta 
aud Shoa. Like the " petrified forests " of Cairo, those of Abyssinia consist of 
trees belonging to the order of the sterculiaceae. 

The Galla Highlands. 

A ridge of uplands, curving to the south-west, and separating the Aba'i from 
the sources of the Awash, forms the natural boundary between Abyssioia proper 
and GaUalaud. This region is but slightly diversified, presenting no prominences 
except those of the cliffs fringing both sides of the torrents ; but to the south the 
mountains resume the appearance of a regular chain. They must be regarded, 
however, rather as a general swelling of the surface broken into distinct segments 
and isolated masses by the rivers flowing northwards towards the Blue Nile, and 
southwards to the large river known as the Gugsa, TJma, Abula, and by a thousand 
other names. By the action of the erosions which have broken up the plateau 
into its present shape, the axis of these heights has been directed from the north- 
west to the south-east. In this direction follow in succession Goro Chen, Belhella, 
Tulu Amara, Chillimo, Diriko, Kalo, aud Roggeh, all mountaras exceeding 10,000 
feet in height. The highest point at the eastern extremity of this range is said 
to be Hamdo, with a reputed elevation of not less than 11,500 feet. In the same 
direction, but in the Gurageh district, occurs the isolated Mount "Wariro, to which 
Chiarini has assigned an altitude of 13,000 feet. 

The mountainous masses bounded north by the course of the Upper Gugu are 
considerably lower, having a mean elevation of scarcely more than 7,000 or 8,000 
feet. Nevertheless a range in the Inarj'a district, running from the north-east to 
the south-west, rises here and there to 10,000 feet, culminating ia Mount Egan, 
10,300 feet high. In the Kaffa country, another chain, bounded north by the 
river Gojeb, rivals the Gurageh Moimtains ia height ; and Mount Hotta, towards 
the eastern extremity of this chain, is said to have an altitude of about 12,200 
feet. But the giant of the Ilm-Orma territory is said to be Mount Wosho, 
situated west of the river Uma, in the hitherto unexplored Waratta country. 
According to Antoine d'Abbadie, who saw it at a distance of twenty miles, towering 
above the valley of the Uma, this mountain exceeds 16,600 feet. 

The Afar Country. 

The country of Afars, east of the Abyssinian border-chain, usually designated as 
a plain in opposition to the plateaux, has however a very hilly aud even moun- 
tainous surface in some places. In the volcanic chain which boimds the depression 
of Lake Alalbed stand the Mount Ortoaleh of Munzinger, and another " Smoky 
Mountain" seen by Bianchi during his vain attempt to reach Assab by descending 



\ 



THE AWASH BASIN. 187 

from Makaleh. South-west of the Bay of Assab, the irregular volcanic Mussali 
Mountain is stated to attain a height of more than 6,600 feet ; lastly a border 
range, skirting the north side of Tajurah Bay, is dominated bj' cones from which 
lavas have been erupted. Moimt Juda, one of these extinct volcanoes, attains a 
height of some 3,000 feet above sea-level ; it throws off a southern spiu", whose 
reefs have almost separated into two parts the bed of the gulf, which thus forms 
an inner lake rather than a part of the Indian Ocean. To the west other lava 
streams have entirely covered what was formerly the marine bed, and have thus 
cut off a portion of the bay, which has become Lake Assal, or as the Arabs ironi- 
cally call it, in spite of the saltness of its waters, " The Lake of Honey." It is also 
probable that the upheaval of the land has contributed somewhat to the isolation 
of this sheet of water, for the seaboard in the \-icinit}- of Tajiu-ah is largely com- 
posed of calcareous clays containing, to a height of fi-om 130 to 160 feet, fossil 
shells similar to those now living in the African seas. 

Lake Assal, at present separated from Tajurah Bay by a ledge some 12 miles 
long, has imdergone various changes analogous to those of Lake Alalbed. It has 
also become a saline reservoir, and the crust of salt surrounding the shallows is so 
thick that laden camels can traverse it for nearly a mile from the bank. Like that 
of Lake Alalbed, the salt of this lake is a source of wealth to the neighbouring 
tribes. All the Afar and Somali peoples of the country here procure the supplies 
for their own consumption and for south Abyssinia, which gives them in exchange 
coffee, ivory, musk, and slaves. Like Alalbed, this lake is gradually subsiding, 
the waters brought down by the wadies being insufficient to replace the loss by 
evaporation. A whitish mark some 50 feet above the present sui'face of the lake 
indicates a former water level. At the time of Rochet's first journey to Shoa in 
1834 it stood 600 feet below that of Tajui-ah Bay ; siace then its level has 
been variously calculated at from 576 to 770 feet, with a probable depth of about 
130 feet. According to Bianchi numerous other depressions are found in the 
country of the Afars, some 660 feet below the level of the sea. 

The Aavash Basin. 

South-west of Lake Assal, in a region similarly studded with volcanoes and lava 
beds, are other lakes, but of fluvial origin, belonging to the basia of the Awash or 
Awasi. Unlike the other rivers of the country, the Awash does not disappear in 
deep narrow gorges. AVhilst those watercourses sweep away the fertile soil along 
their banks, the Awash, which flows towards the Indian Ocean, waters its valley 
like the Egj-ptian Nile, without, however, reaching the coast. Like the Raguleh 
and other streams of the Afar country, it rims dry, notwithstanding the large 
volume of its middle course. The Awash rises south-west of the Shoa Alps, in the 
Fiafini district, which is separated from the Nilotic basin by a mountain range. Its 
soui'ces form several pools communicating with each other by several channels 
winding through a grassy district. Already broad and deep, the river sweeps round 
the mountains of Shoa, and after receiving a part of theii- di-ainage, it trends north- 






188 NOETH-E-IST AFEICA. 

wards along the foot of the main Abyssinian mountain range. At this part of its 
course the stream is most copious even during the dry season, being everywhere 
over 160 feet broad, with a depth of more than 3 feet, and a very rapid course. 
During the floods the Awash overflows for many miles right and left of its bed, its 
level rising from 40 to 46, and even to 60 feet, above the usual watermark. It might 
possibly be available even for steam navigation in this part of its course. 

At the point where it is deflected from the mountaias, the river flows north-east- 
wards towards Taj urah Bay, audits volume is increased by its afiiuent, the Gennana, 
or Kasam, but afterwards gradually diminished, and at about 60 miles from the sea, 
after having traversed a distance of 480 miles, it loses itself in the marshy lake 
Bada, or Aussa, also called Abhelbad by many writers. This lacustrine basin, which 
probably lies below sea-level, rises and falls with the alternating rainy and dry 
seasons. Its waters are sweet, and deposit a fertilising mud, which repays a 
hundi-edfold the agricultural labour expended upon it by the Danakils of Aussa. 
The water necessary for the irrigation of the iields in summer is retained by a dam 
constructed at its northern end ; but when the lands are thoroughly watered the 
overflow is discharged into a basin called " Lake Natron " from the crvstallised 
chemical substances on its banks. Other lakes belonging to the Awash system, 
amongst others that of Leado, commanded by the Dofaneh volcano and Jebel-Kabret 
or "Sulphm- Moimtain," not far from the Abyssinian Alps, receive the overflow of 
this river during the flood season. Lake Zwai, Jilalu, Laki or Dambal, in the 
Gurageh country, probably belongs also to the same hydrographic system, and its 
surplus waters are said to flow into the Awash. Nevertheless, the natives informed 
AntoneUi and Cecchi, that this basin had no affluent ; hence its Ethiopian name of 
Zwai, or the "Motionless." 

Climate, Flora, and F.^una. 

The climate of this southern portion resembles that of the rest of Abyssinia, the 
only difference being that the air is more moist. The Shoa and GaUa uplands, 
being nearer to the equator, are much more affected by the rainy zone, which lying 
between the two trade winds, fluctuates alternately north and south of the equator. 
Whilst the mean rainfall on the Abyssinian plateaux may be calculated at 30 inches 
annually, it is said to be about 40 inches south of the Abai and Awash. Hence the 
vegetation is far more dense and exuberant in the southern than in the northern 
regions of Abyssinia. Whilst forests are rarely met in Abyssinia outside of the 
kwaUa districts, travellers in the mountains of Shoa and its tributar}- territories speak 
of the immense forests of conifers, wild olives, and other trees, imder the matted 
moss-grown branches of which they have travelled for hoiu's. The vegetable 
species of these countries have hitherto been studied but by few botanists ; but the 
climate is known to be favourable to the Abyssinian flora, and many other plants 
flourishing here are utilised for the sake of their leaves, gums, or seeds. This home 
of the coffee-plant could stiU supply the world with many other precious shrubs ; it 
already j-ields to commerce the so-called oggieh, or korarima, a fruit highly prized 
for its delicate flavour and aroma. 



CLIMATE, FLORA, AND FAUNA. 



189 



Like the flora, the fauna of this Abyssinian district also presents a great diver- 
sity, although on the whole the tj-pes are similar. Shoa appears to be the home of 
the coluhua yiiereza, an ape with a splendid black and white fur, M'hich gives it 
a monkish ajspearance. The superstitious natives regard these animals almost as 
hermits, in consequence of their shj'^ habits and the colour of their coats. In the 
Awash basin are also found oxen, distinguished beyond all others for the size of 
their horns, which attain a length of some six feet, with a thickness of six inches 
at the base. The upland prairies are overrun by a zebra, equm Greri/i, with 



Fig. 60. — Routes of the Chief Explorers in the Lower Awash Region. 

ScjUe 1 : 4,500,000. 




L .jof breenwich 



45° 



C. Perrort 



. 60 Miles. 



extremely curious purple-black stripes. The GaUa horse, which dies if taken far 
from its native moimtains, has the thin legs, delicate head, full and shapely 
crupper, and the fire and obstinacy found amongst the pure Russian breeds. 
The animal most appreciated in Southern Abyssinia, from an economical poiat 
of view, is the civet cat {civetta viverra), whose musky secretion is monopolised 
by many of the sovereigns of the coimtry. The males, who alone furnish this 
essence, are kept in jDacks of from one to three hundred, each animal being 
enclosed in a long cage made so narrow as to prevent him turning round ; the 



190 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

enclosures are kept at a uniform heat, so as to hasten the secretion, which amounts 
to from about eighty to one hundred grammes every fourth day. The animals 
are fed on an exclusively iiesh diet, consisting of choice morsels prepared in 
butter. To prevent the evil ej'e, strangers arc forbidden to enter these preserves. 

Inhabitants of Shoa. 

Like those of Gondar, the civilised Christian peoples of Shoa are mainly 
Amharinians, but they are separated from the body of the nation by lofty 
mountains. Whilst most of the Abyssinians live on the lands sloping towards 
the Blue Nile, those of Shoa occupy more especially the watershed of the 
Awash, a tributary of the Red Sea. Moreover, a large part of the plateau 
bounding Shoa towards the north is inhabited by peoples of Galla origin. Hence, 
from an ethnological point of view, Shoa consists of a sort of isolated promontorj'. 
The Abyssinians, properly so called, are here surrounded by the Ilm-Ormas, bj' far 
the most numerous, but divided into several tribes, the alliances between which 
are broken or formed according either to momentous interests or the caprices of 
the chiefs. The customs of the Shoa peoples are the same as those of the Amhari- 
nians, with this difference, that the entire population is more abjectly subject to the 
king's will. There are few slaves properly so called, and the Chi-isiians are for- 
bidden to sell the Negroes, although they themselves are little better than slaves 
whose property and lives are at the disposition of their masters. A few Felasha or 
Fenja communities are . scattered throughout Shoa, and amongst these Abj'ssinian 
Jews is usually classed the sect of the Tabiban, which possesses a monastery in the 
immediate vicinity of Ankober, in. the midst of the Emamret forests. They are 
greatly respected and feared by the surrounding peoples as wizards. 

As ia Abyssinia properly so-called, the Shoa Mahommedans have been forcibly 
converted. Tliej' were formerly very numerous, and the name of Jiberti, by 
which they are known throughout Abyssinia, is a reminiscence of their holy city 
of Jabarta in Ifat, which has since disappeared. Foreigners, more especially 
French and Italians, are relatively numerous in Shoa, and since the visits of 
Eochet, Lefebvre, Harris, Combes and Tamisier, Isenberg and Krapf, hundreds of 
missionaries, artisans, and merchants have presented themselves in the nomad court 
of the successors of Sehla Sellasieh ; but hitherto the natives have benefited little 
by the European inventions. Powder and arms manufactories and miUs have not 
succeeded, and the concessions made to strangers for the building of railways is 
merely a proof that the king of Shoa is desirous of entering into direct relations 
with his powerfid foreign allies. 

Scientific voyages of discovciy in the Galla country, interrupted since that of the 
missionary Fernandez in the seventeenth century till the time of Antoine d'Abbadie, 
are also becoming more fre(|ucnt, thanks to the extension of the Abyssinian power 
into these countries ; but it is still a dangerous undertaking, and of the two Italians, 
Chiarini and Cecchi, who recently penetrated as far as Bongo, one succumbed to 
fatigue, whilst the other was with difiiculty saved by the intervention of the chief of 



THE AFAES. 191 

Gojam. The object of d'Abbadie's \-isit to these countries, which was to completely 
survey the course of the southern Abyssinian river, has not yet been accomplished. 
It is not known whether, after describing the large curve east of Kaffa, the water- 
coui-se which forms a continuation of the Gugsa and receives the Gojeb trends 
westwards to the Nile or is deflected towards the Indian Ocean, but it probably falls 
eastwards as the upper course of the Juba. In any case it is not the Nile, as 
d'Abbadie suj)posed. 

The Afars. 

In the triangular space comprised between the Abyssinian range, the Red Sea, 
and the course of the Awash, the bulk of the people, whether nomad or settled, 
constitute the Afar, or Afer, that is to say the " wanderers," more commonly called 
DanakUs by the Abyssinians. In the vicinity of the Awash they are known as Adel, 
or Adail, after the Ad-Ali, one of their most powerfid tribes ; but the various clans 
differ little in customs, dialects, and usages. The Danakils themselves claim to be 
Arabs, like so many other peoples of eastern Africa, and this pretension may be 
explained both by local crossings as well as by their nominal conversion to Islam. 
But there can be no doubt that the main body of the nation is connected with the 
Gallas of the west, the Shohos of the north, and the Somalis of the south. Their 
language is also of Hamitio origin, and their physical appearance is of an analogous 
type. They are still mainly addicted to fetish practices, in the sterile region of Lake 
Alalbed worshipping a solitary tree, the cacsalpinia, with splendid pink flowers, and 
elsewhere presenting their offerings to the sycamore. The men are usually 
handsome, extremely active and graceful dancers ; while the women, who go unveiled, 
are distinguished during their brief youth by exquisite forms. But their beauty is 
soon blighted by their laborious life in this country of lava and sand, under the 
hottest climate in the world. More scantily clothed than the Abyssinians or Gallas, 
the Danakils merelj' wear a waistcloth of a many-coloured material, with a toga or 
shamma, often replaced by a skin throTvn negligently over the shoidders. The men 
stick a porcupine-quill in their deftly arranged coiffure, and, like the Gallas, are 
extremely proud when they can ornament it ^-ith an ostrich feather, emblem of an 
enemy slain in battle. In the northern region, the huts of the Afars are very 
tastefully ornamented, the floor being covered with yellow mats, embroidered with 
red and violet designs. 

The Afars are an independent nation, divided into two main grouj^s, the Asahian 
(Asaimara) and the Adohian (Adoimara), and into upwards of one hundred and 
fifty Kabilet (Kabail) or sub-tribes, banded together or divided according to their 
several interests. They recognise hereditarj- chiefs, called sultans or ra^, according 
to the importance of the tribe. These chiefs, however, are by no means absolute 
masters, but merely the executors of the will of the people, expressed by a majority 
of votes in the general assemblies. All combine against the common enemy, and 
fight desperately in defence of their liberty. The most powerful sept are the 
Modaitos, occupying the whole of the region of the lower Awash, Lake Aussa, and 
the inland pasturages between Edd and Rahe'ita. No European traverses their 



192 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

territory -without claiming the right of hospitality or the brotherhood of blood ; 
the two newly made brothers kill an ox and pour the blood over their foreheads, 
cutting its skin in strips, which they make into necklaces and bracelets. About 
1840 the Zeila Arabs, reinforced by immigrants from Yemen, and Persian or Baluch 
mercenaries, penetrated into the Danakil country nearly as far as Aussa, but not 
one of the invaders returned. In 1875 an enemy more formidable than the coast 
Arabs attempted to force his way into their territory. At the head of 350 Egyptians 
armed with improved rifles and a train of artillery, Munzinger Pasha endeavoured 
to open a route towards Shoa, his intention probably being to reduce this kingdom 
under the sovereignty of Eg}'pt. But the same Modaito tribe who exterminated 
the first expedition fell upon the second with a like result. Munzinger, with the 
bulk of his troops, was slain by the lances of the Danakils, who say that " Guns 
are only useful to frighten cowards." 

As the mountain streams are lost amongst the sands and lavas before reaching 
the sea, the Danakils are unable to cultivate their lands, except along the banks of 
the Awash, where are a few garden-plots ; insufficient, however, for the local wants. 
But through commerce the Danakils are enabled to procure sufficient supplies from 
the seaports and the markets of Shoa. It is the custom for every caravan en route 
to pay a tax on encamping, in return being entitled to the protection of the tribe, 
and thanks to its guides and safe conducts they pass in safety between the mountains 
and the sea. The Abyssinian sovereigns have often desired to close certain trade 
routes across the desert in order to open up others for their ovra advantage ; but 
their power is arrested at the boundary of the plains, where the Danakils indicate 
the route to be followed with the points of their lances. In the northern part of 
the desert the Taltal tribe, who, according to Riippell, greatly resemble the 
Abyssinians in features, are chiefly employed in working the salt in the bed of Lake 
Alalbed, which they sell to the Abyssinians of the plateaux in square bricks. The 
Taoras and Saortas, dwelling south of Adulis Bay in the Buri peninsula, are also 
Afars, modified by crossings with the Abyssinians, and speaking a Tigre dialect 
mixed with a large proportion of Arab words. According to Rohlf s the Taora and 
Saorta women are of extremely small stature in comparison with the men. 

The redanto or chiefs of the northern Danakils are magicians, who hold 
commimication with the spirit- world, and are acquainted with the star presiding 
over the destinies of each individual. The rank of redanto is hereditary, providing 
that the son be without physical or moral blemish, for unless of soimd bodj' and 
mind he woidd be incapable of holding communion with the spu'its. On the Red 
Sea coast a few Afar families live by fishing, and venture far seawards in boats 
tapering to a point at the prow and stern, and carrying large square sails com- 
posed of mats. These boats were formerly greatly feared by navigators of the 
Red Sea. As bold on the sea as on the land, the Danakils often attacked and 
captured large merchant vessels ; but they have been compelled to abandon their 
piratical courses, since the steam gunboats are able to chase them into the small 
creeks and maze of coral islands along the coast. The descendants of these 
corsairs now turn their attention to fishing, and are the only sailors in the Red Sea 
who stiU pursue the dugong or lamentin. 




< 

o 

n 




THE SOMALI. 



103 



The Somali. 

The Somali race, akin to the Afars in features, speech, and origin, is represented 
in the Awash basin, between Tajurah Bay and the realm of Harrar, by the powerful 
tribe of the Issas, who even make incursions across the Awash into the plains of 
the Danakils. These temporary migrations are caused by the irregularitj' of the 
climate, the rains falling at different times on the coast of the Red Sea and the 
Gidf of Aden. Immediately after the rains, when the pasture-lands are covered 
with rich grass, the Issas demand hospitality from the Danakils, who in turn come 

Fisr. 61.— Somali Girl. 




over to the Somali country when their own pasturages are dj-ied up and the 
southern lands are renewed by the rains. Tliis reciprocal dependence maintains 
harmony between these two powerful and warlike nations. The Issa, although 
nominally tributaries of the Egyptian Government, were practically independent, 
as the chief of the tribe had to be subsidised to protect the caravans going between 
the mountains of Harrar and Zeila. The Issa camel-drivers are almost exclusively 
engaged in transporting merchandise to the mountains, where their loads are 
committed to other drivers. They are always accompanied by their wives, who 
lead the camels and bear on their backs the iirewood and cooking utensils, and, if 

VOL. X. O 



194 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

mothers, their children. The hereditarj^ enemies of the Issas are the Gadibursis, 
also a Somali people, bold mounted marauders, who occasionally seize their flocks 
even in the neighbourhood of Zeila. 

The Gallas. 

In numbers and extent of territory occupied by them, the Gallas are one of the 
largest nations in Africa. Some of their communities are even settled on the 
frontiers of Tigre, along the eastern slope of the Abyssinian main range. Even as 
far as the equator, over a space of 600 miles from north to south, are scattered or 
grouped together tribes of the same race, whilst Gallas are met with from east to 
west throughout the region which stretches from the Upper Nile to the Somali 
coast. But it is not yet known where the national type is the best represented, or 
which is the most powerful tribe, the country of the southern Gallas being one 
which has been the least explored by European travellers. 

In this part of Africa an area larger than that of France is still unexplored, 
and everj'thing strengthens the belief that this region, stretching south of Kaffa, 
will be the last to be visited by travellers. The only Gallas we are well acquainted 
with are those of the northern region, who, since the middle of the sixth century, 
have dwelt in and about the Abyssinian states. It is therefore natural that these 
races should be studied after those of Abyssinia. According to Beke the Gallas 
were so named by the neighbouring peoples after a river of Gurageh near which 
they fought a great battle ; but this appellation is usually interpreted in the sense 
of " Land-hunters," a term denoting their nomad life and conquests. Thej^ call 
themselves Oromo, "Men," or Ilm-Orma, "Sons of Men," possibly "Brave Men ;" 
although according to D'Abbadie this name, like the Spanish hidalgo, is synonymous 
with " Nobles." The traditions of the tribes vary ; still the bulk of the Gallas, 
when asked whence their ancestors came, point to the south. Their original home 
is said to be towards the southern uplands, and the tribes near Mount Kenia are 
said still to go on a pilgrimage to this mountain, bringing ofEerings to it as if to 
their mother. It appears certain that towards the middle of the fifteenth century 
a great exodus took place among the peoples throughout all eastern Afi'ica, and 
that this movement continued during the following centuries ; it has even con- 
tinued till recently in a north-westerly direction. The Abyssinian Gallas, the 
Wa-Humas of the riverain states of Nyanza, were to the north and west the 
advance guard of this migration of the Oromo peoples, which according to Barth 
and Hartmann, was probably caused by some great eruption of Kenia and other 
volcanoes of equatorial Africa. 

In any case the " Sons of Men," whom some authors have termed Semites and 
even " Aryans," are Nigritians, connected by imperceptible transitions with the 
populations of Central Africa. In many points they resemble their northern 
neighbours, the Agau, and their eastern and irreconcilable enemies the Somalis. 
Both speak dialects of the same linguistic family, which has been provisionally 
classed in the " Hamitic " group. According to Krapf, all the Gallas, those living 



THE G.VLLAS. 



195 



in the vicinity of the equator as well as the Oromos of Abj'ssinia, speak languages 
so closely related that they can easily understand each other. The various dialects 
may be reduced to five, all beariug remote resemblance to the Semitic tongues, not 
in their vocabulary but in their phraseology, indicating a similar mental constitu- 
tion. D'Abbadie has called attention to a certain coincidence between a large 
number of roots and grammatical features in the Basque and Galla tongues. The 
Gallas are said by Bleek to possess clicks like those of the Hottentots, but the 
statement has not been confirmed by other observers. Ignorant of writing, the 
Oromos have no books except the Bible, iatroduced by the missionaries, and which, 
with a few dictionaries and a grammar by Tuschek, constitute the entire Galla 

Fig. 62. — RorTEs of the Chief Explokees in Sovth Abyssinia. 
Scale 1 : 6,000,000. 




Rentes of Antoine d'Abbadie. 

—^^—.^—^.^ 120 ISilea. 



literature. The Ilm-Orma country is also occupied by peoples of different stock 
speaking another dialect as yet not reduced to writing by the missionaries. They 
are evidently the remains of conquered peoples forming isolated ethnological 
groups amid the invading hordes of the Galla nation. In the open Oromo country 
still exist a few groups of Amharinians who have preserved the Abyssinian 
language. 

The Gallas are usually of middle height, or about 5 feet 4 inches, although men 
are found amongst them as tail as the Scandinavians. They are broad-shouldered 
and slender- waisted, the young men having chests which would delight a sculptor ; 
the legs are shapely, the feet small and always well arched. Strong, active, and 

o 2 



196 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



slim, they resemble the Abyssinians, and more especially the Agau, to whom they 
are probably related ; but they are usually of a more attractive and open cast of 
countenance. The GaUas are extremely doHchocephalous, forehead high and 
rounded, the nose flat, the lips full but rarely pouting, the beard thin and the hair 
vravj and growing in separate tufts. The finest men are said to be found amongst 
the Limmus and Gudrus on the banks of the Abai', who, according to some authors, 
may be taken as types of the race. Like the bulk of the natives of the Upper 

Fig. 63. — Galla Girl. 




Nile, the " Sons of Men " are very skilful in dressing their hair in the shape of a 
crescent, a halo, or in long tresses ; but the right to these decorations is limited in 
many tribes to those who have killed a man, under penalty of having it shaved off 
every three months. The skin varies greatly in shade ; whilst that of the men is of 
a deep or reddish brown, that of the women is usually very light. The latter are 
all considered, even by white people, to be very handsome in their youth. According 
to Beke, the complexion of the Gallas along the Abai' or Blue Nile Valley is not 
darker than that of the Andalusian peasantry. It was due to their relatively fair 



THE GALLAS. 197 

colour that the Jesuits derived their usual name from the Greek word gala, that is 
to say, "milk." The men and women are gracefully attired in the Abyssinian 
toga, and the hero who has distinguished himself by some famous exploit proudly 
plants an ostrich plume in his hair. The Gallas are armed with a lance, the two- 
edged knife, and a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide. Their dwellings, which 
resemble those of the Abyssinians, are circles of rough stones conicaily roofed with 
grass or reeds. They are nearly all built imder the shade of large trees, and the 
traveller traverses many villages which he scarcely perceives through the dense 
forest vegetation. 

The northern Ilm-Ormas, like their Abyssinian neighbours, are far more intel- 
ligent than those of the west, and acquire languages with remarkable facility. 
Like the civilised Abyssinians, they till the land and breed stock. They possess 
numerous varieties of cereals, good horses, the best mules to be found in Central 
Africa, and two varieties of oxen, the zebu and the sanka, with long horns which 
when sprouting are trained to grow in the shajoe of a lyre. In many districts all 
the villages are occupied with bee-farming. However, the Gallas have not all 
the peaceful virtues of the agriculturalist, and their warlike instinct is often 
aroused. The country is wasted by continual feuds, and in some tribes the able 
men have been reduced by more than two-thirds. Even in the familj' itself, end- 
less vendettas are carried on, unless blood-mone}^ has been accepted. But if the 
Gallas are with good reason feared by most of their neighbours, they are in their 
turn frequently threatened in the north by the Abyssinians of Go jam and Shoa, 
and to the east by the Somalis, whilst the slave-hunters often make successful 
razzias into their forests. The children, especially, have reason to dread these 
marauders, because the adult Galla will often starve himself rather than submit to 
slavery, whereas if taken young they can soon be trained for a life of bondage. 
In nearly all the petty Galla states the trade in these children is carried on to the 
profit of the chiefs themselves, some of whom imj)ose a direct " child-tax " on each 
family, whilst others accept human flesh in payment of imposts. 

Some Galla tribes are grouped into republican federations, but the bulk of them, 
engaged in interminable wars, have elected Itcyu or chiefs, who alone of all the 
Gallas practise polygamy. Amongst the southern Ilm-Ormas, these chiefs are 
always chosen from some noble family, and are invested with power merely for a 
term of years. 

Most of the Ilm-Ormas were converted to Abyssinian Christianity before the 
invasion of Mohammed Graiiheh, or the " Left-handed," who overthrew the power 
of the ancient Ethiopian kings. From this period they have preserved the names 
of a few saints, the celebration of Sunday or "the Great Sabbath," and some other 
feasts of Christian origin. At present the increasing influence of the Abyssinian 
sovereigns has compelled several Galla tribes to re-embrace the monophysitic 
religion ; some of the natives also have accepted the tenets of the Protestant and 
Catholic missionaries. The native priests, originally slaves purchased in their 
youth by the Capuchin friars from the parents or slave-dealers, and brought up 
in the French seminaries, do not appear to enjoy much influence with their feUow- 



108 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

countrj-men. The Mahommedans have been more fortunate, and whole populations 
have fervently embraced the faith of Islam. 

The bulk of the nation has, however, remained faithful to their nature- worship. 
Nevertheless the Gallas believe in TTak, Ti'aka, or Wakayo, a supreme god whom 
they confound with the sky, and pray to for rain during the dry season, and for 
victory over their enemies. They have also other inferior gods, to judge from 
their names evidently of foreign origin. Such are Saltan, the spirit of evil; 
Boventicha, the tutelar genius of the race ; Oglieh, the god of generation, to whom 
sacrifices are offered at the commencement of the rainy season ; and Atetieh, the 
goddess of fertility, whose feast is celebrated at harvest time, which falls at the 
end of the winter. Moreover, they worship all living things and all formidable 
objects of nature, such as the forests, rivers, woods, mountains, thunder, and the 
winds ; each family has its protecting tree, often an oUve, which is named after 
the Virgin, St. Michael or some other saint, watered with the blood of sacrificial 
■\-ictims reared on honey and beer. Of animals the serpent, "the father of the 
world," is the most worshipped, and many a cabin has its domestic snake. The 
northern Gallas have priests and sorcerers; these latter, called kalisha, greatly 
dreaded on account of their incantations, pretend that they can dispose of the 
future at their will, causing life or death, and conjuring the evil spirit. But still 
more terrible are the huda, or were-wolves, who transform themselves into wild 
beasts and cause death by a mere glance. Every person proved to be a "buda" 
is immediately butchered, and, as in mediaeval Europe, it is the old women who 
usually fall victims to these popular superstitions. In the case of persons merely 
" possessed," an incessant drumming and exorcising is kept up, so as to drive out 
the zar, or evil spirit, and thus effect a cure. Thieves are scented out by the medium 
of a magician, or heba-shidi, a high court functionary, who, according to Antinori, 
aided by the terror his shrewdness inspires, rarely fails to discover the culprit. 

The Ilra-Ormas seldom practise polygamy, haviog only one wife, too often a mere 
slave charged with all the domestic duties, but considered unworthy to till the land, 
water the cattle, or milk the cows. The marriage forms are very numerous, and 
that of abduction is still honoured amongst certain tribes, the suitor's friends 
undertaking the seizure. He who manages to seize the young girl and carry her 
off in spite of her cries, becomes merely bj^ this act her brother and protector ; he 
brings her to the lover's hut, a cow is quickly killed, and the young girl sprinlded 
with its blood, which she also drinks. The union is henceforth inviolable, because 
the Ilm-Ormas, unlike the Somalis, " a nation of traitors and perjurers," never 
break their pledged word. However this abduction is often a mere pretence, the 
parents themselves bringing the sacrificial cow to the lover's dwelling. Sometimes 
it is the young girl who takes the initiative. She runs away from the paternal 
mansion bearing in her hand a tuft of fresh grass, with which she crowns the head 
of her lover ; then kneeling down she strikes the ground to the right and to the left, 
as if to take possession of her chosen husband's residence. It even happens that 
the ugly or deformed girls, to whom no yomig man would be tempted to throw a 
necklet, the usual form of asking in marriage, are assisted by their parents at night 



THE GALL AS. 



199 



to climb OTer the enclosure round the house of the man of their choice. She stops 
at his door till morning, and if he does not succeed in driving her aTray by insults, 
she has conquered, and " as required by the laws of their ancestors," the young man 
is obKged to marry her, whether he desire it or not. TVhen a Galla falls seriously 
ill and there is no hope of saving his Hfe, to prevent him suffering useless pain, 
his friends stifle him by filling his mouth with clotted milk kept in place by a 
cloth. In some tribes the childi-en and relations also kill their aged parents, even 
when not ill. The funeral ceremonies are regulated according to custom. A 
trophy of branches is placed on the tomb, indicating the wealth, position, and 
entire history of the deceased. The hair of women floating over the grave 



Fig. 64. — PoPVLATIONS OF SoCTH AbVSSINI.1. 

Scale 1 : 6,000,000. 



ii°":^r^M:5i^T" 



^^m^[ -r-r^-^ %^: 




^, 









^amtdaidi 



t . cT Greenwich 



^0" 



C. Perran 



120 Miles. 



expresses grief and puts the e'vil spirits to flight. The elder brother inherits the 
wife and children ; but if the deceased had no issue, his brother or relations must 
adopt or purchase an heir, who takes the dead man's name, and thus carries on the 
family. Children are frequently adopted by the Gallas ; the wife gives the child 
suck, the husband gives it his thumb to bite, and the ties of relationship are 
henceforth in^'iolable. 

The Galla communities, tribes or fractions of tribes, which bear a distinct name, 
differing according to their political siu-roundings and their upland or lowland 
place of habitation, may be reckoned by the hundred. Some of the clans have 
become Abyssinians by marriage and mode of life. Such are principally the ilechas 
of Gojam, the Jaggadas of Beghemeder, all nominally Christians ; the Wollo 



200 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

Mohammedans of the great plateau between Ankober and Magdala, and the 
heathen Borenas of the Abai kwalla. The dreaded Assebos, the Rayas, Ejus, and 
DawTis on the passes and eastern slo23es of the Abyssinian range, have for the 
most part preserved their primitive customs. The same is true of the independent 
or tributary Ilm-Ormas living to the west of Shea, towards the sources of the 
Awash, and on the waterparting between the Abai and the Gugsa, as well as the 
Jillis, Soddos, Iladas, Finfinis, Mettas, Nonnos, Gudrus, Horros, Jummas, and 
other tribes occupying the region formerly known as " Great Damot." A large 
tract of territory south and south-east of Shoa, towards Harrar, is inhabited by the 
Ittus and Arussis. Lastly, the Sidamas, peopling Itinari/a (Enarea), and Kaffa, in 
the south-western region of Abyssinia, are regarded as a branch of the Galla family. 
Amongst them Christianity had formerly the largest number of adherents and 
Abyssinian culture had made the greatest progress. Their colour is generally 
lighter than that of the other Ilm-Ormas, and the Arabs compare the complexion 
of the young Sidama girls to cinnamon. To the north some of the Sidama speak 
Gonga, a tongue related to the Agau, and current amongst the Damot Abyssinians 
north of the Blue Nile. 

TOPOGKAI'HY. 

The political centre of Shoa occupies the watershed on the two slopes of the 
Abyssinian range, eastwards towards the basin of the Awash, and westwards 
towards that of the Blue Nile. In this country, where the climate is temperate, 
and where the soil, better cultivated than in any other Abyssinian region, produces 
corn and fruits in abimdance, are grouped the civilised populations of Abj^ssinian 
origin, and here stood the cities successively chosen as capitals of the kingdom of 
Shoa. The palaces being merely large huts, it is easy to shift the site of the 
capitals, and the residence of the sovereign has changed several times during this 
century, according to the strategic advantages or the royal caprice. 

Licheh, the present capital, founded by King Menelik, and hence the greatest 
market in the country, stands on a terrace at the western base of the mountains 
culminating in Mount Metatiteh, between two ravines forming the beds of two 
headstreams of the Jemma, an affluent of the Blue Nile. To the east on an isolated 
rock still nearer to the range, and in the vicinity of Wat, or the " Abyss," are the 
ruins of Tegulet, the " Town of "Wolves," which became, after Aksum, the capital of 
Abyssinia, whilst its name was used for some time to designate the whole of Shoa. 
The fortress of Tegulet, which overawed the land, was taken by assault and destroyed 
in 1528 by Mohammed GraSheh, the conqueror of Abyssinia. A few miles to the 
south, on another terrace, over which auriferous streams fall in imposing cascades, 
lies Dehra-Berham, or "Mountain of Light^" which was the royal residence till the 
beginning of the eighteenth century. To the south-west, in the same river basin of 
the Jemma, two small wooded heights, surrounded hy formidable gorges, bear at an 
elevation of some 9,300 feet the houses of Angolakt, another abandoned capital, 
founded in 1830 by King Sehla Sellasieh. Lastly, there exists a fifth capital, 



TOPOGEAPHY. 



201 



historically more famous than the others, as a place where manj' European exftlorei's 
have rested, and as the point of departure or arrival for the Red Sea caravans. 
Ankober, the very name of which place recalls the fact that from the remotest times 
dues were here levied on foreign wares, is also the residence of the higher ecclesiastical 
functionaries. Ankober, a labyrinth of paths winding between the city huts, is 
delightfully situated on the ridges of a sphinx-shaped mountain which projects 
eastwards of the main chain, commanding a valley whence the waters drain south- 
wards to the Awash. Close by to the north is the station of Let-Marcfia, which 
the Italian explorers Cecchi, Chiarini, and Antonelli chose for their astronomical 
observations. Lct-Marefia lies at the bottom of an old crater, whence the lava-streams 
were discharged to the south-west. These lavas and adjacent terrace lands are 
encircled by an amphitheatre of hills, two of which, or rather two fragments of the 
Abyssinian plateau connected with the uplands by narrow ridges bordered with 



Fig. 6.5. — Chief Towns of East Shoa. 
Scale 1 : 630,000. 




[ . of Gr. 



C Perron 



12]Miles. 



precipices, bear the two ambas of Emanhirt, or Emcmref, and Fekerch-Gemb, which 
are regarded by the Abyssinians as impregnable. The latter fort contains in its 
terminal tower the treasures of King Menelik and the supplies for his army. To 
the north, in the valleys of the spurs, the villages of Aramba, Kokfara, Datcch, 
Majettieh, and several others follow in succession as far as the country of the Eju 
Gallas. 

In the remote future, when the question of connecting southern Abyssinia 
with the Red Sea coast shall be seriously thought of, three natural routes indicated 
by running waters cannot fail to be explored : to the north that which descends 
from the plateau of southern Lasta by the river Golima, and is lost in a depression 
flooded by brackish waters ; and farther south, under the latitude of Magdala, that 
following the Melleh or Addifuah River valley as far as the confluence, and thence 
to the Awash and Lake Aussa, where it rejoins the caravan route towards Tajurah 
Bay. Another route, as yet unexplored by Europeans, descends from the Argobba 



202 NOBTH-EAST AFRICA. 

towards the Awash by the market-towns of Daweh and Mejettieh. Abargues de 
Sosten claims to have explored these two northern routes in their upper part, in 
spite of the vicinity of the dreaded Dawri tribes. Bianchi has recently attempted 
to explore another and more northern route, from Makaleh to the port of Assab, by 
way of the country of the Taltals ; but he was compelled to retrace his steps. The 
presence of ferocious peoples on the spurs prevent traders from visiting this part 
of the Abyssinian watershed, whilst the caravans coming from the Red Sea coast 
or Tajurah Bay are compelled to make a complete detour from the direct route to 
reach the provinces of Shoa. From Tajurah to the town of Ankober, the usual 
caravan route is about 360 miles, some 120 to 150 miles longer than the direct 
route towards the plateau. 

At present the most frequented route between Ankober and the shores of the 
Indian Ocean is that which passes through the principality of Harrar, terminating 
in the port of Zeila. From the Shoa uplands, it descends at first to the town of 
AHu-Amha, inhabited, like the neighbouring village of Abderasul, by merchants, 
slave-dealers, hotel-keepers and muleteers of all races, nearly all of whom, how- 
ever, are zealous Mussulmans. After paying the custom-house duties, the caravans 
pass on to Farreh, or Farri, the last village of the province of Efat, built at a height 
of 5,560 feet on a projecting terrace ; then skirting the craters and lava-fields, 
they reach the Awash, which they cross to enter on the great plain of Mullii. 
Beyond this point the caravans proceed over the hills of a watershed, belonging to 
the country of the Ittus, thence redescending into the plain of Harrar. Some 24 
miles west of this town is the little Lake Ilaramoya, near which the French 
explorer Lucereau was assassinated in 1881. 

Harrar akd Zeilah. 

The town of Hamn; also called Harrayheh by the Abj'ssinians, Ada or Adari 
by the Somalis, and Herrer by the Egyptians, is stated by travellers to be exactly 
midway between, or 170 miles from, Ankober and Zeila. Lpng at an altitude of 
5,600 feet, Harrar enjoys a relatively temperate climate, from 54° to 59° F., and 
is surrounded by fertile fields and groves of diversified vegetation. A delightful 
and well-watered oasis situated on the border of the arid regions, Harrar could 
support itself, even if it had no commercial relations with the neighbouring 
countries. But it is moreover an important market-town, and its two ports, Zeila 
and Berbera on the Somali coast, keep up a brisk trade with Egypt and Arabia. 
In 1883 it had an European settlement of five persons. Said to have been founded 
three centuries ago, it is the most populous city in the whole of Abyssinia, and 
even one of the largest on the continent, for from Cairo to Zanzibar, a distance of 
2,400 miles, its only rival is Khartum. Accordingly the Egyptian Government 
took possession of it in 1875, so as to protect this precious market from the attacks 
of the surroimding Somali and Galla tribes ; but the garrison of from four thousand 
to five thousand soldiers, more dangerous than the nomads in the ^acinity, has 
exhausted the country by oppression and plunder. The English, who as they 



HAJREAE A2yD ZEILAH. 203 

possess the seaboard, are the heirs to Egypt, have already taken the necessary steps 
to secure this prize, which Burton was the first Englishman to visit, in 1855. On 
withdrawing the Egyptian garrison they hoisted the British flag on the walls. 
The king of Shoa, who was also desirous to obtain this town, had not sufficient 
strength to struggle against such rivals. 

Harrar, whose shape may be compared to that of a pear, Kes on a granite hill 
which gradually tapers to the west. To the south Moiint Hakim commands the 
town from a height of some 660 feet, giving birth to many streams, which water 
the gardens of Harrar and become lost in the marshes before reaching the Wabi, a 
tributary of the Indian Ocean. The numerous grottoes of Hakim are inhabited by 
long-tailed yellow monkeys, with thick manes. Contrasting with the scattered 
dwellings of other Abyssinian cities, the nine thousand five hundred terraced 
dwellings of Harrar, covering a space of only 120 acres, and built of calcareous rock 
full of vegetable fossUs, are crowded together within a rampart of stones flanked bv 
embattled towers. The houses have few openings on the narrow, winding, steep 
lanes, whilst the few irregular squares usuallj' open on the mosques ; the largest 
public space, called the Meidaii, occupies the summit of the hill. The Harrari, 
nearly all merchants, are fanatic Mussulmans of the Shiah sect, like the Persians 
and several tribes of Southern Ai'abia. From these countries probably came the 
missionaries who converted the Somalis and Gallas to their faith, and whose des- 
cendants constitute the present population of the city. When the Harrari meet 
together to chew the leaves of the kat (^cc/asfrus eclu/is), which is as highly prized 
by them as by the natives of Yemen as a stimulant, they begin and end the evening 
with readings from the Koran and acts of thanksgiving, " because this holy plant 
enables us to prolong our '\-igils longer into the night, in order to worship the 
Lord." 

The society of Harrar differs from the rest of the Mussulman world in the 
respect that is shown to women. Before the arrival of the Egj'ptians, the emir, 
alone of all the inhabitants of this country, had more than one wife, whilst divorces, 
so common in other Mohammedan countries, are here of rare occurrence. Besides, 
the women are unveiled, and sell the products of their gardens in the bazaar, the 
men taking on themselves aU the hard work ; and this town is also distinguished by 
its love of letters. According to Mohammed Mukhtar, all the children read and 
write Arabic, although it is a foreign language differing greatly from their own, 
which is either of GaUa origin, or according to Burton and Miiller, of Semitic stock. 
But they write the letters vertically, instead of from right to left. They have a 
certain literature, and their writers do not restrict themselves to mere comments on 
the Koran. One of the local industries is bookbinding. Although essentially a 
commercial town, Harrar has scarcely any industries, excepting that of its highly 
prized potteries, and its manufactories of togas, the black robes and mantiUas worn 
by the women, and the red garments reserved for the young girls. Most of the 
other manufactured articles are imported from Arabia, and the chaplets worn bj^ the 
Harrar people are made by immigrants from Hadramaut. Since the people have 
exchanged their independent state for the Egj-ptian rule, they have lost much of 



204 



NORTH-EAST APEICA. 



their propcrtj', the population has diminished, and hyaenas prowl around the town- 
walls. Coffee-growing is the principal occupation of the region around Harrar and 
in the plains tilled by the Gallas ; the berry, which is of a superior quality, is 
exported from Ilodcidah and Aden, under the name of " Mocha." Like the Yemen 
Arabs, the Harrari do not infuse the coffee, although they drink decoctions of bark 
and dried leaves. Tobacco, the opium poppy, bananas, oranges, and grapes are 
also produced on the plains of Harrar ; the potato has recently been introduced, 
and all the vegetables imported from Eurojje have thrived well. In its forests 



Fig. 66.— Harrar. 

Scale 1 : 9,500. 




L . oT b^eeflwlc^l 



4r45'50' 



C Perron 



Cemeteries. 



. 1,000 feet. 



Giuletti has discovered the coffar, or musical acacia, which Schweinfurth describes 
on the banks of the Nile, at the confluence of the Sobat. 

Two routes, often blocked by the inroads of plundering hordes, lead from 
Harrar to Zeda. One crosses a ridge to the north of the towTi, thence redescending 
into the basin of the Awash by the Galdessa Pass and valley, and from this point 
running towards the sea through the Issa territory, which is crossed by a chain of 
trachytic rocks trending southwards. The other and more direct but more rugged 
route ascends north-eastwards towards the Darmi Pass, crossing the country of the 
Gadibursis or Gudabursis. The towTi of Zeila lies south of a small archipelago of 
islets and reefs on a point of the coast where it is hemmed in by the Gadibursi 
tribe. It has two ports, one frequented by boats but impracticable for ships, 
whilst the other, not far south of the town, although very narrow, is from 26 to 33 



T A JTJEAH— OBOK— ASS AB . 



205 



feet deep, and affords safe shelter to large craft. According to Eochet d'Hericoiu-t, 
it is not of sufficient size to accommodate more than eight or nine vessels of from 
three to four hundred tons. In the vicinity of the town lies a large saline plain, 
whence the Issa camel-di-ivers obtaiu the salt which they sell to the Harrari at a 
high price. Zeila has no springs ; hence every morning a long string of camels is 
dispatched to seek the necessary water in the wadi of Tacosha. Three-fourths of 
the population consists of Issa GaUas, and every evening the village resounds with 



Fig. 6". — Zeii^. 
Scale 1 : 400,000. 




C-Perro.T 



Depths. 



0tol6 

Feet. 



16 to 32 

Feet. 



32 to 80 

Feet. 



SO Feet and 
upwanls. 



Eeet5. 



6 Miles. 



their warlike or other national songs. A small Ens-Hsh ffarrison from Aden now 
occupies the town, so that there is some hope that the slave-trade may at last be 
suppressed, of which Zeila has hitherto been one of the principal centres. 



T.ijrR.iH, Obok, Assab. 

The route between Shoa and Tajurah Bay does not enjoy, like that of Zeila, the 
advantage of a midway station such as the city of Harrar; still the principal town 
of the Amsa district, situated near the southern bank of a fresh-water lake, which 
receives the waters of the Awash, may be regarded as a veritable town. It is a 



206 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



collection of more than a thousand huts where are settled the merchants and camel- 
di'ivers of the Modaito Danakil tribe, and was once the capital of the Mussulman 
kingdom of Adel. From Aussa to Tajurah Bay follow in succession several other 
groups of cabins also belonging to the Afar tribes, and the northern shore of the 
bay is bordered by widely scattered hamlets and villages. Amongst others is that of 
Sangalo, which served till recently as the port whence the Galla slaves were shipped 
to Arabia, and which was annexed to France in 1882 by the French explorer 



Fig. 68. — Course of the Lower Awash. 
Scale 1 : 2,700,000. 




40° 



L of u eenw ch 



. 60 Milea. 



C Perron 



Solelliet. Still farther east the hamlet of Ambabo stands on a beach whence slaves 
have also been frequently shipped in spite of the French or English cruisers which 
are stationed on the shores of the Indian Ocean. Beyond Ambabo stands the town of 
Tajurah, which has given its name to the great bay reaching some 36 miles into 
the interior. Like Sangalo, this village has been ceded to France by the chief of 
the Ad-Ali tribe, but neither of these hamlets were formally taken possession of 
till the year 1884. The beach of Tajm-ah is unfortunately almost level; the port is 



TAJURAH— OBOK— ASSAB. 



207 



badly sheltered, and not of sufficient depth to admit vessels of small tonnage. The 
only part of the coast where the French have at last founded a permanent station, 
after ha%-ing ignored the deed of concession, which was signed in 1862, for over 
twenty years, is on the eastern peninsula of the Danakil coimtry, between the Bay 
of Tajurah and the mouth of the Eed Sea. The hamlet of Obok, in the immediate 
A-icinity, has given its name to the whole of the annexed temtory, and here in 1881 
the first commercial house was opened by Arnoux, a merchant who later on 
perished in a tribal feud. 

Obok offers great advantages as a port of call for steamers. Situated near the 

Fig. 69.— Tajurah Bat and Lake Assal. 
Scale 1 ; 900,000. 




Depths. 



C Perron 



to 160 
Feet. 



160 to 320 
Feet. 



320 Feet 
and upwards. 

15 Miles. 



Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, it commands the passage to much greater advantage than 
the town of Aden, and transports could here put in for coal without altering their 
course. Although this port cannot be compared to that of Aden, yet it possesses a 
good anchorage, which might be completely sheltered at small cost. It is separated 
from the high sea by coral reefs, in which are openings accessible to large ships ; 
the north and north-easterly winds, so feared by sailors, are deflected from the 
harbour by Eas-el-Bir, or "The Promontory of TTells," which projects into the 
sea north of Obok. The gradually widening valley, where the buildings of the 
growing village are beginning to replace the thickets of acacias and other trees, is 
commanded by a coraKne cliff about 60 feet high, the ravines by which it is 



208 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



intersected serving as channels for the floods during the rare rainfalls. The 
upper terrace is itself separated from the plain of the Danakils by a second 
somewhat less elevated cliff. Although the station of Obok suffers greatly from 
drought, the district might be reclaimed, and travellers, comparing the vegetation 
of Obok with the naked and burning rocks of Aden, describe this new station as 
an oasis. On sinking wells in the vallej'^ water is everywhere found at a depth of 
from 3 to 5 feet, a little brackish near the shore, but perfectly sweet farther inland. 
King Menelik has granted a formal concession to a French explorer to build a 
narrow-gauge railway between Ankober and Obok. Many of the caravans coming 



Fig. 70.— Obok. 
Scale 1 : 54,000. 




46°is 



L . OT L>reerivvich 



-5- 13' 



m 



Sands exposed 
at low water. 



to 32 
Feet. 



Depths. 



32 to 80 
Feet. 



C Perron 



80 to 160 
Feet. 

. 2,200 Yards. 



160 Feet and 
upwards. 



from Shoa have already commenced trading with this settlement. The extent of 
the lands on the northern shore of Tajurah Bay that have been conceded to 
France is estimated at 1,200 square miles. 

The commercial rivalry existing between the European nations, which has 
made Zeila an English city, and which now creates the French town of Obok on 
this coraline African coast, also caused an Italian colony to spring up on the same 
seaboard iu 1870. Southern Abyssinia, till recently almost cut off from the world, 
will thus possess for the exportation of its commodities three maritime ports 
belonging to as many different foreign jiowers. No serious attempts to utilise the 
town of Assnh were made till 1882. The new town, which already possesses 
several buildings in the European style, lies 72 miles directly north of Obok, and 



TAJTJEAH— OBOK— ASSAB. 



209 



36 miles from Bab-el-Mandeb, north of a long littoral indentation. Numerous 
islets scattered at the entrance of the harbour shut out the sea, excepting to the 
north-east, and are continued by reefs which the sand, mud, seaweed and coral are 
graduaUr causing to encroach on the bay, so that these islands must sooner or 
later become a peninsula of the mainland. The well-protected port, situated on 



Fig. "1. — AssAE. 
Scale 1: 2SO,O0O. 




C PeTon 



Depths. 



0to32 
Feet. 



32toei 
Feet. 



64 to SO 
Feet. 



80 Feet 
and upwards. 

6 Miles. 



the beach of Boiiia, about half a mile south of Assab, affords anchorage to the 
largest vessels within 500 feet of the coast. The territory of Assab is a shifting 
dune or hard rock nearly destitute of vegetation. Near the neighbouring village 
of Margahkh are a few pools of water fringed with verdure ; here and there the 
Afar huts are shaded by some clumps of palms, while along the intermittent 
streams the brushwood is matted together by a network of creeping plants. The 

VOL. X. p 



210 NOBTH-EAST APEICA. 

town of Assiib, Laving to obtain puro water by distillation, and possessing no 
arable lands or agricultural industries, cannot expect a great commercial future ; 
its only product is salt, and even this cannot be worked in safety. But the few 
Italians in Assab, round whom are grouped some five hundred Arabs, Afars, and 
Somalis, are making great efforts to establish permanent relations between their 
station and the towns of Shoa. Although at a great distance from the rich 
countries of the interior, being at least twenty-two and usually twenty-five days' 
march from Ankober, Assab has begun to import some merchandise, such as coffee 
hides, and other products, thanks to the efforts of Antonelli, Bianchi, and other 
travellers. But this slight traffic can only be carried on under the guidance and 
protection of the natives. The explorer Giuletti and several companions, hoping 
to pass through under the safe conduct of the neighbouring tribes, were assassinated 
at seven or eight days' march into the interior. Nearly all the trade carried on 
with Aden and Hodeidah, is conducted bj' means of sambucs ranging from seven to 
ten tons burden, and the annual movement which takes place in the port numbers 
some four hundred vessels. The town of Raheita, situated farther south, is the 
residence of a sultan, who is also a wealthy dealer in mother-o'-pearl, ostrich- 
feathers, incense, myrrh, and other products of this coast region. The littoral 
town of Bdibvl, to the north, is the residence of another sultan under the protection 
of the Italian Government. 



Debka-Libanos, Rogeh, Dildilla, 

In the western region of Shoa, the most important place is the commercial town 
of Ficheh, built at the angle of a plateau, between deep kwallas. Near here stands 
the famous monastery of Debra-Libanos, or Mount Liban, built on a trachytic 
terrace from which runs a little riviilet, looked ujjon as holy by Christians, Pagans, 
and Mussubnans alike. Pilgrims come from all parts to bathe in these miraculous 
and healing waters, which were created by the voice of Tekla^Haimanot, the 
legendary saint of the Abyssinians. At the time of the voyage of Combes and 
Tamisier, the monastery' was occupied by three thousand monks, two-thirds of whom 
were old soldiers mutilated during their expeditions into the GaUa country. No 
other place of refuge is more respected than Debra-Libanos. Before crossing the 
escarj)ments of the sacred mountain the pilgrims must cleanse themselves from their 
sins in the waters of the Ziga Wodiem — that is, " flesh and blood " — which flows 
through a deep gorge. On a neighbouring height, whence a riew over the vaUey 
of the Aba'i can be had of the Gojam and Damot mountains, stands an ancient 
fortress which served as a place of refuge for one of the ancestors of MeneKk, at 
the time of the conquest of the country by the " Left-handed." Zena-Markos, 
another monastery situated north-west of Ficheh, on a plateau surrounded by 
ravines, is almost as opulent and as much frequented as that of Debra-Libanos. To 
the north the plateaux, as far as Magdala and the sources of the Takkazeli, are 
occupied by the Wollos and other Galla peoples. The Wollos, who are divided into 
seven tribes, are immigrants come from the south in the sixteenth century, at the 



I 



DEBEA-LIBANOS— ROGEH— DILDILLA. 211 

time of the iuvasiou of Grafiheh. But on settKng dowa they adopted many of the 
customs of the Amharinians, whom they had dispossessed ; abandoning their nomad 
life they became agriculturists and adopted the toga, although they retained their 
Mohammedan faith. In the northern part of "Wolloland, on a rock possessing 
excellent natural defences, the King of Shoa has foimded the stronghold of Woreilla, 
near the confines of Abyssinia properly so called. This place has become a very 
important market for exchanges between the two reahn.s, and here the Emperor 
Johannes usually gives receptions to his vassals. 

All the territory south-west and west of Shoa belongs also to the Ilm-Ormas, 
and possesses large collections of buildings almost worthy the name of towns. The 
barren northern slopes of Mount Hierer, or Jerrer, are covered with the huts of the 
large Mussulman village of Rogeh, or Borjie/i, which, situated on one of the affluents 
of the Awash on the confines of Gurageh, in the territory of the Galla tribe of the 
Galen, has a large trade in coffee, and is still the chief slave-market in southern 
Abyssinia. This traffic is officially forbidden in the possessions of King Menelik, 
and the captives are not piibHcly exposed, but they are secretly sold and sent to the 
sea-ports, whence they are exported to Arabia or Egypt. In 1878, the explorers 
Chiarini and Cecchi foimd the " current price " of the Galla slave to vary from 
thirty or forty Maria-Theresa crown-pieces for a young and good-looking girl, to 
four for an old woman. All the inhabitants of Rogeh, nmnbering some 10,000, 
claim to be of Tigre stock, and are said to descend from two Mohammedans who 
immigrated some centuries ago. The plain of Finfini to the west, near the sources 
of the Awash, and at the mouth of a formidable gorge, is frequently selected by 
the sovereigns of Shoa as the rallying-point where the armies assemble for 
expeditions into the GaUa country. Hot springs, at which the cattle di-ink, spout 
forth in the plain, and the neighbouring mountains furnish an iron ore from which 
nearly all the Shoa hardware is manufactured. The rocks in the \'icinit}" are 
honeycombed with grottoes, one of which has several naves with elliptical vaults, 
separated from each other by square pillars which grow thinner towards the middle. 
These works of art, in a country now occupied by the miserable dwellings of the 
Katelo Gallas, are a standard by which the decadence of civilisation can be measured. 
On the solitary Moimt Endotto, west of the plain of Finfini, formerly stood a capital 
of the kingdom of Shoa, and here the tombs of its ancient kings are still to be seen. 
It is now the residence of a ras, or chief. In this region, one of the most fertile in 
Abyssinia, the French explorer, Arnoux, obtained from MeneUk a grant of 250,000 
acres of land, on which he intended to establish a European colony. When easy 
routes through the valley of the Awash are opened between it and Tajurah Bay, 
this region ■«'ill doubtless become one of the most productive in Africa. Meanwhile 
the graftings of wild oHves and the ehinchona plantations are preparing the future 
wealth of the country. The King of Shoa has recently chosen as his residence the 
village of Dildilla, west of Fiafkii ; it is one of the temporary capitals of the kingdom, 
and is moreover placed in an excellent strategic position to watch over the Galla 
populations. 

Beyond the Awash stretch the Galla republican confederations and small 

p2 



212 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

monarchical states, with imcertain frontiers, mostly divided from each other by 
desert tracts, or " hemes," as D'Abbadie calls them on his map. Gurageh, on the 
upper affluents of the Waisa and Wabi, is one of these states, an upland region 
separated from the Awash and the kingdom of Shoa by the Soddo country. This 
state is looked upon as holy by the Abyssinians, because, according to a legend, 
the five islets in Lake Zwai are said to be the only Christian land which was left 
unconquered by the terrible Graiiheh, whose soldiers were afraid to venture on the 
rafts built to transport them to the archipelago. On these islets are convents in 
which some ancient MSS. are preserved. All the people of Gurageh still claim 
to be Christians, although they have neither priests, churches, nor religious tenets. 
They content themselves with repeating the names of a few saints, and cursing the 
Pagans and Mohammedans. Although relapsed into barbarism, the people of 
Gurageh have still preserved the art of building far more elegant dweULngs than 
those of all other Abyssinians, excepting those of Gondar. In order to protect 
themselves against the Soddos and other nomad Gallas, the people of Gurageh 
have excavated pits here and there in which they conceal themselves on the 
approach of the enemy, whose passage they watch, often attacking them unawares, 
and even occasionally cutting off their retreat when in sufficient numbers. Gorieno 
is the capital of the country, and G/ichisso its chief market, although a less im- 
portant place than Mogcn; which lies farther westwards in the Kabena country. 
Gurageh and Kabena, often held as belonging to the same political group, differ 
entirely in manners, religion, and speech. The Kabena are fanatical Mussulmans, 
and were the King of Shoa not to keep good order, they would be continually 
warring against their Christian neighbours ; they are the chief slave-hunters for 
the markets of Rogeh and Abderasul. The Kabena country produces the best 
tobacco in all southern Abyssinia. 

The GaUa region, where the Awash rises, and which separates the two great 
curves of the Blue Nile and the Gugsa, is mainly occupied by Liben communities. 
Farther west the valleys overlooked by the lofty Jimma-Iiagiimara Alps are 
peopled by republican tribes, as are also the plains of Gudru, tributaries of the 
Blue NUe. Beyond this point, towards the region of the Bertas, follow in succes- 
sion the Alatus, Wobos, Washitis, and Wasas, all tribes of Oromo origin, concern- 
ing whom travellers have hitherto collected the most contradictory accounts. 
The Italian Cecchi is as yet the only traveller who has succeeded in crossing at 
this point the large river Ghibeh, a northern affluent of the Gugsa. This formid- 
able watercourse, some 4,000 feet broad after the rains, is crossed in narrow canoes 
hollowed out of tree-trimks. The portion of the country stretching westwards to 
the mountains of Jimma-Lagamara towards the sources of the Jabus, is covered 
with vast forests. 

To the south the two kingdoms of Guma and Limmu are still mainly in the 
basin of the Orghesa or Didesa, one of the largest but one of the least known 
rivers in the Abai system. The town of Chora, capital of Guma, is situated on an 
affluent of this watercourse ; whilst Saka, the great market of Limmu, stands on a 
rivulet flowing to the Indian Ocean. Similarly situated are the towns in Innarya 



\ 



1 



INXABYA. 213 

or Ennarea, and all the other southern Galla states, Jimma-Kaka, or " Kingdom of 
Abba-Jifar," Gera, Yangaro, Sidama, Kullo, Ghimira, and the great state of Kafia, 
the largest country peopled by Gallas which recognises the suzerainty of Abys- 
sinia. Like the provinces of Abyssinia properly so called, all these states are 
variously divided into degas, voina-degas, and kwaUas ; but on the whole the 
intermediary zone is the most important, for in it are centred all the chief towns 
and market-places. In Jimma and Guraa the lands belong mainly to the zone of 
the upland plateaux, and barley is here chiefly cultivated ; the lowlands occupy a 
larger extent in Innarya, Limmu, and Kaffa. 



IxXARYA. 

The name of Innarya was formerly applied to a far more extensive region than 
that which has preserved this appellation. Like Abyssinia it was a Christian 
kingdom, and for centuries its Sidama inhabitants successfidly resisted the sur- 
rounding Pagans and Mohammedans. But the Limmu-Gallas, occupying the 
upper basin of the Orghesa, at laiit seized the country and, when they embraced 
Islam, forced their new religion upon the conquered Sidamas. The people of 
Innarya, now governed by a queen, are ^Mussulmans, although the name of Sidama, 
which has no longer any definite meaning, is still used as a general term for the 
Christians of the Abyssinian countries bounded north by the course of the Abai. 
Innarya, properly so called, no longer comprises more than the upper valley of the 
Gugsa, where this river still flows northwards. The lowlands and slopes of this 
valley are pre-eminently fitted for coffee culture, the shrubs being far finer than 
those of Kaffa, from which country the plant has received its name. Coffee-plants 
are said to be found in Innarya some 8 to 10 feet in circumference. Coffee is 
monopolised by the king, and his slaves alone have the right to gather and sell 
it for him in the market of Saka. The gold-dust, which was formerly the chief 
wealth of Innarya, is no longer found in sufficient quantities for exportation. 

Although they have lost their ancient civilisation, the people of Innarya are 
still said to be the most civilised nation of southern Abyssinia, and to excel even 
the Abyssinians as artisans. The market of Gondar can show nothing superior to 
their embroideries, or to their weapons with carved silver-mounted hilts. They 
manufactxire iron instruments, which are exported even as far as the tribes 
occupying the basin of the Sobat. A fortified custom-house defends from the north 
the approaches to Limmu from Abyssinia. Many of these upland states are almost 
entirely enclosed by a belt of double walls, moats, and drawbridges ; moreover a 
large moor, on which no one has the right to settle, spreads round the country, 
protecting it like the moat of a stronghold. Each kingdom resembles a besieged 
fortress. As can be well understood, communications in this country are a matter 
of great difficulty. Whilst a pedestrian could traverse in four days the forty miles 
between the great market of Basso, in Gojam, and that of Sal;a in Innarya, the 
caravans have even taken two years to accomplish this journey. 



214 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



Yangaro. 



Yangaro (Janjero, Zinjero), south-east of lunarya and east of Gimraa-Kaka, 
comprises a portion of the hilly slopes draining to the Gugsa. In no other country 
are the " rights " of the reigning house better safeguarded by legal guarantees. 
Excepting the king, his children, and the low-caste peoples who are too much 
despised to be feared, Beke was unanimously informed that all the males were 
partially mutilated, so as to incapacitate them for the throne. One of the king's 
thousand jjrivileges is the use of certain medicines which are forbidden to his subjects. 
The people having no other annual food than beef, all suffer from tape-worm like 
the northern Abyssioians ; but the king destroj's this parasite by the use of a 
decoction of kusso, while the common people, not daring to touch the "king's 
medicine," have to content themselves with bitter herbs. Amongst other strange 
stories told of this mysterious Yangaro country, the missionaries Isenberg, Krapf 
and Massaj'a, relate that hiunan sacrifices are ver}' common, a new-born child being 
frequently immolated to their divinities. Immediately after their birth the males 
are said to have their breasts cut off, so that the future warriors may in no way 
resemble the " soft sex." Wlien the slave merchants take captives of this country 
they never fail to throw the most beautiful into a lake, so as to render fate favour- 
able to their voji^age ; but they rarely succeed in capturing males, who usually 
commit suicide rather than accept slavery. The name of Yangaro has often been 
ironically confounded with that of Zinjero, which signifies "monkeys" in Amhari- 
nian ; hence the reports often heard of a race of enslaved monkeys existing in 
Africa. Jimma-Kaka, or Kingdom of Abba-Jifar, is one of the regions which 
supply most slaves to the merchants or jibberti. According to Beke, nearly all the 
slaves brought from the northern and eastern Galla territories are made eunuchs by 
dealers settled in the town of Folia. 

Kaffaland. 

The country of Kaffa is one of those whose people still claim to be Christians, 
although a long isolation has effected a marked change between their practices and 
those of the Abyssinians. There are said to be only six or eight churches in the 
country, centres of widely extended parishes and sanctuaries for the criminals and 
oppressed classes ; the kings are buried under one of these sanctuaries. According 
to Massaya, the Kaffa Christians are ignorant even of the name of Jesus Christ, and 
worship the three saints, George, Michael, and Gabriel. Exceedingly scrupulous 
in the observance of their customs, which chiefly apply to the nature of their food, 
the people of Kaffa never eat corn of any descrij)tion, and to call them " gramini- 
vorous" is considered an insult. Their only vegetable food consists of the stalk of 
the ensete banana, which is cultivated around all their villages. The ordinary 
grains, such as wheat, barley, and haricots, are used merely as food for cattle and 
the brewing of beer. They are no less exclusive as to meat-eating, the ox being 
the only quadruped whose flesh they are allowed to eat. But the men, more 



KAFFALAXD. 215 

fortunate than those of Yangaro and other neighbouring states, are also allowed to 
eat poultry. According to custom, if the women eat this latter food they loose their 
liberty and are immediately sold as slaves, the traffic in human flesh not being for- 
bidden to the Christians of Kaffa, as it is to those of northern Abj'ssinia. Their 
clothing is also rigorously regulated, skins, tanned or imtanned, being forbidden ; 
their garments are made of cotton tissues or coarse stuffs woven from the fibres of 
the ensete. Although Bonga, the capital of Kaffa, may be " the largest town exist- 
ing in Abyssinia," and an active market, money was hardly kno-mi there in the 
middle of this century. The only mediums of exchange were glass beads and the 
salt imported from Sokota. To the south-west, in the Sheka or Siaka country, the 
natives collect gold-dust from the sands of the rivers. The sovereigns of Kaft'a 
maintain a ceremonious etiquette nearly as rigorous as that of the kings of Yan- 
garo. According to Soleillet, who has recently penetrated into this coimtry, the 
ministers and grandees of the kingdom cannot speak to their master imless covered 
with fetters Kke slaves, although they are separated from the royal presence by a 
curtain. To shun recognition the king himself goes out shabbily clothed and 
moimted on a miserable horse ; but his escort is observed from afar, and everyone 
hides so as to escape the consequences of meeting him. In this country of etiquette 
the formula of salutation is, " I hide mj-self under the earth." "When the 
Christian priests still resided in the coimtry, the faithful were boimd never to let 
them touch the ground between the mission-house and the church, so they were 
carried on the shoulders of strong men. It is related that these priests being 
unable to go to Gondar to receive consecration from the abuna, had brought to 
them by caravan a precious box which the "father" had filled ^\-ith his sacred 
breath. 

South of Kaffa, on the watershed of the Indian Ocean, stretch the forests peopled 
by the mysterious Dokos, that is to saj-, in Galla, the " Ignorant," or the " Savages." 
According to Krapf, Isenberg, and most other explorers, the Dokos are dwarfs, like 
the Akkas of the Welle River, whilst D'Abbadie asserts they are in no way different 
from their neighbours, the Swaheli. 

The King of Shoa, absolute in his kingdom, exercises only an indirect influence 
over the smaU. tributary Galla states, and the southern kingdoms have been induced 
to accept the suzerainty of the " king of kings," less through his influence than 
that of the ras of Gojam, who controls the trade routes leading from Gondar and 
Sokota to Kaffa. However, the material power of the King of Shoa over the .sur- 
rounding coxmtries has greatly increased during the last few years, thanks to the 
organisation of his army, which already comprises a body of permanent troops 
amounting to a thousand riflemen. In time of war, when the great nagarit, or 
war-drum, is beaten, this corps is followed by crowds of warriors and plunderers. 
According to Chiarini, the anned rabble occasionally amounts to nearly a 
hundred thousand persons. The tribute paid to the negus by the kings of Shoa 
and Gojam is very considerable. Besides a present of Maria- Theresa cro^Ti-pieces, 
the sovereign of Shoa is said to be obliged to supply his master with a hundred 
thousand oxen, two thousand horses, and two hundi-ed leopard skins. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



rPPER XUBIA. 




HE wliole of the northern and western watershed of Abyssinia, with 
the exception of the basin watered by the Barka, is kno\^Ti by its 
hydrography to belong to the Nilotic system. The region watered 
bj' the Blue Nile and the Atbara, with their affluents, is geogra- 
phically sharply defined westwards by the Bahr-el-Abiad, or Great 
Nile, and eastwards by the advanced promontories of the Abyssinian plateau. To 
the south the water-parting between the Tumat, a tributarj- of the Blue Nile, and 
the Sobat, one of the main branches of the White Nile, is partly composed of 
mountains or high hills which have not yet been crossed by European explorers. 
An unknown land, with an area equal to that of Belgium and Holland together, 
stretches beyond these limits, and here the frontiers are more effectually guarded 
by its savage, warlike, or wandering peoples than by a line of fortresses and 
custom-houses. The zone of separation between Upper and Lower Nubia is 
formed by the relatively small region which separates the Nile at its junction 
with the Atbara from the waters flowing to the Eed Sea. With these boundaries 
the whole of the plains between the Nile and Abyssinia constitute the region of 
Nubia, usually designated under the name of Eastern Sudan, although the term of 
Beled-es-Sudan, or " Land of the Blacks," should be restricted to lands inhabited 
by Negroes. The total superficial area of this region ma}' be approximately 
estimated at 224,000 square miles ; the population of the whole territory, 
extremely dense in the basins of the Tumat and Jabus, maj- perhaps number 
3,000,000. 

Physical axd Political Features. 

For m ing a distinct domain to which the general slope of the soil gives a certain 
geographical unity, eastern Sudan consists of distinct basins verging slightly north- 
westwards along the Blue Nile and Atbara, and diverging northwards along the 
Mareb and Barka. It is cut up by isolated masses on the plains, by chains of hills 
and desert spaces, into natural provinces which the tribes engaged in war have 
converted into so many petty states, whose frontiers are changed according to the 
fortune of war and the constant inroads of the nomad peoples. The more scanty 



PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL FEATURES. 



217 



the population, the more they break up iuto independent groups, never communi- 
cating with each other except through the medium of occasional traders. Never- 
theless native states, become powerful by agriculture and commerce, have spruno- 
up in this region, gradually extending the sphere of their influence over the 
surrounding peoples. Thus was formerly founded, under the influence of the 
Egyptian civilisation, the kingdom of Meroe, which comprised not only " the 
island " bounded by the Astapus and Astaboras, but also the neighbouring 
countries. After the introduction of Mohammedanism the kingdom of Senaar 
was developed, which also exceeded the Kmits of its "island" or peninsula, between 
the White and Blue Niles. But the position of Upper Nubia between the plateaux 

Fig. 72. — Routes of the Chief Explorers in Tak\ and Neighboukino Districts. 

Scale 1 : 8,000,000. 



18' 



16' 



S'V^"T'7"''"M wwi^yv";;^ 




L of ureenwich 



tkM^ 



Itinerariea. 



Caravan Routes. 



Telegraph Lines. 



B. BarKharat, 1814. 

Rl. RuppeU, 1832. 

K. Katte, 1836. 

Ab. D'Abbadie, 1838-48. 

F. and G. Ferret and Galinier. 

W. Weme, 1840. 

Le. Lefebvie, 1842. 



Sa. Sapeto, 1861. 

Hn. Hamilton, 1854. 

M. Munzingcr, 1855-61-75. 

C. Courral, 1857. 

Hg. Heuglin, 1857-61-62-64-76. 

Be. Beurmann, 1860-63. 

HI. Hansal, 1861. 



Bk. Baker, 1861. 

St. Steudner, 1861-63. 

E. Ernst de Cobourg, 1862. 

L. Lejean, 1864. 

K. Krockow, 1865. 

8. Schweinfurth, 1865-68. 

Ha. HalcSvy, 1868. 

120 Miles. 



C Perron 



Ee. Reil, 1868. 

R. Rokeby, 1870-71. 

P. Prout, 1872. 

H. HUdebiandt, 1872. 

J. Junker, 1876. 

Mi. Mittchell, 1877. 

Mil. Muller, 1880. 



of Abyssinia and the banks of the Nile belonging to Egypt makes it a natural 
battlefield for the sovereigns of these two countries. For more than half a century 
the Egyptians have occupied the intermediary zone, and in spite of their disastrous 
conflicts with the Abyssinians, they appeared to have definitely conquered the 
Sudan. But a formidable revolt, brought on by their exactions, has left them only 
a few places in the country recently annexed to their vast domains, and they have 
now been supplanted by the English on the coast. By the construction of routes 
and railways the whole country will doubtless soon be restored to civilisation. In 
virtue of the official proclamations addressed to all the inhabitants of the country 
by the late General Gordon " in the name of the most high Khedive and the all- 



218 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

powerful Britannia, Sudan is henceforth to enjoy full independence, and regulate 
its own affairs, -ndthout the undue interference of any foreign Government." 

At present the Mussulman states in this region of Sudan are entirely destitute 
of strategical routes, although at first sight the country seems to be completely open 
to the Abj'ssinians occupying the plateaux. They could easily descend by their 
riverain valleys, but as they cannot long breathe a mephitic atmosphere, the climate 
of the lowlands is a far more formidable enemy to them than the natives ; such 
conquests as they do effect are transitory, and by the verj' force of circumstances 
are again soon lost. On the other hand, if they are i^revented by nature itself from 
seizing these lowlands, they would still be a great obstacle to invaders of Upper 
Nubia wishing to penetrate along the route over the fertile slopes to Massawah and 
the countries of the Mensas and Bogos. The Egyptians learnt to their cost the 
dangers of venturing on this route, exposed, as they were, to the attacks on their 
flanks from the Abyssinian warriors. Farther north, from Suakin to the Xile, 
the water in the wells is barely sufficient for the nomad tribes, and owing to this 
cause the operations of the British troops in this region were greatly impeded during 
the campaigns of 1884 and 1885. Pending the opening of the railway from Suakin 
to Berber begun in 1885, the plains of the Blue Nile and Atbara can be reached 
only by the three traditional northern routes — that which follows the Nile fi-om 
cataract to cataract ; and those avoiding the great curves of the Nile by running 
across the desert of BajTida, between Debbeh and Khartum on the west; and 
through the Nubian wilderness between Korosko and Abu-Hamed on the east. 
These three routes were closed to the EgjiDtians by the late Mussulman insurrec- 
tion, and re-opened by the EugKsh under General Wolseley in 1884-5. 



The Gumu, Berta, axd Lega Mountaixs. 

Beyond the Abyssinian plateaux the East Sudanese provinces have also their 
isolated mountain masses, forming veritable archipelagos in the midst of the plain. 
Many of these lofty hills which are delineated on the maps as forming part of the 
orographic system of Abyssinia, are, in reality, separated from it by plaias. Such 
are the Gumu Mountains, commanding to the east the valley in which the Aba'i, or 
Blue Nile, in its upper course completes its semicircular bend before reaching the 
plain. A few escarpments close to the river form, together ■n'ith the projecting 
promontories of the opposite watershed, the last gorge of the Abyssinian Nile. 
Farther up the river, and near its confluence with the Jabus, stands an isolated 
rock, the Abu-Danab of the Arabs, the Tulu-Soghida of the Gallas, which is the 
" Mountain of Salt," whose abimdant resources have not yet been anah'sed by 
Europeans. Beyond this point to the south-west the Timiat and Jabus, two large 
afiluents of the Blue Nile, skirt the eastern base of other moim^tains or of an ancient 
plateau, which running waters have completely furrowed in every direction. These 
are the Berta Mountains, famous for their gold washings, which determined the 
Egyptian invasion. 



THE GtnsrU, BEETA, AND LEGA MOUNTAINS. 219 

The Berta Mountains, followed by those of the Lega, whose highest tiilu or 
summits exceed 10,000 feet, although their mean height is said to be scarcely 5,000 
feet, stretch southwards towards the sources of the Sobat affluents, rejoining the 
Kaffa plateau by intermediary ranges which have not yet been explored by 
European travellers. But to the north the heights gradually lessen ; the inter- 
mediary plains broaden out and imito, and the ranges are merely indicated by 
isolated rocks cropijiug out above the lowlands in continually decreasing numbers. 
"West of the Fazogl country one of these isolated heights, the lofty Jebel-Tabi, 
partlj' covered with forests, attains a height of over 4,330 feet. Still farther on 
the red granite cone of Jebel-Guleh, that is to say, " Mount of Woods," or " Mount 
of Ghouls," according to Marno, which the Fun] designate as the cradle of their 
race, attains a height of 2,820 feet. Still more to the west is a chain of rocks in 
the midst of the steppes which border the right bank of the White Nile. The 
highest is that of Defafaug, which was till recently an ethnical limit between the 
coimtrj' of the Denka Negroes and that of the Abu-Rof Arabs. The two riverain 
zones of the ^Vhite and Blue Nile, on each side of the Mesopotamia of Senaar, are 
extremely fertile, thanks to the rainfall and the alluvia brought down by these 
rivers. But the intermediary region, which forms the base of the scattered rocks, 
presents in man}^ jjlaces the api^earance of a steppe. The land is covered with tall 
grasses, from the midst of which spring mimosas with their slight and delicate 
foliage. The populations, sedentary on the river bank, are nearly all nomad in the 
grassy plains surrounding the mountains of the peninsula. 

East of the lower valley of the Blue Nile the plains are analogous in character. 
Wooded and fertile along the river banks, they become bleak and barren away from 
the watercourses. In the level region of Gedaref, between the Rahad and the 
Atbara, trees are rarely seen. The most remarkable of the isolated masses 
scattered amongst the steppes east of the Blue Nile is that of Abu-Ramleh, or 
" Father of the Sands," scarcely 1,660 feet high, but flanked by superb towers 
piled up in enormous masses. From the interstices of these rocks spriug baobabs, 
their branches waving over the abyss, whilst here and there some hut, to which 
cUstance gives the appearance of a bee-hive, nestles between the cliffs at the base of 
the gigantic tower. In the northern steppe, Jebel-Arang, the most advanced 
mountain, which attains an absolute height of but 2,000 feet not far from the right 
bank of the lower Rahad, is mainly covered by forests containing baobabs, which 
here reach their northern limit. On the eastern side the Jebel-Arang is followed 
by the Jebel-Abash ; then to the south the plain is studded with other heights, 
solitary or grouped, some of granite but nearly all of volcanic origin ; some are 
even topped by basalt columns affecting the divers forms of peristyles, pyres, or 
diverging facets. These heights in the midst of the steppes receive considerably 
more raia than the plains, and the water running rapidly over the slopes is absorbed 
by the sand and gravel surrounding the rocky escarpment. In order to obtain 
water during the dry season, the natives pierce the earth at the mouth of the 
ravines, and the pools thus formed, usually surrounded by trees, are named kharif 
from the rainy season which tills them. In the dried-up river beds the crocodiles 



220 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

and certain species of fish, notably the siluroid sinodoiitm, lie torpid till reanimated 
by the returning waters of the rainy season. 

The water-parting between the Nile basin and the slope of the Red Sea consists 
of irregular cliffs of various heights, but none lower than 3,300 feet. Primitive rocks 
and volcanic formations alternate in this mountainous region, which in many 
places presents the appearance of a plateau scored with ra%-ines. At the mouth of 
the valle}'s sloping from the Abyssinian uplands, notably on the northern declivity 
of the Nakfa Mountains, are seen piles of debris, which Heuglin felt inclined to 
regard as the moraines of ancient glaciers, similar to those foimd by Fraas in the 
peninsula of Sinai. The granite rocks on both sides of the Red Sea, their slopes 
completely barren of vegetation and glittering with the many colours of their 
crystalline strata, resemble each other by their bold outlines and brilliant colours. 
One of the finest on the western side is the isolated Mount Shaba, rising above the 
marshy depression in which the waters of the Barka run dry. The vast peninsula 
of alluvial lands which at this point projects into the Red Sea basin shows that the 
river was formerly much more abimdant than it is now. 

Climate, Flora, Fauxa. 

The climate of Upper Nubia occupies a middle position between the humid zone 
of the equatorial lauds and that of the slight rainfall where the Nubian desert 
begins. Still there is no part of the country which does not possess a rainy season, 
more or less abundant. At Khartum, situated about the middle of Upper Nubia, 
the kharif occasionally commences in May, more frequently in Jime or July, 
terminating in September. Rain is brought down by the easterly or south-easterly 
winds — that is to say, the southern trade winds of the Indian Ocean ; but after the 
rains the dry north winds return, lasting tiU March, the period of the equinox. 
During this season the temperature occasionally falls to 50° F., and at this time of 
the year the mornings and evenings are so cold as to require warm clothing ; the 
daily oscillations of temperature average 60° F. During the kharif it is dangerous 
to remain on the frequently flooded river banks on accoxmt of the prevalent marsh 
fevers, and numerous tribes then withdraw to the upland regions of the interior. 
The black and the white ibis, very common in the valley of the Blue Nile during 
the season, also disappear before the rains, "for fear of the malaria," as the natives 
say. 

Upper Nubia is naturallj' divided into an agricultural and a grazing country, 
according to the abundance of the rains and running waters, the nature and eleva- 
tion of the land. In the Fazogl country and on the banks of the Upper Jabus 
the arborescent vegetation is almost as leafy as in the verdant valleys surrounding 
the great lakes. Beyond the forest zone, which encircles the Abyssinian plateaux 
throughout most of their extent and which is continued along the river banks, 
the mouths of the valleys and the hills are pre-eminently adapted for agriculture. 
Thanks to their fertile alluvia and splendid climate, these lands may one day become 
one of the richest cotton and tobacco producing countries in the world. The steppe, 



CLIMATE— FLORA— FAUXA. 221 

or khalah, in which the waters are lost, could hardly be utilised except as a pasture- 
land. But there are many extensive tracts covered with baobabs, dum palms, 
tamarinds, and mimosas, whence a gum is obtained known as talc, far inferior 
to the gums of Kordofan. In Senaar, as in Kordofan and For, on the borders of 
the regions where water is scarce, the hollow baobab trunks, some of which are 86 
feet in circxmif erence, are frequently utilised as natural cisterns. They are filled 
with water dui'ing the rainy season, some of the trunks containing a reserve of 
some 2,800 to 3,000 cubic feet of water ; the natives climb up and draw off the 
precious liquid from the tree by means of waterskins. In the northern part of 
Sudan some of the plains are veritable deserts, the sandhills undidating all 
aroxmd, wearing away the base of the rocks. On the route from Berber to Suakin, 
Abu-Odfa, an isolated granite block, has thus been eaten awaj' all round its base, 
and sooner or later the heavy rock will snap its slender pedestal and fall on the 
sand. All the cliffs and rocky slopes of this desert region of Upper Nubia are 
uniformly covered with a kind of blackish varnish, whose origin is imknown. 
These gloomy walls impart an aspect to the landscape more forbidding and solemn 
than that of other regions whose mountains are higher and escarpments more 
abrupt. 

The forests of the advanced chains, as well as the tall grass of the prairies, in 
certain spots rising to from 13 to 16 feet after the rainy season, are inhabited by 
monkeys, lions, leopards, buffaloes, giraffes, rhinoceroses, and elephants. Mostly 
nomads, the huge pachyderms from one season to another roam over regions of many 
hundi'eds of miles in extent. Like the Somali Gadibursi on the other side of the 
Abyssinian Mountains, the hxmters of the Hamran tribes, in Taka, attack these 
enormous animals in the boldest manner. Mounted on swift horses they fly before 
the elephant ; then, suddenly wheeling roimd, they spring to the ground behind 
the animal and hamstring it. The huge beast falls on the ground, and the himter 
awaits an opportunitj' to give the second and usually mortal blow. Since 1859, 
Taka and the conterminous provinces have been regidarly visited by hunters, 
mauily Italians and Germans, not only for the sake of the ivory, consisting usually 
of tusks much smaller than those of the Central African elephants, but also to 
capture wild animals for the European menageries. One of these hunters recently 
brought to the port of Hambui-g thirty-three giraffes, ten elephants, eight 
rhinoceroses, four lions, and several other animals of less value. At the time of 
the long siege which the Egyptian garrison had to sustain in Kassala, during the 
j-ears 188-4-85, their provisions were drawn largely from parks of wild animals. 
The Bejas and Abyssinians also himt the large animals on the borderlands of their 
respective territories, but when they meet they tui-n from the pursuit of the quarry 
and attack each other as hereditary enemies. The poisonous doboan, or surreta fly, 
swarms in the valley of the Mareb. Its bite, although it does not affect the wild 
fauna, kills camels, donkeys, oxen, and other domestic animals in a few weeks. 
Hunting is therefore a dangerous pursuit in these infested regions, where the men 
have to penetrate on foot into the gorges or high grass. The origin of this fly is 
unknown ; it may be either the Central African tsetse or the tzatzalia, which Bruce 



222 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

speaks of as " the most dreaded of all animals," or it may be that insect which the 
ancients declared could put the lion to flight. East of the Blue Nile, in the Kuba 
country, another species of fly, smaller than the doboan, is fatal only to the ass, 
horse, dog, and camel. But the cause of the mortality of these animals may pos- 
sibl}^ be due, not so much to the sting of one single insect, as to the thousands of 
wounds inflicted daily by the swarms of gadflies which absolutely worry the animals 
to death. The live stock can be protected onh' by keeping them in the stables 
during the day, and letting them out at night, or else by burning pungent herbs. 
However, there are spots where these pests cannot enter, consequently the agricul- 
tural populations have there collected into compact groups, such as the Abu- 
Ramleh uplands south-east of Roseres, which is a region of this description. 

Inhabitants. — The Shangallas and Legas. 

The contrast between the Abj-ssiuian mountains and the hilly plains sloping 
towards the Nile consists not only in the relief, climate and agricultural produce, 
but also in the populations. The tribes, dialects, manners, and religions, all differ, 
and are bounded by an irregular zone, which encircles the side of the moim^tains. 
In many places, these regions are separated by tracts either deserted, or else peopled 
by savage tribes, always on the watch for prey. AH these communities are known 
by the collective name of Shangallas, which, however, is of no definite ethnological 
value, as all the non-Arab or non- Abyssinian blacks are indifferently called Shan- 
gallas by the people of the plateaux. 

The Upper Jabus Valley and the mountains commanded by the double peak of 
Tidu-Wallel (10,666 feet), whose southern face overlooks the Sobat basin, are peopled 
by the Legas, the most westerly of all the Galla peoples, unless the Latukas and 
Wa-Himaas may also be considered as belonging to the same race, from which they 
are now separated by so many diSerent nations. The type of the Legas is verj' 
pure and quite distinct from that of the Negroes, although they are suiToimded by 
the latter on the south, west, and north. Their complexion is very light, even more 
so than that of Europeans bronzed by the tropical sun. Tall and usiially thin, they 
have the " arms and legs of Yankees," a long and thin neck, narrow hoUow-cheeked 
face, but with strong features and expressive eyes, a smaU head, and a high, narrow, 
and conic forehead. The women are in proportion much shorter than the men, 
and also present a much greater contrast than is usually remarked between the 
sexes, being as plump as the latter are thin and scraggy, whilst their hands and 
feet are extremely small. The royal family, and those of the Lega chiefs, are of 
far less pure extraction than the bulk of the nation. They have received a strain 
of Negro blood ; but although the complexion is darker, the features are usually 
finer, and the body more fleshy. These mulattos are also of a livelier disposition, 
and have not the melancholy appearance of the other Legas, who are usually seen 
leaning on their lances with the head resting pensively on the right shoulder ; from 
this circumstance Schuver compared them to cranes. The Legas are one of the 
most numerous nations of the plateaux, comprising at least a hundred thousand 



LNILVBITANTS— THE SHANGAXLAS AND LEGAS. 



223 



persons. Although their king can put twentj' thousand warriors on the battlefield, 
without counting the Negro troops of his vassals, he never abuses his power to make 
conquests. A kind and peaceful people, the Legas allow the women great liberty, 
and permit their slaves to work in their own way. They themselves are laborious 
and enthusiastic agriculturists ; they till the red soil of their fertile valleys, and 
in the evening sit before their huts smoking narghilehs, whose globe consists of a 



Fig. 73. — Thk Leoa Covntry. 
Scale 1 : 760,000. 




54-° 55 



f breenwtch 



C. Pe 



12 Miles. 



pumpkin, or else chewing coffee berries, roasted with salt, butter, and onions. They 
pay no taxes to the king, but the tribes altei'nately cultivate and reap the fields set 
apart for the support of the royal familJ^ The king decides upon the fines, when 
his subjects do not prefer to settle their disputes by the law of retaliation. The 
nation also recognises a high priest, who celebrates the sacred mysteries in a 
kinism, a local name apparently derived from the term "kilissa," or church, used 
by the Christian populations of the eastern plateaux. The sacriflcer, on killing an 
animal, always bathes his forehead in the blood, and allows it to dry on his cheeks 
in blackish clots. Bat their ancient religion seems to be on the decline, and the 



224 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

zealous Mohammedan missionaries are making such great progress that in a few 
years all the Legas will probably have embraced Islam. In the midst of the 
Legas live a few thousand Denkas, who have sought protection amongst them and 
work as their slaves. Having no other means of escaping the slave-dealers in the 
wasted plains of the Sobat and Zal, which they formerly inhabited, they have been 
obliged to seek refuge in the mountains, offering themselves to the tribes as porters 
and mercenaries. These Denkas are distinguished from the other tribes by two or 
three horizontal marks, which they have made on the forehead by means of stalks 
of cereal plants, bound tightly round the head for several weeks. They do not 
marry the women of the country, and hence are obliged to practise polyandry, 
which has become an institution regulated by ceremonies. The capital of the Lega 
country is the town of Gumhall, situated at a height of 6,600 feet on one of the 
upper affluents of the Jabus. Gobo, the residence of their high priest, lies farther 
south at an elevation of 7,530 feet. 

The Bertas. 

The advanced chains west of the Damot Mountains are occupied by numerous 
Shangalla peoples ; but the most powerful nation is that inhabiting the two 
valleys of the Jabus and Tumat, tributaries of the Blue Nile, and the parting ranges 
between the two watersheds of the Bahr-el-Azraq and Bahr-el-Abiad. These 
Bertas, of Negro stock, who are said to number about 80,000, and whom the 
Arabs usually term Jebalain, or " mountaineers," a name also applied to other 
peoples, have kinky hair, pouting lips, and the face flat, although less so than that 
of their West African congeners. However, the figure is well-proportioned, the 
limbs supple and strong ; and the Berta warrior, armed with lance and shield, 
presents a commanding appearance. The women adorn the face by passing a 
silver or copper ring through the nostrils, and an iron one through the upper lobe 
of the left ear. The young men fasten the tusks of boars to their temples or necks, 
and on grand occasions both men and women paint the body red, like the Bari 
warriors. The women of some tribes tattoo the face in such a fashion as to produce 
numerous little pustules like those of small-pox. The warriors of other tribes 
expose the epidermis so as to produce very elegant arabesque designs ; but their 
customs allow those warriors alone who have cut off one or more heads to tattoo 
themselves in this way. The Bertas, like all the other Negro peoples of the Blue 
Nile, consist exclusively of agriculturists, which is the principal cause of their 
contrast with the Negroes of the White Nile, who are all cattle-breeders. The 
language of the Bertas belongs to the same family as that of the Shiluks, Nuers, 
and Denkas ; but since their country has been brought within the Mohammedan 
circle of attraction, first by the Egyptian conquest and then by the general 
development of the Nilotic populations, Arabic has become the cultivated language. 
The villages are administered, and the chief of the tribe chosen, by the Arabs. 
In each independent village resides an Arab merchant acting as a consul for the 
protection of his fellow-countrymen, and thanks to him the stranger is received 



THE BEETAS. 225 

like a brother. A sheep or goat is killed and the blood received in a calabash, in 
which all the assistants dip their hands and then embrace. Henceforth the stranger 
is safe from all attack. The Bertas are great orators, and often hold councils, 
where each one addresses the assembly in turn, seconded by an applauder, who 
stands at his side. But he is never interrupted, as, more polite than the Westerns, 
the Bertas always await the end of a speech before replj-ing to the argument. 
Excepting the northern districts, where all natives claim to be Mohammedans, the 
religion of the Bertas is still mainly Animistic. At the period of the new moon 
they dance by the light of the stars, and terminate these feasts with orgies. Their 
amulets consist of certain roots, flowers, and the searabeus, a species of beetle, 
probably the ateuchus ^gi/ptorum. Thus Egyptian influence, after more than two 
thousand years, still survives amongst these obscure peoples of the Upper Nile basin. 
Like the Buruns and other tribes assimilated to the Ai'abs, they have also the 
tarambisli, a curved wooden " knuckle-duster," very similar in shape to the 
boomerang. According to some authors they do not throw this weapon, like the 
Australians, but carry it in the hand, using it when scaling the moimtains to hook 
on to the branches of the trees or projections in the rock. But the explorer llarno, 
who has traversed these countries, states that he has seen the natives use as a 
throwing-stick both the tarambish and the culdeba, a still more formidable iron 
weapon, curved in the form of a sickle. Schuver confirms this statement, but 
says that the Bertas cannot make the weapon return to the exact point whence it 
was thrown. 

There are no towns properly so-called in the Berta country ; but their most 
important village is Kirin, situated on the western slope of the mountains in a 
basin of the Yavash or Yal, and consisting of large huts scattered among enormous 
granite blocks. Xo other national assembly presents a more picturesque appear- 
ance than that of Elrin — each rock has its own group of men in the most varied 
attitudes, upright, hing down, .sitting, or holding on to the crags. Many of the 
Berta tribes have chiefs, who bear the title of king or meh, but their power is very 
precarious. Directly the mek no longer pleases his subjects, the men and women 
all collect together and tell him that they hate him, and that it is time for him to 
die ; then thej' hang him to the nearest tree. If the king is prevented by sick- 
ness from holding his daily court of justice, his influence becomes iU-omened 
instead of being favourable, and the gallows rids the people of him. A wife when 
unfaithful is always punished with death. 

To the north and north-west of the Bertas, the "no-man's-land" which 
separates the Blue Nile from the Abyssinian plateaux of Agaumeder, is occupied 
by numerous tribes of divers origin, and here are spoken five distinct languages, 
without including Arabic and Abyssinian. A sheikh residing at Kuba or Monkuis, 
a village perched on a mountain, is apparently a sovereign ; but the people of 
Kuba, the Gumus, the Sienetjos, the Kadalos, and the Berta immigrants, govern 
themselves and are frequently at war with each other. Some of the Grumus Kve in 
small independent or isolated groups, a space of a mile intervening between the 
dwelling of each family. On grand occasions they all carry parasols of honour of 

VOL. X. Q 



226 



NOETH-EAST APEICA. 



the form and size of umbrellas. In their eyes this emblem is the proof of the degree 
of civilisation that they have attained. The Kadalos, whose villages are built on 
impregnable rocks, ornamented with tufts of foliage in honour of the genius of the 
winds, boast that they are the true aborigines. According to Schuvcr, the}' resemble 



Fig. 74. — Inhabitants of the Blue Nile. 

Scale 1 : 4,300,000. 



.^"" 



^' . ^ 




C Perron 



. 120 Miles. 



the Negroes of the White Nile much more than the Gmnus and Bertus ; they have 
large eyes, which distinguishes them more especially from the Gimius, whose eyes 
ai-e small, "like those of pigs." 

The Sienetjos, who pass for the remnant of a people formerly in possession of 
the country, and were almost entirely exterminated by the Negroes, are probably 
akin to other Sienetjos who live farther east amongst the populations of Damot and 
Gojam. The Sienetjos are not blacks, having a yellow skin, perceptibly clearer 
than that of Europeans who are exposed to climatic influences. The face is nearly 



THE FTJXJ RACE. 227 

square, the forehead very broad, and the skull regular. A'ery careful of the purity 
of their race, they never allow their daughters to intermarry with the Arabs or 
Xegroes. Having good reasons to fear strangers, they live on inaccessible rocks, 
natural fortresses which the women scale daily, so as to provision the vUlage ; but 
the path is carefully forbidden to people of other tribes. The Sienetjos are the 
only weavers and smiths of the country, and it is due to this fact that they have 
hitherto managed to preserve their existence in the midst of so many enemies. 
Thev are also skilful jewellers, making extremely elegant copper ornaments, which 
they do not sell. These trinkets are reserved by them for their own women, who 
are very fond of finery, and who wear several rows of glass bead necklaces rotmd 
their necks. 

East of the Gimius, the plains covered with low hiUs which stretch towards 
the offshoots of Damot and Agaumeder, are beginning to be peopled by Agau 
immigrants, who, arriving in the country in isolated families, settle down ia the 
clearings, at a few miles distance from each other. They do not fear the hostility 
of the natives, as they know they are protected by the prestige of the great military 
Empire of Abyssinia, by which any wrong done to them would soon be revenged 
hv a war of extermination. Thus, the boundaries of Abyssinia are being yearly 
enlarged b}- the immigration of new colonies ; from an independent nation, the 
Gumus have almost changed into a tributary people. The Ginjar, who occupy the 
region of the Abyssinian spurs farther north as far as the frontiers of Galabat, 
have to pay tribute, often even in slaves. They are blacks mixed with Arabs and 
Bejas, probably refugees in their territory. They call themselves Mohammedans, 
and speak a corrupt form of Arabic. All their pride is centered in their hair, which 
is plaited like that of the Abyssiaians, and greased with butter. 

The Funj Race. 

The mountains of the region between the two Xiles are peopled by more or less 
mixed branches of the ancient Funj, or Fung, nation, which formerly ruled over all 
the country of Senaar. The Funj nearly all laid aside their national language on 
their conversion to Islam ; stOl some tribes have special dialects, greatly intermixed 
with Arabic words, and said to be connected with the group of Xuba languages, 
^lohammedanism has not yet completely supplanted the ancient religion. On the 
Jebel-Guleh, which the Funj consider as their sacred mountain, the explorer 
Pruyssenaere has seen them stiU celebrate phallic rites around a clay altar on 
which stands a wooden statue representing a god. According to Beltrame, their 
conversion to Islam is so very superficial that the majority of them have not even 
been circumcised. Hartmann, taking iip the hypothesis of Bruce, believes that the 
Funj are aUied to the ShiUuks, and that all the region comprised between their 
territory and that of the Bertas is peopled by tribes of the same stock. The 
Hammej, who are now greatly mixed with the Arabs; the Burun, who are still 
cannibals, according to Marno ; and the haughty Ingassana, who occupy the valleys 
of ilount Tabi, and have valiantly repulsed the assaults of the "Turks," are all 

q2 



228 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

said to belong to the Fuiij race. This very name, equivalent in meaning to 
" citizen," would indicate that the Funj consider themselves as civilised in a super- 
lative degree, in comparison with their still barbarous kindred. However this may 
be, the Funj were till recently one of the most powerfid African peoples. At the 
commencement of the sixteenth century they destroyed the kingdom of Aloa, whose 
centre stood near the confluence of the two Niles, and founded another State, that 
of Senaar, which existed till the beginning of this century, exercising control over 
all the neighbouring peoples of Sudan, Nubia, and even Kordofan, and holding in 
check the Abyssinian armies which occasionally attempted to descend from their 
plateaux. But the Arab viziers by degrees obtained the power, leaving an empty 
show of authority to the Funj sovereigns ; rivalries and revolutions disorganised 
the State, and when the troops of Mohammed Ali penetrated into Senaar in 1821, 
they had an easy triiun2:)h, thanks to their discipline and superior weapons. The 
conquest was not to the advantage of the Fimj, who soon became subjected to 
methodical slave-hunts, fusillades, the punishment of impaling, and other "benefits" 
of civilisation introduced by the Egyptians. 

At present the Funj, specially classed under this name, are not numerous, and 
even round Mount Guleh very few are met with who can be considered as typical 
representatives of the race ; the numerous crossings caused by war and slavery 
have so corrupted the population that it is a matter of great difiiculty to trace the 
predominating elements. Every Arab or semi- Arab tribe, especially the Baggara 
immigrants and the industrious Barbarins, come to seek a fortune in this country, 
and the Kordofan Nubas settled in military colonies around the towns, have all 
contributed to modify the Senaar populations. The Egj'ptians alone, whether 
Mussidman soldiers or Coptic scribes, have had but little influence on the race, 
nearly all having quickly succumbed to the climate. The varietj' of their origin 
and physical appearance is so great that the inhabitants of Senaar are usually 
classed according to their colour as " white, red, yellow, blue, green, and black." 
Nevertheless the fimdamental ethnical element appears to be that of the Funj. 
According to most authors they form an intermediate type between those of the 
Nubians, Negroes, and Gallas. The head is long, the face orthognathous, the 
features regular, the cheek-bones slightly prominent, the body slim and graceful, 
and like most other natives they spend much time in arranging their hair. They 
are affable, cheerful, and hospitable, and all the Senaar Egyptians prefer to dwell 
in Jebel-Guleh, in the Funj country, than in any other district. Infirm persons are 
almost imknown amongst the Funj, and their women retain their beauty and 
bodily elegance far beyond the period usually allotted to the women of other 
African tribes. The delka, which consists of rubbing the body, fumigating it with 
perfumes, and anointing it with grease, is a practice much in use amongst the Funj 
and the other civilised inhabitants of Upper Nubia. The people of Senaar are 
skilful surgeons, and many of them travel to the basin of the Nile in the exercise 
of their talents. They are known even in Egj-pt, and the feUahin give the name 
of Senaari to the persons who vaccinate, treat fractured limbs, or operate on those 
suffering from ophthalmic complaints. 



THE TAXEUEI— THE KUN^AMA AKD BAEEA. 229 

The Takruri. 

To the north and north--vrest of the Ginjar, the zone of the spurs which 
separate the Abyssinian plateaux from the Nubian steppes is occupied by other 
immigrants, collectiTely known as Taki-iu-i, or Takarir, originally come fi-om Dar- 
For, Wadai, and the countries of Western Africa. Mostly pilgrims returned from 
Mecca, they have preferred to stop and settle down in a coxmtry where they found 
lands to cultivate and a relative independence, rather than return to their own 
territory, where they were certain to meet with oppression. Perfectly accli- 
matised to these lowlands, where most of the Abyssinians and European travellers 
succumb, they now occupy all Galabat and many of the valleys of the Kwarra, in 
Abyssinia. Ha'S'ing become fi'ee, they have, at the same time, acquired great 
prosperity as fanners and merchants ; but they have not always peacefully 
eujoj'ed their conquests, and civil war often broke out between the Takrur of 
Wadai, those of Dar-F6r, and the descendants of the immigrants long settled in 
the country. A large number of Jiberti Mussidmans, expelled from Abj'ssinia 
because they have refused to abjure their faith, have recently increased the 
population of the Takarir commimities and of the Dabaina Arabs. 

The Krx.\MA and B.uiea. 

The Kunama, Bazen, or Baza, who people the valleys of the Mareb and 
Takkazeh and the intermediary plateaux at the mouth of the Abyssinian kwallas 
to the number of some one hundred and fiftj- thousand, are " Shangallas," who 
have successfullj- kept aloof fi'om intermingling with the Arabs. They do not as 
yet speak the language of the northern invaders, and, except in the vicinitj' of the 
borderlands, have not adopted the Mohammedan religion ; but if they have suc- 
ceeded in maintaining their national independence, it is onlj' due to their continual 
and pitiless wars. An. implacable struggle exists between them and the nomads 
of the north, and the frontier populations are always on the alert to avoid surprise, 
and the massacre which would inevitably follow. The Kunama have also to defend 
themselves on the south from the attacks of the Abj^ssiuian highlauders. Like 
their neighbours, the Barea, ten times less numerous, who live to the north-west 
in the rocky region of the water-parting between the Mareb and the Barka, they 
are continually in danger of being crushed by the enemies who harass them on 
both sides. In one direction the Arabs assail them from the lowlands, on the other 
the Abyssinians swoop down from their plateaux, whence Munzinger compares them 
to the com, ground between two millstones. Nevertheless, these populations so 
threatened are amongst the most iateresting by their customs, the most sympathetic 
by their qualities, and the most worth}- of imitation ; peace exists between their 
different communities, and labour is respected by them. 

Although resembliag each other in their political and social institutions, the 
Kunama and the Barea are different in origin and physical type. The Kunama, 
established in the country since time immemorial, claim to be immigrants of Abys- 



230 NOETH-EAST AFRICA . 

sinian origin, and the Abyssinians themselves look upon them as descendants of 
the ancient Aksumites. They are generally of a dark complexion, and individuals 
are often foimd amongst them nearly as black as the Nigritians of western Africa. 
"Well-proportioned, tall, strong, and broad-shouldered, the Kunama are one of the 
healthiest and most vigorous peoples of the continent. Sickly persons are un- 
known, and the disgracefiil diseases so common amongst the Abyssinian highlanders 
and the Arab lowlanders have not yet contaminated their race. Like the Nuers 
and Denkas of the Upper Nile, they often rest standing on one foot. They rarely 
suffer from the fevers so dangerous to strangers, and manj' of them attain an 
advanced age. However, thej' have a certain tendency to stoutness, and in this 
respect present a singular contrast to their neighbours, the Barea, and especially 
to the Arabs. The Kunama attribute their good health to the scars with which 
they cover the face and body — and which they look upon as signs of beauty — as 
well as a sacred writing proclaiming their origin. The Barea are not of such 
light complexion as the Kimama, and are usually weaker and less shapely ; 
many blind persons are found in their tribes, especially in the vicinity of the 
marshy shallows of the river Barka. Whilst nearly all the Kunama have a 
family likeness, the Barea present a great diversity of types, and, excepting the 
women, have rarelj' regular features. The languages of the two peoples are also 
different, although both may be classed provisionally in the " Hamitic " group, 
while in some respects they appear to be allied with the Xuba idiom. It will be 
possible to fix their position definitely when all the dialects of North-East Africa 
have been as carefully studied as the Bazena of the Kunama, and the Nerehe)ia of 
the Barea, have been by Munzinger, Edlund, Halevy, and Reinisch. The speech 
of the Kunama is unaccentuated, and without harsh consonants ; uniform and soft, 
it corresponds perfectly with the peaceful character of the nation. Very few of 
the Kunama speak any language than their own, whilst nearly all the Barea under- 
stand the Tigre of their Abj'ssinian neighbours. There is a rich treasure in the 
popular songs and melodies of the Kunama, which have not yet been collected by 
European explorers. 

The Kunama and Barea are pre-eminently agriculturists, all cultivating the 
land without distinction of sex, position, or fortune. During the rainy season the 
plough never rests, and, imlike their neighbours, thej^ have no idle days consecrated 
to religious feasts. All the domestic animals are used for work ; the camels, asses, 
and horned cattle are harnessed to the plough, and if these cannot be had, the men 
or women take their place. Everj^one has his farm, and plots of land are set apart 
even for the slaves, who are allowed sufficient time for its cultivation. The public 
domain, at the disposition of all, is of sufficient size to enable the labourer to select 
another piece of land, and thus replace the field exhausted by a long term of culti- 
vation ; but the rotation of these allotments is usual!}- made in a regular order 
around the scattered huts in which the families reside. Wherever the hills have 
a decided slope, they are cultivated in terraces sustained by stone walls. The Bazen 
are never daunted by any kind of work. Peaceful labourers engaged exclusively 
in tilling the laud, neither the Bazen nor the Barea are grouped in villages, as they 



THE KUNAMA AND BAEEA. 231 

liave no need to defend tliemselves, except in tlie immediate vicinity of the Abys- 
sinians or Arabs. But there they often take the offensive. Collecting together in 
small bands, they set off to plunder distant villages, disappearing before time has 
been given to signal their attack, and enable the neighbouring tribes to pursue or 
cut off their retreat. The Abj'ssinians and Bejas speak of the Bazen and Barea 
with terror, and usually depict them as tribes of brigands. This reputation has 
been earned for them by the tactics these agricultural peoples have adopted ; they 
attack in order to protect themselves more effectually. Nevertheless, it appears 
positive that certain Barea mountaineers have very cruel customs. In some districts 
a young man cannot honourably marry until he has cut off a man's or woman's head 
in combat or by surjirise. 

Although so much di-eaded bj' their neighbours, the two iDeojjles have nevertheless 
no organised government ; they are divided into as many independent groups as 
the country offers natural divisions. Their astonishing power of resistance, which 
has been their safeguard for so many centuries, comes from their spirit of solidarity; 
the various communes all look upon each other as brothers, but without ever 
recognising superiors. Amongst the Bazen especially, who have been less encroached 
upon than the Bareas by the interference of strangers, the sentiment of equality is 
a prevailing feature ; in this respect they are perhaps not equalled bj- any other 
people in the world. The name of Barea, which the Abj-ssinians have given to the 
two groups of the Nere and Mogoreb, originally signified " slaves," yet this con- 
temptuous name has been quietly and even haughtily accepted by them. The Bazen 
and Barea consider themselves as "servants" of the community, no one amongst 
them aspiring to the title of "master." In the communes no one exercises the 
functions of a chief. The legislative and executive power belong equally to the 
assembly of the inhabitants, whatever their origin may be. From the moment a 
stranger settles amongst them he becomes the equal of the natives. The old men 
are listened to with the greatest resjpect, and their advice is that which is generally 
followed. Violent outbui-sts of anger, immannerly interruptions, and personal 
remarks are unkuowTi in these communal meetings, politeness being pre-emiuently 
the rule. They soon agree to the matters in hand, and when the decision has been 
arrived at it is immediately jjut into force. In the eyes of the commune a family 
has no other rights than those of the persons who compose it. They have no 
process to sustain or feuds to avenge, every debate being at once referred to the 
decision of the elders of the tribe. Marriage is not a family feast, but a common 
ceremony, in which everyone takes part. Equality is the rule in the household as 
well as in the commune, although in certain districts the bride lies down at the 
threshold of the hut, and the bridegroom steps over her, sKghtly touching her cheek 
with his foot, as a sign that she must henceforth be prepared to submit to any 
hardships. The morals of the Bazens are piu-e, but the public opinion is not severe. 
Children born out of wedlock are received into the tribes with the same rejoicings 
as legitimate infants, and like them inherit from their maternal uncle. The reason 
of this is that in this countrj' the matriarchal government prevails, which sets aside 
the real or putative father in favour of the uncle, who is the undoubted representative 



232 



NOETH-E^ST AFEICA. 



of the lineage. In the commune of the Kunamas there are very few acts which 
call down a general punishment ; a thief even escapes censure, being simply com- 
pelled to restore what he has taken, just as if it had been borrowed. The only 
punishment imposed by the community is exile. This sentence is carried out by 
young men who mount on the roof of the criminal's hut and scatter the thatch to 
the winds. This is the signal for the exile to depart, and he never can return 
to his native place. 

Munzinger has vainly sought La the Kimama country for traces of Christianity, 
such as those foimd to the east amongst the Bogos, and westwards in Senaar. 



Fig. 75. — Inhabitants of Taka and Neiohbouring Districts. 
Scale 1 : 7,500,000. 




C. Perron 



120 Miles. 



There are seen no ruined churches, and the current religious ideas show no traces 
of the influence of the Christian or Jewi.sh dogmas. The religion of the Kunama 
consists in a belief in the evil eye, fear of sorcerers, wearing of amulets, veneration 
of the alfai, or "makers of raia," respect for old men, and especially the blind. 
They likewise have a great veneration for the dead, and bui'y them carefully, which 
seems to imply a belief in immortality. Nevertheless, a slow religious propaganda 
has already made considerable progress amongst the Bazen and Barea republics. 
Half of the Barea already call themselves Mohammedans, although they hardly 
follow out the precepts of the Koran. On the other hand, on the Abyssinian frontier 
a number of Bazen are reputed to belong to the Christian Church. 



THE HOTEM, ZABALAT, AND JALIN TRIBES. 233 

Notwithstanding the efforts of the nation to avoid traders and foreigners, who 
are only allowed to penetrate into the country under the personal responsibility of 
a citizen, their customs are becoming modified, and they are on the eve of great 
social and political changes. The skin aprons are already being replaced by the 
Abyssinian toga and the Arabian shirt. Slavery even has been introduced into the 
Bazen country, although under a very mild form. If the slave either marries or 
runs awaj' he becomes free by right. Undoubtedly the communities of the Mareb 
and of the Takkazeh will soon have lost the iudepeudence of which thej^ are justly 
so jealous, and a new destinj- will then commence for them. Their initiation will 
doubtless be a hard one, and these popidations, who were till recently the happiest 
in Africa, will have to traverse a sea of blood before they can imite with their 
ueighboiirs, and thus constitute a great nation. The descriptions that James and 
other hunters give of the Kunama already differ greatly from those of Munzinger ; 
but far from civilising them, their neighbours have so far rendered these tribes more 
savage. 

The Hotem, Zabalat, and Jalix Tribes. 

Side by side with the Bazen, and other " Shangallas," live other peoples possibly 
of kindred origin, although even those whose physical type shows unmistakable signs 
of the liredoniinance of Negro blood call themselves AYold-el-Arab, or "Sons of 
Arabs." If only the chiefs, the descendants of conquering families from the 
Arabian peninsida, succeed in preserving their genealogy and their language, the 
tribes, although of native origin, claim Arab descent and are frequently taken for 
Arabs. Besides, there are imdovibtedly populations living west of the Red Sea who 
have come from the east, and who are known to have crossed the Red Sea within 
historic or recent times. Thus in the vicinity of Akiq, the Hotem Mohammedans, 
a tribe armed with guns, are of pure Arab blood. So recently as 1865 their niunbers 
were largely increased by fresh immigrants from the coast of Yemen. The voj^age 
from coast to coast presents little difficulty, and if the English vessels did not 
carefully watch all the ports, the relations between Arabia and the Sudan would be 
sufficientl)' frequent to rapidly modify the political equilibrium of these regions. 

Amongst the true Arab tribes of the Sudan, the missionary Beltrame mentions 
the Zabalat pastors, the " Handful of Men," or, as they are also called, the Abu-Jerid, 
or " Fathers of the Pabns," who live between the Dender and the Blue Nile, above 
Senaar. They are said to have come from Yemen before the conversion of their 
kinsmen to Islam, for they are not Mohammedans, and no traces of the Mussulman 
l^ractices are to be found in their cult. They are fire- worshippers, as were so many 
South Arabian tribes before the advent of Mohammed, and as were also the Blem- 
myes, who, according to Procopius, were in the habit of sacrificing men to the sun. 
Their complexion is lighter than that of the neighbouring populations, and betrays 
a reddish hue ; according to Lejean, they have blue eyes and light smooth hair. 
The gum obtaiaed from the sunt acacias enters largely into their diet. They 
jealously preserve the purity of their race, and they claim never to have intermarried 
with foreign tribes. They do not tolerate slavery, because the introduction of servants 



234 NOBTH-EAST AFRICA. 

into the family cii'cle would have the fatul result of contaminating tlieir blood. 
Being an "elected" race, their chief ambition is to maintain their independence, 
and to live in peace. On this account their forefathers withdrew from the outei- 
world, and they themselves seek to live isolated, protected from the marauding tribes 
by desert zones. They recognise the existence of one God alone, who manifests 
himself in the stars, the sun, and fire. "\^Tien they pray they look towards the stars, 
or turn towards the rising or setting sun, or else light a great fire and watch the 
tongues of flame flashing up in the wind. Fire is to them a great purifier ; on 
burying their dead, the head turned towards the rising sun, thej' Hght a funeral 
pyre on the grave, as if to draw the soul of the departed into the fiery vortex. They 
also believe in the existence of a supreme demon, the god of darkness, and have 
recourse to sacrifices in order to conjure this dangerous enemy. 

The Zalabats are monogamists, but should a young girl fail to find a husband, or 
become a widow soon after marriage, it is the custom for her nearest relation to 
wed her ; thus it occasionally happens that a brother becomes the husband of his 
own sister. The government of the tribe is entirely regulated by their customs, 
which are interpreted by the elders ; by them also the chief is chosen, now in one 
family, now in another, no other obligation being imposed upon them than to 
choose the " best." 

The Jalins or Agalins of Senaar and the Atbara Valley are also looked upon as 
Arabs, and in this country no one doubts their noble descent ; the Arabic spoken 
by them is much purer than that of the other nomad tribes in Nubia. They are 
distinguished from all the other inhabitants of the country by their love of study, 
their commercial instincts, and their religious zeal, although they are not fanatics. 
The men and women on the banks of the Nile wear large hats of foliage to protect 
themselves from the sun. Many of the neighbouring populations who call them- 
selves Arabs, without probablj' being so, are in many respects really assimilated to 
the Arabs. 

The Be.jas. 

The Bejas, the Blemmyes of the ancients, perhaps the Bonkas or Bongas 
whose name is foimd on the inscriptions of Aksum, constitute one of the ethnical 
groups represented by the greatest number of tribes. North and south of the 
Bazen territory they occupy nearly all the region comprised between the Blue 
Nile and the northern Abyssinian advanced ranges. Still farther north the bulk 
of the nation, which appears to have preserved its ethnical name under the form of 
Bisharin, stretches far into Lower Nubia, occui^3'ing all the land comi:)rised between 
the great western bend of the Nile and the Red Sea coast ; besides, several Beja 
tribes also live west of the main stream in Kordofan and even in Dar-F6r. The 
" Nubians " recently exhibited at the Jardiu d'Acclimatation in Paris were nearly 
all Bejas from Kassala and the surrounding district. The southern peoples south 
of the caravan route between Berber and Suakin, have no national cohesion with 
the kindred tribes. Most of them are even mutually hostile to each other, and 
never cease their quarrels except to unite against a foreign invader. Thus the 



U, .-J 




KADI OF KHAETUM AND HADENDOA SHEIKH. 



THE BEJAS. 285 

clans banded together at the time of the Turkish invasion ; but their confederation 
did not last long, and under the Egyptian nile the tribes have again become 
scattered into a multitude of communities without common concert. The Bejas, 
rather than the Abyssinians, are probably the " Ethiopians " of Herodotiis, the 
civilised people vrho built the city of ilerde and its pyramids. In the Middle 
Ages the Bejas also constituted a powerful state, whose capital was Aloa, on the 
Blue Xile, about 12 miles above Khartum. At this period the Bejas were 
Christians, at least in the vicinity of the confluence. TTlien their city was over- 
thrown by the Fimj and they returned to the steppes they also embraced the 
religion of the nomad pastors. All the Bejas are Mohammedans, although most 
of them, like the Bedouins of Syria and the Arabian peninsula, are only so in name, 
in spite of the ardour with which they have enrolled themselves amongst the 
followers of the Mahdi, xmder whose guidance they have regained a certain national 
unity. 

Of all the southern Beja tribes, the most powerful is that of the Hadendoas, 
who roam over the Taka steppes, between the Gash and the Atbara to the west, 
and the Barka to the east, although in their migrating and pillaging expeditions 
they often pass beyond these limits. According to Munzinger, they number 
about one million persons. Another numerous people are the Shukurieh or Shuk- 
rieh, a nation of pastors herding their flocks between the Xile and the Atbara, and 
cultivating the irrigable vaUevs in the neighboiu'hood of Kassala. The HaUengas 
occupy the narrow zone comprised between the Atbara and the Gash, while the 
Hamran dwell on the plains where the Atbara effects its junction with the 
Bahi'-Settit. Fai-ther to the west and south-west, some Dabeina hordes roam 
over the steppes watered by the Eahad. In the " Mesopotamia " of the two 2s iles 
the soil is disputed between the Abu-Eof, or Rufah, the Jalins, and the Hassanieh, 
that is to say the " Cavaliers " or " Horsemen." Lastly, to the east of the 
Hadendoas, the circmuference of the advanced plateau of Abyssinia between the 
Barka and the Bed Sea, nearly as far as the gates of Suakin, is occupied by the 
Beni-Amers. According to Hartmann the Hamrans, whom he calls Homrans, that 
is to say the " Reds," are related to the Agau. Nevertheless, all these populations 
call themselves Arabs, and are generally considered as such on account of the 
religion they profess, theii- pastoral and warlike habits, and also on account of the 
language henceforth adopted by them. Besides, it is certain that the Arab element 
is strongly represented in these nomad Beja tribes, as is proved by numerous 
families whose t%-pe is absolutely identical with that of the Arabs of the Asiatic 
peninsula. According to tradition they are descended from the tribe of the Uled- 
Abbas, in Hejaz. In the greatest part of the Beja countries, the original dialects 
are giving way before the language of the Koran ; but they still survive, at least 
in a state of patois, in the vicinity of the Abyssinian mountains. Almqvist, who has 
composed a general grammar of the Beja idioms, recognises four principal dialects, 
without counting the jargons which the hunters love to speak, probably because 
they are under the influence of the superstition, so common in many countries, 
that certain local words have the power of fascinating animals. The original 



23G 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



language spoken by the Hadendoas, the Bisharin, and half of the Beni-Amers, is 
" Bedouin " (Bedawieh, or Bejavi), which however, in spite of its name, is not an 
Arabic dialect, although in many respects connected with the Semitic group of 
languages. 

The Bejas, taken as a whole, and apart from the local varieties, are one of the 
African tribes most distinguished by their handsome features and elegant forms. 
The children are as a rule extremelj' pretty and vivacious, and young women are 
frequently met amongst them whose regiJar features and haughty carriage make 



6.— Shvkvrieh Beja. 




them perfect models of physical beauty. In the families of some of the Beni- 
Amer chiefs, who have slaves to prei^are their meals, which are more choice than 
those of the ordinary nomads, stoutness is by no means rare. The complexion of 
the nobles is also much lighter than that of the people. Nearly all the Bejas are 
very swift runners, which they attribute to their frugal diet, consisting entirely of 
milk and farinaceous aliments. Their arms are \cv\ long in proportion to the 
rest of the bodj'. Explorers are struck with the similarity of type between the 
Bejas, the Afars, the Ilm-Ormas, and even the Bantus of Southern Africa. In 
spite of their pretension to the title of Arabs, several of the Beja tribes have 
preserved the customs of the Negro populations, as regards costume and the 



THE BEJAS. 237 

scarring of the body. Their warriors have not yet completely ceased wearing 
coats of mail, while some of the tribes stUl use primitive weapons, amongst others 
a plain or spiked stick. The bulk of the Bejas wear their hair very thick as a 
protection against the sun. On a level with the eyes thej- di-aw a circle round the 
head, above vrhich the hair rises straight up like a huge mop, distinct tufts 
forming a crest at each side and at the back, which serve as a protection to the 
ears and the nape of the neck. A scratchcr, usually a jDorcupine quill, is stuck 
through this black headdress, which is often saturated with butter. 

Most of the Bejas are said in their youth to possess considerable intelligence, 
while their development is greatly arrested after puberty. They are said to be 
bounded in their ideas, obstinate, boastfid, rude, disrespectful to their parents, and 
careless of the welfare or safetj' of their guests. They give themselves up exclu- 
sively to cattle-breeding, and migrate from pasturage to pasturage, although one 
of their tsaga, or encampments, maj' be considered as the official residence. 
Custom forbids that anj-thing in this place shoidd be touched ; marauders may 
seize the flocks, but they respect the tents. The Hadendoas possess an excellent 
breed of camels, which enables them suddenly to appear at great distances from 
their usual camping-grounds, and escape with their booty before the warriors have 
had time to assemble so as to overtake them. The numerous Beja tribes also 
consider it a point of honour to breed war-horses, although in many places they 
are fain to be content with small wiry animals of Abyssinian extraction ; the larger 
and stronger Dongola steeds suffer greatly from the climate, and the chiefs are 
compelled to be constanth' renewing their studs. Some of the Beja peoples are 
agricultirrists, but they use very rudimentary instruments, a stick burnt to a point 
serving as a plough. Here and there certain industries have also survived, 
inherited from the Blemmyes, such as weaving, iron-smelting and forging, and 
making filigree work. The straight two-edged sword, the favourite weapon of 
the Bejas, is generally of German manufacture, but they also forge excellent 
weapons, swords and daggers ; the scabbards are of wood, covered with leather, 
and amongst the rich embellished with elephants' ears. The shields they use are 
made of rhinoceros hide, or the skiiis of other large animals. Commerce is actively 
carried on amongst all the tribes, and in this respect the Bejas contrast singularly 
with their neighbours the Bazen or Kunama. 

The customs of the Bejas, especially those which relate to marriage and the 
social position of women, are still verj' different from those of the Arabs ; the 
contrast is complete between the precepts of the Koran and the traditional prac- 
tices of divers origin. In certain respects the women are treated with unspeak- 
able cruelty. Parents are obliged to make theu- daughters undergo di-eadful 
surgical operations, without which they must renounce all hopes of obtaining a 
husband. But after marriage the wife is in no way imder the control of the 
husband. She can return to her mother's tent whenever she pleases, and after 
the birth of a child she has the right to repudiate her husband, who must make her 
a present in order to be accepted again. If he insults or speaks rudely to her he 
is driven from the tent, and can only obtain re-admittance by presenting her with 



2.38 NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 

a cow or a camel. Women are mentioned wlio have thus obtained all the 
husband's possessions and then abandoned them after having effected their ruin. 
The Beja women, and especially those of the Beni-Amer, have generally a remark- 
able fellow-feeling ; directly one of them has a grievance they all share in her 
indignation. By virtue of the female customs, the wife should never show any 
apparent affection for the husband. She is boimd to treat him with contempt and 
to rule him with threats and severity, and should he interfere with the household 
arrangements without having consulted his wife, the offence is considered unpar- 
donable. It is frequently necessary to appeal to the "man of honour," whose 
duties as an intermediary have rendered him the " brother " of the wife, and his 
advice is always respectfully listened to. At the same time, although they have 
to complain of the control and often even of the violence of their wives, the 
husbands are after all the superiors in virtue of their love of work, bravery, and 
trustworthiness. The heuf)ecked man who seeks the assistance of a woman is 
sure of finding in her an indefatigable defender. 

The social status of the Beja woman evidently points to a former matriarchal 
government. The Arab authors who spoke of the Bejas of the tenth to the 
fourteenth century, relate that these people reckoned their genealogies from the 
side of the women, and that the inheritance passed from the son to the sister and 
from her to the daughter to the exclusion of the sons. The annals of the kingdom 
of Meroe, like those of Senaar, show what an important part woman has played in 
Upper Nubia, ever since the time of Queen Candace. Amongst the Hadendoas 
the women have never to undergo public accusation ; if a crime has been com- 
mitted by one of them everybody keeps silence, the men alone being answerable 
for the charge. Of all the " Arab " tribes that which is usually cited as imiver- 
sally practising the strange custom of the " fourth day free," doubted bj^ only one 
traveller, d'Escayrac de Laiitui-e, are the Hassanieh Bejas of the Nilotic Mesopo- 
tamia and Kordofan. By this custom, the women are only married for a certain 
number of days in the week, generally reserving every fourth day, on which she 
claims perfect fi-eedom to do just as she pleases. 

Under the Arab rule the Bejas have readily acquired aristocratic manners. 
The noble families of native or foreign origin, who can trace back their genealogy 
to a long line of ancestors, enjoy considerable personal authority over the body of 
the people, who support them and offer up sacrifices on their tombs. Moreover, it 
is they who owtq the slaves — captives or sons of captives, who have not yet entered 
into the community of free men by embracing Islam. The nobles frequently 
take to wife girls of inferior status, but a common man can never marry into a 
noble famUy, unless the holiness of his life, a miracle, or some prediction justified 
by the event, have enabled him to be classed amongst the sheikhs, also called fakih, 
and thus become the equal of the upper classes. In certain regions of Upjjcr 
Nubia there exist entire colonies of " saints," who, like the nobles, fatten at the 
expense of the tribe. In order to insure their power over the nomad popidations, 
the Egyptian governors had taken care to relj- upon the political and religious 
chiefs of the country, and it was by the intervention of these latter that the 



TOPOGRAPHY— FAZOGL, FAMATA. 289 

tribute was raised ; but the heavy taxes at last exhausted the patience of the Beja 
nomads, and a general insurrection against the Khedive's power spread throughout 
Eastern Sudan. It has recently been seen with what courage and absolute con- 
tempt for death the Beni-Amers, the Hadendoas, and the Bisharins have hurled 
themselves against the English squares, opening a path of blood with their lances 
up to the cannon's mouth. 

ToPOGRArHY. 

Under the Egyptian rule. Upper Nubia was divided into jDrovinces which 
partially coincide with the natural divisions of the country. At the outlet of the 
Abyssinian mountains the riverain countries of the Blue Nile constituted FazorjI. 
Lower down this name has been preserved by the central part of the ancient 
kingdom of Senaar, beyond which follow the pro^•inces of Khartum and Berber. 
To the east Taka comprises the hills and the plains bounded on one side by the 
Atbara, and on the other by the Barka. The coast regions were divided between 
the provinces of !Massawah and Suakin, the former of which has been partly 
occupied by the Italians, the latter by the English. Lastly, a few independent 
states, republics, or chiefdoms stiU occupy the borderlands between Abyssinia and 
the Sudan. 



Fazogl, Fam.\ta. 

Fasogl, which has given its name to the upper province of the Blue NUe, and 
was, before the Egj-ptian rule, the residence of a powerful king, is now little more 
than a mere hamlet. As a capital it has been replaced by the town of Famaka, 
where ilohammed Ali had a palace built at the time of his visit to his southern 
possessions in 1839 ; a few scattered bricks are now aU that remains of it. Famaka 
would be well situated as a commercial town if slave-hunting had not driven all 
the surrounding peoples into the mountains. The houses, built on a gneiss rock, 
skirt the right bank of the Blue Nile, near the confluence of a khor and a little 
above the point where the river Tumat forms a junction with the Bahr-el-Azraq. 
Facing it to the south stands Mount Fazogl, the first high crest commanding the 
river to be met with on coming from Khartum ; hence it appears more imposing 
than many eminences of greater height, while the rich vegetation which clothes its 
slopes seems marvellous to those who come from the desolate northern wastes. 

The valley of the Tumat had already long ceased to be Egyptian territory 
before the great insurrection of the Sudan peoples burst forth. Nevertheless, 
Mohammed Ali considered that this province was one daj' destined to become the 
treasui-e of his empire ; he counted on the gold washed down with the sands of the 
Tumat and its affluents to pay his armies and to free himself from the galling 
suzerainty of the Padishah. In conseqiience of these ambitious views he caused 
the upper basin of the Tumat to be explored by the Europeans CaUHaud, Tremaux, 
Kovalevskiy, and Russegger. But the expenses of the occupation of the coimtry, 



240 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



the wars tliat it was necessary to sustain against the tribes, the depopulation 
consequent on slave-hunting, and the surveillance of the convicts who washed the 
sand, cost the Viceroy much more than was covered bj' the product of the mines. 
Hence Said Pasha ordered them to be abandoned and the fortresses to be levelled, 
after which the towns were again reoccupied by their original inhabitants. Never- 
theless the native gold-miners found their fortunes where the Government had met 
with financial ruin. The grains, called tihr, and usually collected in the quills of 
vultures' feathers, are used as money to purchase the merchandise brought by the 
iellahi, or local traders. The principal gold-washing stations are on the western 
side of the mountains, in the valley sloping towards the "White Nile, and in the 



Fig. 77. — Fazogl Gold Mines. 
Scale 1 : 600,000. 




54° 45 • 



35° C - t-f Greenwich 



12 Miles. 



C. Perron 



middle of which rises the pyramidal Jebel-Dul, in all of whose ravines gold is 
foimd. The amount annually obtained is valued by Schuver at £1,600, on which 
the Sheikh of Gomasha raises a tax of about a foxu'th. The soldiers he has collected 
round him are mostly slave-hunters, who have escaped from the disaster of Sidei- 
man in the zeriba region. The Gallas who come from the markets of Timiat 
prefer another medium of exchange to gold-dust, and will only receive the " salt 
bricks " imported from Eastern Abyssinia in exchange for their goods. According 
to Schuver, the inhabitants of the Tiunat Valley receive yearly over 75,000 pounds 
of salt money. 

Fadasi. 

Even after evacuating the country, the Egyptians compelled the riverain tribes 
of the Tumat Valley to pay them a tax of about £6,000 ; but beyond the district 



SEXAE. 241 

of Fadasi, which stands in another fluvial basin, that of the Jahus, their authority 
completely ceased. Fadasi was the point where the travellers Marno, in 1830, 
Gessi and Mateucci in 1878, were compelled to stop, not being pei-mitted to advance 
beyond the hill to the south of the chief town, which has been named Bimbashi, 
after the Egyptian " captain of a thousand " stationed in this place. Schuver is 
the only traveller who has crossed the boundary of the Khedive's possessions at this 
point in 1881. Bimbashi, surrounded by numerous villages spread over the slopes 
of the mountain, commands a very extensive view from its upland terrace. It is a 
much frequented market-place, although not so well attended as that of Beni- 
Shongul, situated half-way to Famaka, in the vicinity of the gold washings and 
the ruins of SixjeJi, the ancient capital of the country. Still farther north, in a 
fertile district on the right bank of the Tumat, Kes the ^-iUage of GJtezan, also a 
place of assembly for the caravans. Here the huge sycamore-tree which shelters 
the square, covers on market days a motley crowd of Bertas, Ifubians, and Arabs, 
while the groves of lemon-trees scattered in the country recall the sojourn of the 
Egyptian garrisons. 

Senar. 

Below Famaka the town of Boseres, or Bosaires, whose houses are scattered 
amidst groves of diuu palms, is also situated on the right bank of the Bahr-el- 
Azraq ; it has given its name to a dar, or country, of considerable extent, governed 
by chiefs taking the title of king. Still lower down the village of KarkoJ, 
surrounded by large trees which contrast with the barren lands in the vicinitv, has 
now become somewhat important as a market for gums, and the converging point 
of several caravan routes coming from Gedaref, Galabat and Abyssinia. It has 
inherited part of the trade which was formerly carried on with the citv of Sendr, 
about 60 miles farther down on the left bank. 

This ancient capital of the Funj kingdom, built at the commencement of the 
fifteenth century, has lost greatly since the seat of government has been transferred 
to Khartum. Heaps of rubbish and waste spaces now intervene between the 
groups of cabins, and of what was once the palace the walls are all that remain ; 
the mosque, however, is still standing. It was in this city that Roule, the French 
Ambassador of Louis XIY., was assassinated in 1705, before he had reached the 
states of the sovereign to whom he was accredited. According to an Arab tradition 
he was suspected of intending to aid the Abyssinians to carry out their often- 
repeated threat to deflect the waters of the Nile southwards, far away from Nubia 
and Egypt. The inhabitants have scarcely any industry, except the manufacture 
of elegantly designed straw mats. Caravan routes run south-west towards the 
Blue Nile, leading to the two fords of Abu-Za'id and Kelb, formed by banks of 
shells. The Mesopotamian peninsula, as the Arabs call the " Island of Senar," 
is only sixty miles in breadth. According to tradition it was at the ford of Abu- 
Zaid that the Arabs, guided bj- the hero 'of this name, crossed the Nile for the 
first time in order to spread themselves throughout the Sudan. 

VOL. X. R 



2i2 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



Wod-Medineh — Kamlin. 

Wod-Medineh, or Wold-Medi/ieh, which after Senar became the capital of the 
Egj-ptian provinces, was also a town densely populated in its double capacity as a 
garrison and trade centre. It is conveniently situated, standing nearly at the 
junction of the north-western Abyssinian rivers with the Bahr-el-Azraq, whilst 



Fig. 78.— Sexak. 

Scale 1 : 60,000.: 




Ii"_ 



o 



Bougro 



VOumShedire- '. 



; ^/.^. Oum Hamad ^ .. 



SENAR 



«*■» 



••' ■ TajSali 



OdiTuom »^ 



,•4 



el Haoua^a %^ 



53°4a 



E . of Gr 



J5°44- 



C.Pe 



.2, 200 Yards. 



close above it is the mouth of the Dender, swollen by the waters of the Khor 
Mahara and the Khor El-Atshan; still nearer, but below the town, is the con- 
fluence of the Rahad, like the Dender navigable for eighty days in the year. The 
village, situated at the very mouth in the " Isle of Isles " (Jezirat el-Jeziret), has 
taken the name of Abu-Ahraz, or " Father of the Acacias," a term which is also 
frequentl}' given to the river Rahad itself, the Shimfah of the Abyssinians. 

At some distance from the river, near the ruins of the village of Arbaji, 



"WOD-MEDDTEH— KAMLm. 



243 



destroyed by the Funj, stands the town of Messalamieh, in the midst of fields of 
durra, a strong place -n-hich the insurgents took from the Egyptians after a long 
and murderoiis siege. Before the war it had become a considerable market, 
precisely because it was distant from the river, so that the nomads had here to 
fear the passage of armies less than in towns lying on the banks of the Xile. 

Below Abu-Ahraz, on the left bank of the main stream, a few ruins mark the 
site of Kamlin, or Kammin, where, under the protection of the Egyptian goyem- 

Fig. 79. — COSFLUBNCB OP THE Two Xlles. 
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ment, some European merchants founded in 1840 large soap, indigo, sugar and 
distilling factories. For a long time these establishments were prosperous, thanks 
to the cheapness of coal and labour, but more especially thanks to the monopoly 
possessed by the manufacturers, whose products the officers and soldiers were 
obliged to take in part payment of their salaries. But the forests have been 
wasted, the country has been depopulated, and the monopoly has met its usual fate, 
poverty and ruin. 

B 2 



2U NORTH-EAST APEIC'A. 

Khartlm. 

As far as we search back in the history of the upper regions of the Nile, an 
important town has always stood in the vicinity of the junction of the White and 
Blue Niles. A geographical position of such importance could not be neglected 
even in barbarous times ; but the vicissitudes of migrations and wars, perhaps 
aided by some changes in the course of the two rivers, have frequently compelled 
the town to shift its position. An ancient Christian city, Aloa, is known to have 
stood 10 or 12 miles above the " Elephant's Trunk " on the right bank of the 
Bahr-el-Azraq. Several remains of columns and sculptures have been found there, 
proving that the Bejas of Aloa possessed a civilisation superior to that of the 
states which succeeded them. All that now remains of this town are shapeless 
masses covered with brushwood, the building materials readj- to hand having been 
used for the structures of Khartum. The Arab village of " Old Sobat " stands 
near the ruins, and on the opposite bank are the tile and brick works of " Ifew 
Sobat." A few sites are pointed out as those of ancient churches, and bear the 
name of Kenisseh, a term evidently derived from the word " Kilissa " applied to 
Christian churches in the Turkish countries of Europe and Asia ; at Buri, near 
Khartum ItseH, stands one of these Kenisseh. Not far from Wod-Medineh, crypts 
of Christian origin have been discovered ; these ruins are the southernmost that 
have been hitherto found on the plains watered by the Blue Nile, beyond the 
Abyssinian frontier. 

After the destruction of the empire of the Bejas, the town at the confluence, 
hitherto comprised in the realm of the Eunj, stood farther north, some 7 miles 
below the present junction of the two rivers. This town, which still exists but in 
a very decayed condition, is Halfaya, the residence of the grand sheikh of the 
Jalons. An arm of the Nile, now dried up or filled only during the floods, joins 
the main channel west of Halfaya ; it is surrounded by a garden of palms, shelter- 
ing its houses. Opposite and not far from the left bank, a small group of hills 
shelter a few trees in their valleys, and in the rainy season give birth to rivulets 
which wind through the plain. 

After its capture in 1821 by the Egyptians, Halfaya for several years still 
preserved a certain importance as the strategical guardian and commercial depot 
of the junction ; but the very point of the two rivers, called the " End of the 
Trunk," or Ras-el-KJiartum, appeared to Mohammed Ali a much more suitable 
site for the capital of his vast possessions, and here he accordingly built the 
barracks and arsenal. In 1830, there was only one hut where, ten j-ears after, 
stood the first city of the Nilotic basin beyond Egypt. Khartum, protected to the 
north and west by the broad beds of its two rivers, is certainly v-ery well situated 
for defence, and its walls, flanked by bastions and skirted by a ditch, protect it 
from a surprise on the south and east ; besides, a fortified camp situated on the 
right bank of the Bahr-el-Abiad near the village of Omdurman, renders it easy for 
the garrison to cross over to the western bank of the river and commands the 
route to Kordofan. Thanks to the rivers, the steam-boats which ply below 



KTTARTTJM. 



'2U 



Ehartum command all the coimtry on one side as far as the Zeriha region, and on 
the other as far as Berber and Ahu-Hamed. 

Eecent events have proved the military importance of this position between the 
two X iles. From a commercial point of view, Khartum will not be so advantage- 
ously situated imtil a bridge is built over the Bahr-el-Azraq, so as to receive 
directly the caravans which come from Abyssinia, Kassala, and the shores of the 
Red Sea. Nevertheless, Khartum had become one of the great cities of the con- 
tinent, and the busy population which till recenth' crowded its narrow streets was 
a mixture of Turks, Dauaglas or people of Dongola, Arabs, and negroes of every 
shade of colour. Italian was becoming almost as much spoken as Arabic, and the 
exterior commerce was almost entirely in the hands of the French and Greeks. 
Khartum is the point where took place all the exchanges of Europe and Egyjjt 



Fig. 80. — Khartcm. 
Scale 1 : 75,000. 







Hodjai; •. .-. 



^^— -=^-- 







\-^ of (jreenwic^t 



52'50- 



Low Water. 



High Water. 



with the regions of the Upper Nile ; it was also the place whence emanated all the 
expeditions and the movements of military bodies, and where all the religious 
missions and commercial or scientific expeditions were prepared. 

A town of soldiers, merchants, and slaves, Khartum has no remarkable monu- 
ments, and it is surrounded on all sides by spaces which, if not absolute wastes, are, 
at least, uncultivated and treeless. At the period of the Beja ride, the banks of 
the two Niles were said to be shaded with an uninterrupted forest of palms 
festooned with vines. Khartum is not a health}- town, at least during the 
portion of the year when the moist winds blow, increasing the waters of the rivers. 
Typhus has often more than decimated the population ; but iu winter the atmosphere 
is purified by the north winds and the pubKc health is as good at Khartum as in 
any other African city. After a vigorous defence maintained for upwards of two 
years against overwhelming numbers, Khartum was betrayed to the JIahdi on 



2i6 NOETH-EAST APEICA. 

January 26tli, 1885, wlien its heroic defender, General Gordon, and the Egj'ptian 
garrison, with nearly all the Christians stiU in the place, were massacred. This 
tragic event occurred only three days after the arrival at Metammeh of the advanced 
division of the British expedition, organized by General Wolseley for the relief of 
the place in the autumn of 1S8-1. Thus the primary object of the expedition was 
defeated, and Khartum became for some time the centre of the Mahdi's power in 
the Upper NUe regions. 

A few villages succeed Khartum and the town of Halfaya along the banks of 
the Nile. But for a distance of 120 miles no important jilace is met till we reach 
Shendi, in the Jalin territory, which is a collection of square-shaped houses, cover- 
ing a space of about half a square mile on the banks of the river. Shendi, situated 
below the sixth cataract, in times of peace has a considerable trade with the to\NTis 
on the Abyssinian frontier. Opposite it, on the western bank of the Nile, is the 
town of Metammeh, the depot of the products of northern Kordofan ; in the vicinity 
the desert sand is washed in order to extract the salt which is mixed with it. 
Shendi is the town where Ismail-pasha, the conqueror of Nubia and the banks of 
the Blue Nile as far as Fazogl, received the punishment he so justly merited for 
the massacres and devastations he had ordered ; having unsuspiciously come to a 
banquet to which he had been invited by the chief of the district, he was burnt 
alive with all his officers. But soon after his death was avenged by rivers of blood- 
shed by the terrible " defterdar," son-in-law of Mohammed AU. The village of 
Gubat, 2 miles south of Metammeh, was the extreme point reached by the British 
expedition sent to the relief of Khartum and General Gordon in 1884-5. 

Naga — Meroe. 

This region of Nubia is already comprised within the limits of the ancient 
Ethiof)ia, a region where lived nations directly influenced by the general progress 
of Egyptian civilisation. Numerous ruins attest the splendour of the ancient cities 
here erected, and, according to the statements of the Arabs, the Eui-opeans are still 
acquainted with but few of the monimients concealed in the desert. At a day's 
march south of Shendi, not far from the Jebel-Ardan, stand the two temples of 
Naga, covered with sculptures representing the \actories of a king who bears the 
titles of one of the Egyptian Pharaohs ; one of these buildings is approached by an 
avenue of sphinxes. At the time of CaiUiaud's visit no inscription revealed to him 
the precise age of the temples of Naga, but the ornaments of the Greco-Eoman 
style satisfied him that the town was still in existence at a relatively modern period. 
Since then, Lepsius discovered a Roman inscription, and several sculptm-es which 
apparently represented Jupiter and Christ. 

About 12 miles north of Naga, in a desert valley, is a labjTinth of ruined 
buildings and refuse which the Arabs have named Mcsaurat. The central building, 
whose ruins are still visible, is one of the largest known edifices, bemg 2,900 feet 
in circumference ; its columns, fiuted and sculptured, but without hieroglyphics, 
are evidently of Greek architecture, and whilst CaiUiaud thinks it was a priest's 
college, Hoskin imagines it to have been a royal country seat. 



NAGA— MEEOE. 



247 



The remains of the town in -which Cailliaud recognised in 1821 the ancient 
Meroe, " capital of Ethiopia," stand 30 miles helow Shendi, a few miles from the 
right bank of the Xile ; in the midst of these ruins are scattered a few villages, 
amongst others that of Es-Sur, which gives its name to the tarabil, or pyramids. 
The pylons, temples, colonnades, avenues of animals and statues are stiU standing ; 
but the sandstone of Meroe, excavated from the neighbouring quarries, is not so 
durable as that of Egypt. The pyramids, to the number of about eighty, are 

Fig. 81. — P- niAtrm a oP Ueboe. 

Scale 1 : 125,000. 



' Onmjf// 




1^'^S ;56' 



55=50- 



L k oT tj'"een\A'ich 



55=40- 



C PeTon 



3 Miles. 



divided into three groups, and mostly stand on hills ; not ha-vrag been undermined 
by stagnant waters, these edifices have resisted the ravages of time better than the 
buildings on the plain. Still none of the pyramids are intact, most of them 
having been damaged by ciuiosity-hunters. "When accompanyiag a military 
expedition to this place, Lepsius with great difficulty prevented the systematic 
destruction of all the monuments of Meroe. In magnitude the Ethiopian pyramids 
-vrill not bear comparison -with those of Egvpt ; the largest are less than 66 feet 
square, and many do not exceed 13 feet in height. 



248 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

The numerous inscriptions collected at Meroe have resulted in the discovery of 
the names of thirty sovereigns vrho were at once kings and high-priests, and the very 
name of the city has been identified as Meru, or Merua. At the period when these 
p}Tamids were built, hieroglyphics had become an obsolete form of writing, the 
exact sense of which was no longer understood, and which was reproduced by 
imitation ; hence many errors crept into the copy, so that their decipherment has 
been rendered very ditEcult and uncertain. Most of these inscriptions are in the 
Demotic Ethiopian character, derived from that of the Egyptians, but possessing 
only thirty letters. In these inscriptions, not yet completely deciphered, savants 
have attempted to trace the ancient language of the Blemmyes, the ancestors of the 
Bejas. 

Opposite Meroe, on the western bank of the Nile, was apparently situated the 
public cemetery of the great city ; considerable spaces are here covered with small 
pyramids, imitations in miniature of those of the great personages buried on the 
right bank of the river. 



Metammeh — Kamara — GalAbat. 

In the basin of the Atbara, which bounds on the east the peninsula called by 
the ancients the "Island of Meroe," there are at present very few towns, in spite 
of the general fertility of the valleys and the healthy climate enjoyed by so large 
a portion of this territory. Most of them are mere market-places, swarming with 
people during the fairs, the next day abandoned. Amongst these "towns" inserted 
on the maps of the Sudan, some are mere clearings in the forest or breaches on the 
banks of the rivers ; the largest are Gorgur and Domjur, situated to the west of the 
Abyssinian plateau, in the country of the Dabaina Arabs and the " ShangaUa " 
Negroes. 

Metammeh, capital of the territory of Galabat, and often called by the name of 
its province, is during the dry season the most active centre of the exchanges 
between the plains of the Bejas and the Abyssinian plateaux. To the south stand 
the abrupt escarpments of Ras-el-Fil, or the " Elephant's Head." As an emporium 
Metammeh has succeeded to Kamara, a village situated in the vicinity. Compared 
with the surrounding groups of huts, it is almost a large town ; with the "tokuls" 
scattered in the suburbs in the midst of tobacco, cotton, and durra plantations, it 
covers a space of about 40 square miles. Although plundered by the hordes of 
Theodore, it soon regained all its importance ; the hills skirting the Meshareh, an 
affluent of the Atbara, were again covered with huts in which the merchants 
warehoused their goods. The xVrabs, Funj, and Bejas, have retui-ned to the market, 
and brick houses, whoso ground floors are filled with merchandise, now sm-round the 
market-place. Some five or six thousand traders, mostly Arabs, assemble at 
Metanmaeh, and over a thousand Abj'ssinians, porters, wood-cutters, and retailers 
of mead descend from theii- mountains to coUect the crumbs of the feast. Many 
crocodiles sport in the waters of the Meshareh, and betray no fear of the vast 




, MaiiiiiiiaaitiiiBEiiiiiiiiiiaiiiiiiiiiiiiitJft^ 



-:'>n't.Ri;!i 



KASSAIA— SABDEEAT— ALGADEN-DOLKA. 249 

crowds, whom they never attack, whilst their own lives are protected by the sheikh 
of Galabat. 

Most of the residents in ITetaniineh are Takruri, who set the example of work 
and industrial pui'suits to the neighbouring peoples. Is^ot only do the Takruri 
import skins, coffee, salt, some stuffs and beasts of burden fi'om Abyssinia, bartering 
them with the merchants of the Xile, but they also deal in the products of their 
own country, honey, wax, tobacco, maize, gum, incense, dyes, and drugs. They 
supply the Arabs with more than half of the cotton they use in weaving their togas. 
From the provinces of the Sudan they receive more especially glass trinkets, arms, 
and the talari, or Maria-Theresa crown-pieces, which are the exclusive currency in 
northern Abyssinia. 

The slave trade in this district, till recently more active than all the others, 
although officially forbidden at different times, has always been carried on. But 
it is no longer openly conducted in public ; in 1879, the sum obtained by the sale 
of slaves amoimted to more than £20,000. At the time of the Egyptian rule, the 
governor of Khartum maintained a garrison of two thousand men in Galabat. At 
present Galabat has become an independent principality, no longer paying tribute 
either to Egypt or Abyssinia. 

GeDAREF TOMAT. 

Doka, on the route from iletammeh to Abu-Ahraz, is a commercial outpost of 
Galabat situated at the confluence of the Eahad with the Blue IfUe. But in this 
lowland region the chief, if not permanent at least temporary, market is Suk-Abu- 
Sin, or " Market of Father Sin," also called Gedaref dher the province in which it 
is situated. During the rainy season Suk- Abu-Sin is Adsited only by the nomads 
in the vicinity ; but directly the kharif is over, when the Atbara and the other 
rivers of the plain are again fordable, and when the merchants have no longer to 
dread the attacks of the venomous flies on their camels, the caravans arrive from 
all parts, and as many as fifteen thousand persons are often assembled on the 
market-place. Before the war, gum, wax, salt, cereals and cattle were the chief 
wares in the market of Abu-Sin, and Greek merchants mingled with the crowds of 
Arabs and Bejas. Tomat, at the junction of the Settit with the Atbara, is also a 
town where a few exchanges take place ; Gos-Rejeh, on the left bank of the Atbara, 
lies on the caravan route between Shendi and the port of Massawah. The ruins 
pointed out by Burckhardt are a proof that the Egyptian merchants also passed 
through this region on their journey from Meroe to the coast at Adulis Bay. 

KaSS.U^ — S-iBDEKAT AlGADEX — DoLK_\. 

At the present time the most important town of the country is Kassala-el-Lus, 
capital of the province of Taka, and, since 18-10, the chief fortress of all the region 
comprised between the XUe and the Bed Sea ; it is also called Gash by the 
natives, after the stream whose right bank it skirts. After having served as a 



250 NOETH-EAST APEICA. 

bulwark of Eg's-pt against the Abyssinians, Kassala, ■when evacuated by its Mussulman 
garrison, appears destined to serve as tbe Abj-ssinian outpost against the Mahom- 
medan lowlanders. Situated at a height of 1,900 feet at the western base of a 
" seven peaked" mass of granite rocks rising over 4,000 feet above the plain, and 
its forests of dum pabns, Kassala presents one of the most attractive prospects in 
Africa. It appears to have succeeded a still larger town, that of Faki Endoa, 
which stretched along the torrent at a distance of nearly 3 miles. Commanded by 
a strong castle, the remains of which are still to be seen on one of the " heads " of 
the neighbouring rock, this town was the capital of the Hallenga nation, then 
powerful, but now reduced to a few wretched communities of pastors and agricul- 
turists. The mountain is pierced with grottoes which are said to hold the waters 
of a subterranean lake, and whose labyrinths appear to have been formerly 
inhabited by man ; a few troglodytes are reported even still to live in the galleries 
of the rocks. 

By its position on the lower course of the Gash or Mareb, Kassala commands 
the distribution of the waters along the riverain lands. A Pasha even desired to 
become the absolute master over the fortunes of the tribes by damming up the 
river before Kassala, so as to deflect it westwards towards the Atbara, and thus 
force the Hadendoas to come and beg permission to purchase a little rividet to 
irrigate their fields. Under the direction of the European Werne, who lent 
himself to this iniquitous work, a dyke 5,430 feet long effectually dammed up the 
current of the Gash and caused it to overflow into the western stepjjes ; but the 
Hadendoas, who felt it was a matter of vital importance to them, attacked the 
dam with such fury, that in spite of the soldiers who defended it, they soon 
made a breach through which the water flowed back to its natural bed. 

Before the rising of the tribes who favour the Mahdi, Kassala had acquired 
great importance as a point of transition for forwarding cotton, and vast cotton 
gins are still to be seen where hxmdreds of workmen were assisted by steam-engines. 
Kassala also prepared leather and manufactui-ed mats and soap. The first attempt 
of the Egyptian government in 1865 to open telegraphic communications between 
Kassala, Berber, Suakin, and Massawah, did not succeed ; over eight thousand 
camels were lost in this enterprise. But a second attempt, in 1871, was more 
fortimate, and a network of telegraphs was finally constructed, the stations serving 
also in the capacity of caravanserais for travellers. From Kassala to Massawah 
the journey occupies sixteen days by the route followed by the telegraph, through 
the country of the Bogos. Wells have been dug by the side of each station, 
between Kassala and Abu-Ahraz. 

In the vicinity of Kassala are a few villages occupied by settled Hallenga, 
Hadendoa or Bazen populations, and during the dry season, temporary camps are 
pitched in the dried-up bed of the Gash. Eighteen mUes to the east is the town of 
Sahderat, whose artisans are occupied with weaving cloth and leather work. This 
place perpetuates the memory of the defterdar's atrocities, who massacred all the 
inhabitants and made pyramids of the bodies, so as to poison the air and thus 
prevent the repopxilation of the country. 



K^iSSALA— SABDEEAT— .^GADEN— DOLKA. 



251 



To the nortli succeed the two large Hadcndoa viUages of Miktinab and Filil;, 
which are of some importance as market-phices. To the south-east the Bazen 
lieasantry, half converted to Islam, people the Tillage of Elit, built at a height of 
1,330 feet above the plain, on an almost inaccessible terrace half-way up the side 
of a granite mountain, scooped out at the top into a cultivated crater of quadi-an- 

Fig. 82. — Kassala. 
Scale 1 : 125.000. 



•'Gharbel-Gesh ^ 
• -..■■ ;• ^ 




L of Ijre 



5b' 1-4 



Ob ( 



C Perron 



gular shape. The " boiler " of EHt is probably a sinking of the soil, such as is 
frequently met with in rocks pierced with grottoes. 

North of Elit and ah-eady on the slope of the Xhor Barka, is the village of 
A/gaden or Alyeden, whose houses are scattered amidst the overtui-ned blocks on 
the sides of Mount Dablot or Doblut, which overlooks a vast horizon of hills and 
plains between the two rivers Mareb and Barka. Algaden lies on the route to 
Mecca taken by the Takruri pilgrims, who support themselves from village to 



252 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

village by preacliing, praying, and selling amulets ; in this way they have con- 
verted the population of Algaden, who are mainl}' of Bazen origin. In a neigbour- 
ing plain, the people of Algadea and Sabderat in 1870 gained a sanguinary victory 
over an army of Abyssinians, 10,000 of whom were left on the battle-field. 

To the south-east of Algaden, in the Barea country, between the Gash and the 
Barka, the Egj'ptians have recentlj^ founded two military stations, Kujit and Amideh. 
The first was abandoned in 1875, but Amideb was still occupied at the general 
rising of the tribes ; it is one of the places that England has by treaty handed over 
to the Abyssinians. Dolha, on a rock which rises to the east of the valley of the 
Anseba, long resisted the attacks of the Khedive's troops. In the neighbour- 
hood are the ruins of a town and some Christian churches which bear a few 
Abyssinian or Himyaritic inscriptions. The principal town of the Habab country 
is Af- Abaci, or Tha-Mariam, situated in a circular plain, at the foot of a precipitous 
mountain pierced with grottoes. 



Ed-Damer — Berber. 

Below Kassala on the Gash, and Gos-Rejeb on the Atbara, there is only one 
to-RTi in the basin, Ed-Damer, lying south of the confluence in the southern 
peninsula formed by the Nile and the mouth of the Atbara. Here dwelt the 
Makaberab tribe, whom Schweinfurth and Lejean believe to be the somewhat 
legendary Macrobians of ancient writers. But this town, which was formerly a 
brisk market, has lost its commercial importance and become a cit}' of " saints and 
teachers." It has schools, formerly celebrated, hotbeds of the Mussulman propa- 
ganda, but it is no longer a rendezvous for caravans. 

Some 30 miles lower down on the same bank of the river, is the commercial 
centre of the great river and its north Abyssinian tributaries. Berber, till recently 
capital of an EgyjDtian province, is the largest mart between Khartum and the 
Egyi^tian frontier, properly so-called. Berber, so named from the Barabra people, 
who occupy this region of Nubia, is ofiiciaUy called El-Mekheir, El-Mukheiref, or El- 
Meshcrif. Before the present war, during which Berber has been almost entirely 
destroyed, the town skirted the river bank for a distance of several miles, its white 
terraced houses standing in the midst of acacia and palm groves. A few gardens 
surround the toAvn, beyond which immediately commence the uncultivated, almost 
desert, spaces, visited only by the Bisharin nomads. 

Berber is the starting point of the most frequented caravan route between the 
Middle Nile and the Red Sea. At this point, the distance which sej)arates the river 
from the sea is, following the winding desert route, only 250 miles. If well supplied 
with food and water, travellers can easily complete this journey in less than a week, 
although they usually take fifteen days ; sooner or later a few hours will suffice, 
thanks to a railway already commenced, and on which military trains were running 
in 1885 from Suakin, for a few miles inland, to Otao, the present terminus on the 
route to Berber. When this line is completed, Berber will become the port by 



SUAEIX— SINTKAT— T0E1:U1. 



253 



Fig. 83.— Bekeeb. 
Scale 1 : 62,000. 



vrMch all the produce of Upper Sudan will be exported, and the Xile will be the 
commercial affluent of the Eed Sea. 

The two caravan routes between Suakin and Berber traverse vast sandy tracts 
where the water in the wells is brackish. The route Kes over granite and porphyry 
heights, crossed by the pass of Haratri, the water-parting between the Nile basin 
and that of the Eed Sea, standing at a 
height of 3,000 feet, between mountains 
rising to twice that elevation. Before 
the war 20,000 camels, laden with gum, 
annually crossed the desert between the 
two towns, which will probably soon be 
connected by rail. 

SCAKIX SlXK.iT T0K.\K. 

Suakin, or Sawakin, is the safest port 
on the Eed Sea coast, and resembles that 
of Massawah in its geographical posi- 
tion. The riverain zone of coral banks 
is pierced by a winding channel which 
penetrates over 2 miles inland, termi- 
nating in an oval-shaped basin about 
1 mile from north to south. To the 
west are sand-banks which contract the 
sheet of water, and are continued by 
shallows overgrown with reeds. Two 
round islands, partially friuged with 
rocks, exceed the level of the basin by 
several feet. One of these islands, that 
of Sheikh Ahdallah, is used exclusively 
as a cemetery ; the other, farther south, 
comprises the town of Suakin, properly 
so-called. The chief port lies between 
these two islands, but vessels of the 
heaviest tonnage can also anchor north 
of the island of Sheikh Abdallah ; in 
this species of lake, which seems to be 
surrounded by land on all sides, vessels 
are perfectly safe from the winds and surf. The port, opened in the midst of a 
beach rendered very dangerous by the multitude of reefs, is well worthy the name 
of the " harbour of the protecting gods,"' which many authors believe to have been 
given it during the time of the Ptolemies. 

Before the warlike events which have procured for Suakin a name famous iu 
contemporary history, the annual movement of the shipping was about 12 steamers 




. 2,200 Tarda. 



C. Perron 



254 



NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 



and 300 Arab vessels, which caiTied rice, dates, salt, cowries, and European mer- 
chandise, to be exchanged for slaves, mules, wild beasts, and the many products of 
the Abyssinian spurs, such as gum, ivory, ostrich feathers, skins, wax, musk, grains, 
and coffee. Suakin is the port where the pilgrims embark for Mecca, to the number 
of six or seven thousand annually ; the distance from here to Jeddah is about 20 
miles including the deviations caused by the reefs. The slave merchants from the 
interior present themselves in the disguise of ordinary travellers, accompanied by 
their wives, concubines, and servants. But on their return from Arabia to Suakin, 



Fig. 84.— Suakin in 1882. 
Scale I : 50,000. 




57-go 



j"F Ure&nwich 



57"22 



C Perrop 



Depths. 



to 32 Feet. 



32 to 64 Feet. 64 Feet and upwards. 



?.'fr'w>!i** Sands and coral reefs exposed at low water. 



I.IOO Yards. 



they have no longer wives or servants ; divorce, desertion, and unforeseen events 
being supposed to have relieved them of their families and followers. 

The town, overlooked by several minarets, consists of stone houses with wooden 
balconies and " musharabiehs " elegantly carved. It is a cosmopolitan city, where 
the trade is chiefly in the hands of the Arabs. Turks and Hedarmeh, or " Men 
of Hadramaut," here meet the Greek, Maltese, or European merchants. But the 
native popidation live in huts of branches covered with mats outside the town in the 
suburb of El-Kef. It is a far more extensive place than Suakin itself, with which 
it is connected by a low bridge some 330 feet long, and since 1884 by a railway 



v 




liiSliilllllilliiliililliilllittiiiteia^SA;^!^^ 



Xy-^ 



•\j^ 



I l-^PiPV 



SUAKIX— SES'XAT— TOKAE. 



255 



viaduct. The huts of El-Kef skirt the southern shore of the basin, opposite Suakin, 
and extend on both sides of the route to Berber. The Hadendoas who live in this 
suburb employ themselves in transporting and stowing the merchandise, and supply 
the town with coal, food, fowls, butter, fruits, vegetables, and driakiag water. In 
winter they are twice more nimierous than ia summer, when they retire to graze 
their flocks on the high mountains in the vicinity. Suakin, although it is well 
protected from pillaging raids by its insular position, depends entirely for its 



Fig. S.5. — SrAKIN rPLA>DS 
Scale I : 3,000,000. 




Deptlis. 



to SO Feet. 



80 to 160 Feet. 160 to 320 Feet, 320 to 1600 Feet. 1600 Feet and 

upwards. 

^^^^^^^^^^_^_ 60 Miles. 



maintenance on the mainland suburb, and it has been foimd necessary to enclose the 
latter with fortifications, to protect it against the Bejas, who recently rose against 
the Egyptian Government. 

The vital importance of Suakin with regard to trade and political power is fully 
appreciated by the belligerents. The sanguinary battles which have taken place 
in its vicinity, to the west near the fortified camp of Sinkat and the wells of 
Tamanith and Hashin, to the south-east before the stronghold of Tokar and in the 
oasis of El- Teh, prove how essential it would be for the Mussulman world to 
establish free communications between Mecca, capital of Islam, and Africa, its 
largest province, populated with the most fanatic of the faithful. Great Britain 
watches closely this continental port of Africa and, under the name of Egypt, this 
power has definitely taken possession of it so as to bring the whole of the Upper 
Nile within its commercial and political influence. Hitherto the Beja insurgents 



256 NOETH-EiLST AFEICA. 

have been able to maintain none but precarious relations with their co-religionists 
on the opposite coast by means of small craft escaping from the creeks along the 
coast under cover of night. 

Before Suakin was blocked by the rebels, the merchants of this to^-n withdrew 
during the hot season to the smiling valley of Siiikat, which, at a height of 870 
feet, lies amid extinct volcanoes and cliffs of an extremely fertile reddish marl ; the 
slopes have been laid out in steep terraces planted with acacias and fruit trees. 
Tokar, a little fort situated in a fertile valley u-rigated by numerous small canals 
derived from the Barka, stands in the middle of the " granary " of this province. 
During the sowing and harvest seasons, more than twenty thousand labourers are 
employed in the fields of Tokar. 

Some of the marsa or mirsa, that is harbours, on the neighbouring coast may 
perhaps acquu-e some importance when the mountains of the interior become 
populated and cultivated. One of the most convenient, as a market of the Khor 
Barka Valley, will imdoubtedly be the port of Aldq, a vast and deep basin well 
protected, like that of Suakin, by islands and peninsiilas ; this port is without 
doubt one of the best ia the Red Sea. In the chief island of the roadway, a Beni- 
Amer tribe has foimded the little village of Baclur, before which vessels can cast 
anchor ia a depth of from 23 to 25 feet. On the coast of Suakin and Akiq the sea 
water teams with animal life. The surface of the sea is often covered for miles 
with ripplets which seem to be caused by the breeze, but are reallj' produced by the 
movement of a small fish of the sardine type, myriads of which play in the upper 
layers of the water. 




CHAPTER IX. 



KOEDOFAN. 




HIS country, which was till recently an Egyptian province, and 
which, at the commencement of 1883, became the centre of a new 
state destined probably to have but a short existence, is a perfectly 
distinct natural region, although without any clearly defined frontiers. 
On the whole its form is quadrilateral, inclined from the north to 
the south, parallel with the main stream between the Sobat and Blue Nile confluence. 
On the south and east Kordofan, or Kordofal, has for its natural frontiers low- 
lying tracts flooded by the Nile ; to the north and west it merges in the steppes 
roamed over by nomad tribes. The total area of the region, thus roughly defined, 
may be estimated at 100,000 square miles, or nearly half the size of France. This 
space is very sparsely populated ; in 1875, Prout, an American ofiicer in the 
Egyptian service, made an ofiicial return, according to which the inhabitants of 
the eight hundred and fifty-three towns and villages of Kordofan niunbered 
164,740 persons. At the same period the nomad tribes amounted to a total of 
114,000 persons, but the governor of the province had made no attempt to nimiber 
the turbulent momitaincers of the south. The total population of Kordofan can be 
provisionally estimated at 300,000, giving a density of about three persons to the 
square mile. Wars have frequently devastated the country, and it is supposed 
that the number of people has considerabl}' decreased since the massacres ordered 
b}^ Mohammed Bey, the terrible " Treasurer," who conquered this region for his 
father-in-law, Mohammed Ali. Fresh butcheries have again taken place since the 
Mahdi, or " Guide," has made Kordofan the centre of his empire, and proclaimed 
the holy war throughout his camps. 



Physical Features. 

By the general slope of the land Kordofan belongs to the Nilotic basins. If 
the rains were sufficiently abundant the wadies, which dry up at the mouth of the 
moimtain valleys, would reach as far as the "WTiite Nile ; even the waters rising on 
the western slope flow to the Nile intermittently, on the one side through the 
Ke'ilak and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, on the other through the Wady-Melek. In other 

VOL. X. s 



258 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

respects the level of the laud, which varies from a mean height of 1,330 to 1,060 
feet, varies hut slightly in a large portion of the country ; in many places the 
running M'aters are said to follow an uncertain course hefore excavating a regular 
channel towards the Nile. Throughout nearly the whole of its extent Kordofan is 
a gently undulating stei^pe, whose hills, seldom more than a few feet high, serve as 
landmarks during long hours of march. It would be easj' to drive vehicles here, 
and thus replace the use of camels as a means of transport. Isolated peaks rising 
from the middle of the plain present an imposing appearance, thanks to the general 
uniformity of the spaces which they command. One of them, the Jebel- Kordofan 
(2,830 feet), which has given its name to the country, rises about 12 miles east of 
the capital, El-Obeid ; near it is the almost regular pyramid of Jebel-el-Ain. The 
upper strata consist almost eutirelj' of granitic sand, the decomposed remains of 
mountains which contain in abundance particles of mica mixed with impure clays. 
At a depth varying from 100 to 166 feet are found rocks of mica schist. 

At a mean distance of 120 miles to the west of the Nile, the central region of 
Koi'dofan rises into mountainous masses, whose crests attain a height of many 
hundreds of feet above the jjlain. To the north-west the Jebel-Katul and the 
Jebel-Kaja are protected on the side of the plains b}' rocks sufficientl)'^ inac- 
cessible to afford the independent tribes a refuge against their neighbours. To 
the north some isolated granite cliiis, amongst others the Jebel-Haraza, command 
the winding caravan route between El-Obeid and Dongola. In the centre of 
Kordofan the Jebel-Deyer, covering a space of about 200 square miles, raises its 
crests to an altitude of over 2,660 feet, or 1,000 feet above the surrounding steppes. 
Its outer walls, pierced with a few breaches, form a complete rampart round it ; 
but inside, the natives say, there is a deep valley, a basin flowing with water and 
well wooded, which the surrounding nomads describe as an earthly paradise. To 
the south of this elevation the steppe no longer continues in monotonous undulat- 
ing hillocks, as in the north-west of Kordofan, having no other arborescent 
vegetation than a few groves of stunted acacias and here and there a baobab, whose 
twisted branches stand out against the horizon. It now becomes a level, fertile, 
and well- wooded plain, from which the bluish cones of Mounts Tagala are visible, 
girdled with verdure at the base and running southwards, towards the steppes 
inhabited by the Baggara, for a distance of at least 30 miles. Farther west, the 
other mountainous masses, also formed of granite rocks, have taken the general 
name of Jebel-Nuba, or Dar-Nuba, that is to say, " Country of the Nubas," after 
the people inhabiting them. 

IIydrographic System. 

The mountains of Southern Kordofan receive a much larger quantity of water 
than those of the north. The showers which fall in the Jebel-Nuba are sufficiently 
heavy to give birth to a khor, the Abu-Hableh, which flows to the east and north- 
east for a distance of over 180 miles before finally disappearing in the ground. It 
is even said that during certain very rainy years a little water from Kordofan has 



CLIMATE OF KORDOFIN. 259 

reached the Nile through this fluvial channel. Throughout the course of the Ahu- 
Hableh the surplus waters form during the kharif season, that is to say from June 
to October, temporary sheets of Trater which are usually marked on the maps as 
El-Birket, or El-Rahad, that is, " Lakes," in a pre-eminent sense. But water rarely 
remains in this reservoir till the end of the dry season ; however, on digging in the 
sand to a depth of 8 or 10 feet, sufficient can be obtained to quench the thirst of 
both man and beast. Most of the other pools, generally called fttlahs, are flooded 
only during the rainy season. In the iahabited region of Northern Kordofan, 
estimated by Prout at 17,200 square miles, there are neither rivers nor ponds, but 
only funnel-shaped -wells sunk to a depth of 80 and even 160 feet, as far as the 
mica schist bed, which forms a layer through which the rain water, filtering through 
the light soO. on the surface, cannot penetrate. The water in these wells is reached 
by steps cut round the excavation. The scientific exploration of this country has 
proved the existence of eight himdred wells, but at least two hundred of these are 
completely dry for half of the year, and the water of many is brackish or even salt. 
According to Escayrac, Lauture, and Matteucci, the general dessication of the 
coimtry has been undoubted!}' going on for manj- generations, and several wells 
which formerly furnished water in abundance have had to be abandoned. The 
annual rainfall, which is on the average 9 inches at El-Obeid, somewhat more in 
the mountains of the south, and less in those of the north, is not sufiicient to fill all 
the wells sunk in the hollows. Hence entire ^-illages are abandoned during the 
dry season. As soon as the dokhn, the only kind of millet which flourishes in this 
dry climate, has been harvested, the cidtivators migrate to the wells which contain 
a little water throughout the year, and do not return to their fields till the com- 
mencement of the kharif. In the villages and towns water is a commercial article, 
and towards the end of the dry season it occasionally costs more than wine in wine- 
growing countries; in 1873 a measure of two or three gallons was sold for a 
dollar. 

Climate of Kordof.\n. 

In spite of the altitude of Kordofan, the temperature of this coimtry is one of 
the hottest in the world. The season of intense heats commences in March, when 
the thermometer frequently rises to 105° F. in the shade, and the air mixed with 
the desert sand is almost suffocating. After the three months of the sef, or dry 
season, dense clouds are collected in the southern horizon, announcing the approach 
of the kharif. The beginning of June is ushered in by hea^-y showers, very violent 
but of short duration, with intervals of fine weather. The rainy season usually 
commences with atmospheric disturbances, whirlwinds rushing over the steppes ; 
but soon the aerial currents regain their equilibrium, and the south-west wind, a 
continuation of the south-east trade wind in the southern hemisphere, prevails over 
this part of the north, following the direction of the sun. During this season the 
temperature is maintained with a remarkable uniformity between 77° F. and 92° F., 
the oscillations of the thermometer seldom exceeding 12° F. Such a climate woidd 
be very agreeable, but for the vapours and miasmas with which the air is saturated, 

s 2 



260 NORTH-EAST APEICA. 

causing residence in Kordofan to be very dangerous to Arabs, Turks, and Europeans, 
who often fall victims to the endemic fevers. Towards the end of September, after 
three or four months of intermittent rains, the wind changes. The north-east trade 
winds, deflected south by the progress of the sun towards the tropic of Capricorn, 
now sets in, bringing cold weather in its train ; during the night the temperature 
occasionally faUs to 59° F. 

Flora. 

The flora of Kordofan is not very rich ; acacias, tamarisks, baobabs, and such- 
like trees give the landscape its characteristic appearance in the regions which are 
not barren or completely deforested. The acacias, which furnish the gum of com- 
merce, belong to various species. The grej'-barked variety, which yields the best 
quality of gum, is scattered in numerous thickets throughout the eastern part of 
the country. In the southern region the red-barked acacias, which furnish the 
least valuable kind of gum, extend in vast forests almost useless from an economi- 
cal point of view ; very few villagers or nomads take the trouble to collect the 
gum which exudes from these trees. The most important harvest throughout 
nearly the whole of Kordofan, is that of the dokhn (^penicilaria typhoides), which 
arrives at maturity four months after being sowm, a period corresponding to the 
kharif. This variety of millet requires so little moisture that it thrives better on 
the sandy dunes than in the hollows ; nine-tenths of the popvJation live on this 
dokhn. The durrah, or EgjqDtian millet, is cultivated only in the well-watered 
mountain valleys. Wheat, sesame, haricots, tobacco, and cotton are found in a 
few districts near the capital. Hemp is iised for interlacing the walls of the huts. 

Of all the vegetable products of Kordofan, gum is exported in the largest 
quantities ; the chase also contributes to the movement of the exchanges more 
than cattle-breeding. Ostrich feathers are the most valuable articles that the 
northern caravans obtain from the natives. But these latter have abnost 
exterminated the ostrich in the eastern plains of the country ; herds of ostriches 
are now met with only to the west of the Kaja Moimtains, and the frontier of 
Dar-For. The steppes of Kordofan would be admirably adapted for ostrich farms ; 
but at present this bird is not kept in captivitj', and the hunters kill it to such an 
extent that it is yearly diminishing in numbers. 

The ibis is very common in Kordofan, as many as fifty nests being found on 
one tree ; this bird like the stork, is considered sacred, and the natives do not 
permit strangers to kill it. The people of Kordofan have a few domestic animals, 
such as horses, asses, goats, and sheep ; but tlie pack-animals belong more especially 
to the nomad tribes. To the south the Baggaras possess at least one hundred 
thousand humped oxen, trained to bear burdens, but quite useless for field opera- 
tions ; the cows supply but little milk. The scarcity of water in the plains has 
modified the habits of the native breed of cattle, -which come to the troughs only 
every two or three daj's. Camels thrive only in northern Kordofan, amongst the 
Kababish nomads ; south of the thirteenth degree of latitude they perish under the 
attacks of swarms of gadflies and other venomous insects. 



INHABITANTS OF KOEDOFAN— THE MUSABATS AND ZOGHAWAS. 261 

Inhabitants of Kordofan. 

Central Kordofan, in the Ticinity of El-Obeid, is one of the most densely 
inhabited regions of eastern Africa; in a radius of about 60 miles roimd the 
capital, the villages are on the average not more than 2 or 3 miles from each 
other. Each tokul, or circular hut of thatch with a conic roof, and occasionally 
the village itself, is surrounded by a belt of prickly hedges. The peoples who 
occupy these settled groups of houses are of a very mixed race, and the original 
type is very difficult to be recognised. 

Founded as commercial stations on the routes from the Nile to the countries 
of Central Africa, the towns of Kordofan are places of assembly for the merchants, 
who here come to rest from their march across the surrounding deserts. The 
soldiers and slaves of every tribe who accompanj' these traders tend to corrupt 
the race and destroy its primitive elements. The people who are the result 
of these crossings are intelligent, happy, talkative, and " given to dancing and 
amusements." 

In some vUlages the Ghodiats (Gilledats or Gowameh), supposed to be of more 
or less pure aboriginal descent, are stiU said to survive. According to Munzinger, 
who calls them Kadejat, they are related to the Funj. They dwell to the east 
and south of the moimtaius of Kordofan and Jebel-Ai'n or " Mountain of the 
Waters," and, in spite of the conquests and changes in the political regime they 
stiU constitute an independent group. Thej^ acknowledge one of their own 
people as a sheikh and pay tribute to him ; but if they are not satisfied with him 
they beseech a fakih to take oil his turban of investitui-e and place it on the head 
of another person. This ceremony is quite sufficient to effect a transfer of the 
authority. 

The Musabats and Zoghawas. 

By virtue of a long occupation, the descendants of those who invaded this 
country at an already distant period are considered as having the best right to the 
name of Kordofanese. Such are the Musabats, who say they are of For descent, 
and whose chief, residing at El-Obeid, still takes the name of sultan. Such are 
also the Kimjaras, likewise of For descent, who obtained possession of Kordofan 
at the end of the eighteenth century, but who were compelled to yield their 
power to the Egyptians in 1820, after theu- defeat at the battle of Bara. About 
one thousand of them still live isolated in a few vUlages near El-Obeid, and their 
chief takes the title of sultan, like that of the Musabats. Some twenty years ago 
a few Kimjara stiU. spoke their native For dialect ; but Arabic has now become 
generally employed by them as well as by the sons of the conquering Forians. 

The Zoghawas, the remains of the nation which in the twelfth century ruled 
over all the sjjace comprised between the moimtains of Dar-F6r and the Nile, are 
still to be foimd in the northern part of Kordofan. The other inhabitants of 
the country whose origin is known are the Jalin Arabs, who have nearly all 
the trade in their hands, and the people of Dongola, the Danageleh or Danagla, 



202 



NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 



who were charged by the Egyptian Government with collecting the taxes. 
Christian and Mussulman Syrians, Albanians and Greeks, are the non-African 
elements which are met with in Kordofan, and which contribute to the inter- 
mingling of the races. But the modification of the t^-pe is more especially due to 
the people of the neighbouring tribes brought in hy the dealers, such as the 
Nubas, Denkas, and Bongos. The Takruris, Fellatas, and other western immi- 
grants, travelling with the double object of selling their merchandise and 
propagating the doctrines of the Koran throughout the towns along their route, 



Fig. 86.— Central Kordofas. 
Scale 1 : 650,000. 



■■<■- 










...■-- 






Sanda Koura * 




,Sha|Ia 


El Kama 

• 


*% 




e elobeTo 




*ElGela \ 




( ' 






.15' 



50°45' 



E : of Greenwich 



5n5- 



ly Perron 



. 6 Miles. 



have also settled down in the country, and constitute new tribes by intermarrviug 
with the daughters of the Arabs. A great number of Takruri come to Kordofan 
to offer their services temporarily at the sowing or harvesting seasons, and when 
they are well received they settle down in the country. The islands of the White 
Nile, which however, are not considered as belonging to Kordofan, are nearly all 
inhabited by Arabs. One of them, the largest and best cultivated, is that of Altlia, 
in which the Mahdi, Mohammed- Ahmed, revealed his mission to his first disciples, 
and gained his first victory over the Egj'ptians in 1881. 



THE NirB.^5— THE TAGALAS. 203 



The Nubas. 



The Xubas, yrho occupy the Jebel-Deyer, south of Kordofan, and a few of 
■whom are still found on other uplands, have a language of their own ; but it can- 
not be positively asserted that they are related to the Nubians, from whom they 
are separated by a desert and by other populations. Driven from the plains and 
massed in the mountains, they lead a precarious life, being considered as wild 
beasts and himted as such. In Kordofan the name of Xubas is synonymous with 
slave, and when captured this is indeed the condition to which they are reduced. 
As their small republican communities have not been able to form a solid con- 
federation, they make no resistance to their enemies. Nevertheless there are a 
few Xuba villages which by payment of a tribute acquire the right to live 
unmolested near the plains, and are allowed to descend to the markets to dispose 
of their goods. The Xubas dress like the Arabs, but do not plait their hair. They 
are completely black, with the face very prognathous, nor do their features possess 
that peculiar sharpness which distinguishes the riverain Nubians of the Nile. 
According to ilunzinger, they are also amongst the least intelligent Nigritians ; as 
slaves they can be employed only in rude and monotonous labours, but they are 
good-natured, honest, and constant in friendship. When they are in the company 
of ilahommedans the Nubas call themselves servants of Allah ; but they do not 
appear to render him any kind of worship. Their only priests are the " makers 
of rain," and magicians who heal diseases by gestures and incantations. The rite 
of ciiTumcision was practised by them previous to the influences of Islam. 

The vocabularies collected by ilunzinger, Eussegger, Euppell, and Brugsch 
prove that the dialect of the Nubas differs little from that of the Nilotic Nubians, 
the principal diSerences bearing in certain portions of the language. To the west 
of the Nubas are said to live a stiU more savage people, the Gnumas, Negroes of 
tall stature who go naked, and of whom it is related that they kill the old men, 
the infirm, and those attacked by contagious diseases, so as to shorten their vovage 
to a better world ; by the side of the corpse in the grave they place food, a pipe 
of tobacco, weapons, and two pairs of sandals. 

The Tagalas. 

The Tagalas (Tegeleh, or Dogoleh) dwell in the mountains of the same name. 
Although neighbours of the Nubas, they speak a language entirely distinct in 
words and structure. They themselves say they are Funj, although they can no 
longer tmderstand their kindred of Senar. Their king wears the three-homed 
headdress which formerly served as a crown to the king of the Funj, and which 
has been borrowed from them by the deglel, or princes of the HaUengas, Hadendoas, 
and Beni-Amers. 

The Tagalas have not the flat nose and prognathous jaw so common amongst 
the bulk of the Nigritian tribes ; their features are regular, the expression 
animated, while their intelligence and skill are highly spoken of. As slaves the)' 



2G4 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

are much more appreciated than the Nuhas, and unfortunately the occasion has 
often been had of comparing them from this point of view, because they are 
considered as the personal proper ty_ of the king. This potentate is regarded as a 
sort of deity, whom they approach only by crawling on the stomach and scratching 
the gromid with the left hand. No one marries without the permission of the 
king, and no one can remain free if it pleases the king to sell him as a slave. The 
father has also the legal right to get rid of his childi'cn, and in times of famine 
the slave-hunters go on purchasing expeditions from village to village. The 
Mohammedan religion, which has recently been adopted by the country, has not 
yet triumphed over the ancient customs. 

The Tagalas valiantly resisted the Egj'ptians, who would never have succeeded 
in taking the natural stronghold occupied by these mountaineers had not disputes 
as to the succession to the throne opened a way to the invaders. On the plateau 
of the Tagala here and there rise steep hills, each bearing on its crest a small 
\illage surrounded by walls and thorny shrubs. These villages form the acropolis 
of the commune ; subterranean routes, excavated in the rock and communicating 
with the outside by concealed passages, receive the provisions, and occasionally 
serve as i)laces of refuge to the inhabitants. In order to give an idea of the large 
number of fortified villages inhabited by the Tagalas, their country is said to 
possess no less than nine hundred and ninety moimtains, whilst one thousand are 
attributed to the more extensive country of the Nubas. 

The Tagala district might under a settled government become the richest in 
Kordofan ; its soil is fertile and relatively well- watered ; its iuhabitants are skilful, 
and almost the only people in Kordofan who have succeeded in cultivating the 
steep slopes by means of terraces sustained by walls of loose stones. The low 
moimtain range of Wadelka, to the south-east of the Tagala hUls, is also sur- 
roimded by regidar terraces, like the advanced spurs of the Alps, above the plain 
of Lombardy. 

The Tagalas, extremely skilful smiths, import iron to manufacture arms and 
implements ; but the deposits of cojjper which exist in their mountains are stiU 
less worked than the auriferous sands of the country of the Nubas. The gold of 
Kordofan is not so much appreciated as that of Fazogl, on account of its colour. 



The Kababisii and BagcIra Tribes. 

The cultivated regions of Kordofan are everjn\'here surroimded by nomad 
popidations, known under the general name of Bedouins, and divided into two 
main groups of tribes, to the north the Kababish or " Goatherds," to the south the 
Baggara or " Cowherds." These names, which merely indicate the pui'suits and 
the mode of life of the tribes, do not imply any difference of race, and perhaps 
both the Kababish and Baggara belong to one and the same ethnical stock ; 
according to Brun-Rollct, the Baggaras give themselves the name of Gema. The 
differences in soil and climate have had much to do with the difference in their 



THE KABABISH Als^D BAGGAEA TEIBES. 265 

pursuits. The goat and the camel flourish iu the generally arid northern plains, 
^vhile horned cattle can obtain sufficient water only in the southern steppes. 

All the " Bedouins " of Kordofan claim to be of Arab origin, and do in fact 
speak the language of the Prophet ; but, as ilunzinger remarks, " speech is merely 
of secondary importance in ethnology, it is the manner iu which it is spoken 
which makes it characteristic." K^ow of all the " Arabs " of the Zsilotic regions, 
the Baggara, and after them the Xababish, are those whose pronunciation differs 
the most fi'om that of the true Arabs. A large number of the usual sounds in the 
classical tongue are unknown and replaced by other sounds, possibly inherited from 
a now extinct language. 

The Kababish, who are more civilised, thanks to their geographical position, 
have other occupations besides goat and camel-breeding ; they also cultivate the 
soil in the lowlands which fringe the Xile, and found permanent vUlages there, 
and as they are careful purveyors, they accompany the caravans from El-Obeid to 
the stations on the 'Sile. Some of the Kababish tribes wear enormous hats, similar 
to those worn by the Kabyles of Tunis and Algeria. The employments of the 
Baggara consist of grazing theii" cattle, hunting the elephant, the buffalo, and 
other large game, and even occasionally man. Directly the pasturages no longer 
offer sufficient nourishment for their herds, or when the gadfly attacks the cattle, 
they strike their ftrgan or tents, load the oxen with the mats which form them, 
and, followed by a band of their ferocious little dogs, they migrate to another part 
of the steppe. Carlo Piaggia met one of these caravans of Baggara nomads 
which extended for a distance of two miles ; including men and animals, it com- 
prised at least iifty thousand individuals, whilst bii-ds, as if di-a^-n there by the 
column of air displaced by the caravan, wheeled in thousands round the animals, 
destroying the parasites with which they were infested. 

Most of the Baggara have a red skin like that of the American Indians, and 
in bodily beauty, athletic form of the chest and shoulders, elegance of their hands 
and feet, they have but few rivals in the world. Their costume is similar to that 
of the Kordofan villagers, their garment consisting of a kind of white shii-t 
striped with red, which leaves the right arm uncovered ; they adorn them- 
selves with glass trinkets, rings, and articles of ivory and horn. The women 
still dress their hair in the ancient fashion represented on the Egj-ptian monu- 
ments, and their tresses, which fall half-way down the forehead and on both sides 
down to the shoidders, are plastered with butter and aromatic pomades. The 
gilded ring which many women pass through the nostrils is often connected with 
a chain hung behind their hair. The men carry the lance, in the use of which 
they are very skilful, and the European weapons, Solingen swords and Liege 
rifles, have already become generally adopted by them. Few Arabs are so warlike, 
or so scrupulous in obser^-ing the duties of the vendetta, as the Baggara. 

The Baggara are amongst the most fervent of the faithful, and, under the 
direction of the ilahdi, they have eagerly thrown themselves into the holy war ; 
they have many times crossed the Bahr-el-Arab to attack the Xegro populations 
of the zeriba region, and towards the end of 1884, the date of the last news 



o 



266 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

received, the result of the war was still uncertain. In any case Islam, whilst 
spreading from Kordofan towards the surrounding countries, is far from having 
accomplished its mission in Kordofan itself, where numerous practices forbidden 
by the Prophet are still observed. For the natives the principal difference 
between paganism and Mohammedanism is that, in the former case, the amulet is 
a morsel of horn or rag, whilst in the latter it consists of a pouch enclosing a 
verse from the Koran or a prayer written bj^ a fakih. 

Social Usages. 

Temporar}^ mai'riages are practised throughout Kordofan ; even at El-(jbeid 
the custom of the " fourth free," which is specially attributed to the Hassanieh, is 
said to exist amongst several families of other tribes. Polyandry, regulated for 
each of the husbands by a partial purchase of the women, would appear to be an 
extremely common institution. 

Amongst the Ghodiats of the plains and the Joama Arabs, no young girl has 
the right to marry till she has presented her brother or uncle with a child, the son 
of an unknown father, destined to serve as a slave to the head of the family. 
Amongst other tribes, the women belong only to the strongest or to the one who 
can endure the most. A day is fixed for the young men who dispute for the 
possession of the girl to assemble before the old men and the women armed with 
kurbashes, and those who bear the greatest number of blows without flinching are 
judged worthy to obtain the prize. At other times two of the rivals lie prostrate 
on the ground, one to the right the other to the left of the young girl, who, 
her elbows armed with knives, rests with all the weight of her body on the naked 
thighs of the young men. He who submits the most gallantly to these fearful 
wounds becomes the fortunate husband, and the wife's first care is to staunch the 
fearful gash that she has made. 

Several other customs bear witness to the barbarous energy of these "Arabs" 
of Kordofan and Dar-For. Often when an old man feels his end approaching he 
quits the dwelliag-place without telling his friends, makes his religious ablutions 
in the desert sand, excavates a pit, and wrapping himself in his shroud, lies down 
with his feet turned towards Mecca. He looks to the sun and then, veiling his 
face, waits till the evening breeze shall blow the sand over his grave. Perhaps 
the hyaenas commence to gnaw his limbs before he has breathed his last ; but he 
will die without complaining, for the object of his existence is accomplished. 

Topography— El-Oheid. 

El- Ohc'id, or Lohcit as it is called by all the natives, capital of the pro^ance of 
Kordofan, and the first Mahdi's residence till the beginning of 1885, occupies 
precisely a situation which presents all the conditions necessary for the establish- 
ment of a large city. Should it be again destroj'ed, as it was in 1821 at the 
period of the arrival of the Turks, it would spring up on the same site or in the 



TOPOGRAPHY— EL-iiBETD. 



207 



imiuediate vicinit}- with renewed life. El-Obeid is built iu one of the parts of 
Kordofaa where the rainfall is most abundant ; the heat there is also less over- 



Fig. 87.— El-Obeii). 

Scale 1 : 20,000. 



I 











50" 59-50- 



L . of Gr 



50-55-50" 



Arab dwellings. 



Wooden huts. 



Brick and stone bouses. 
___^ 550 Yards. 



powering than elsewhere, since the town lies at a height of 2,030 feet, although 
there are no mountains to be scaled before reaching it.s basin. 

In this region the mountains, either isolated or disposed in parallel ridges, 
leave the way open in every direction, and the caravans converge there without 
meeting with any obstacles. To the west of the Xile El-Obeid is the first station 
where the caravans rest and reform on the wav to Dar-For, "Wadai, and Western 



263 NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 

Africa. Its principal relations are not with Khartum, but with the villages 
situated at the end of the great bend which the river describes above Dongola. 
As the cataracts of the Nile greatly increase the cost of transjjort, it is in the 
interest of the caravans coining from Eg3'pt to follow the desert route south-east 
towards Khartum and south towards El-Obeid. In both of these towns, articles of 
European manufacture commanded the same market price before the rising of 
Kordofan. The trade of El-Obeid was then very considerable, especially the sale 
of slaves who, according to Munzinger, form three-fourths of the pojDulation of 
Kordofan. Like the European cottons consigned to the western countries, nearly 
all the ostrich feathers imported from For pass through El-Obeid. The exporta- 
tion of gums in 1880 was valued at 100,900 cwt., which is equivalent to a sum of 
£80,000.* 

Shoidd El-Obeid lose this trade, wherein lay its importance, what would become 
of this capital of Kordofan, even were it to be chosen as the capital of a new 
emjDire under any of the rival Mahdis ? However, ever since the destruction of 
the EgyjDtian army the isolation of the town has not been so great as might be 
supposed, and relations with Tripoli have been actively carried on through Wadai 
and Fezzan ; but the Europeans have not played their usual role as the inter- 
mediaries in this revived commerce. 

El-Obeid does not offer the aj^pearance of a compact city ; it is rather a collec- 
tion of villages relieved here and there by brick buildings erected in the " Christian 
style." Around the southern quarter, which is the town properly so-called, nearly 
all the dwellings are mere tokids, like those of the country hamlets — huts of earth, 
which collapse under a heavy shower of rain, or else cabins of mats or branches, 
surrounded by thorny hedges to prevent the camels from gnawing the cloths and 
ropes which are placed on the houses. 

The popidations of various origin are distributed throughout the different 
quarters accorduig to their ethnical affinities. Here are settled the Jalin or 
Danagla merchants ; farther on reside the Nubas, the Takruri, the immigrants of 
For and the Maugrabins, whilst before the war four or five hinidred Greeks had 
their shops in the centre of the southern quarter. A few gardens skirt the 
kheran, or sandy river-beds, which intersect the to-ivn, and which are sometimes 
flooded ; but nearly all the cabins are surrounded by fields of dokhn. 

During the dry seasons nothing but dusty spaces intervene between the huts, 
and the town presents a dreary appearance ; but towards the end of the kharif, 
when the vegetation is in its beauty, the outlying quarters of El-Obeid apjDcar like 
vast prairies, and the conic roofs of the tokuls are hardly visible above the floating 
sea of red-eared dokhn. Before the war the population of El-Obeid, including the 
suburban villages, was calculated at 30,000 persons. An Italian traveller even 
ventures to raise the number to 100,000 ; but it is probable that the capital of 
Kordofan has become almost abandoned since the fii'st Mahdi ordered the peojjle, 
under pain of death, to quit their brick houses and dwell either in the tent or in 

• TruJe of Kordofan, according to Prout, in IS'C: Imports, £50,000; Exports, £132,000. 
Total, £182,000. 



^UiU-a^AZ— MELBEIS— BAEA— KAESIAE— EL-SAFI. 269 

huts of brandies, so that no exterior signs might bear witness to inequality 
amongst the Mussuhnans, all " sons of the same father." 

In the spring of the year 1885 the report reached Europe that El-Obe'id had 
been burnt and plundered, the booty being carried away to Jebel-Dehr by Nowal, 
an Arab sheildi who had never submitted to the first Mahdi. Then came the news 
that a second or rival ITahdi, Muley Hassan AH, made a triumphant entrj' into the 
capital of Kordofan on March 12th, 1885. He bore a sword in his hand, rode on 
a white horse, and was followed by derwishes, by prisoners, and by his adherents 
with drawn swords. When he passed the people kissed the ground, and during 
his staj' in the mosque a large pile was made, upon which a copy of the other 
Mahdi's Koran was burnt. The new Mahdi told the assembled multitudes that 
Mahommed had given him a sword wherewith to extirpate the " false " Mahdi and 
all his followers. Since then it appears that the forces of the rival Mahdis have 
met on the battlefield, and that the original Mahdi was defeated with great 
slaughter and di'iven out of Kordofan. 

Abu-Haraz — Melbeis. 

To the south-west of El-Obei'd is Ahu-Haraz, a somewhat important group of 
hamlets, situated in a large wooded valley, in the midst of gardens sui'rounded by 
quickset hedges. McUie'is, another town, is built in a depression near a morass 
occasionally flooded by the torrents which descend from Mount Kordofan. In the 
vicinity of this town, on the banks of the Khor Kashgil, a tributary of the Abu- 
Hableh, is the spot where was fought in 1883 the decisive battle which put an end 
to the Egyptian rule by exterminating an army of eleven thousand men. At the 
same time the Europeans lost much of their prestige in the ej'es of the natives, 
because the commander of the Egyjitian troops was General Hicks, an Englishman, 
and the bulk of his ofhcers had been selected from the British army. Throughout 
the whole of the Nile basin it was repeated from tribe to tribe that England had 
been conquered by the Mahdi, and that the cannons of the " Infidels " had 
thundered in vain against the warriors sent by God. 

Bara — Kaimar — El-Safi. 

The main caravan routes In Kordofan were till recently skirted by the tele- 
graph, which was much dreaded by the natives ; many of them hardly dared to 
speak when near the wires, lest their voices might be heard at Khartum or in 
Egypt. 

To the north of El-Obeid, the principal town, situated on the caravan route 
between Kordofan and the bend described by the Nile at Dabbeh, is Bara, foimded 
by the Danagla merchants. Under the rule of the Dar-F6r people before the 
invasion of the Egyptians, this market-town was very prosperous ; at that time, 
according to tradition, " all the Bara women wore earrings of gold and bracelets 
and hair-pins of gold and silver." Near Bara was fought in 1821 the battle 



270 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

which procured Kordofan for the Egyptians, and which revenged, after a coui'se of 
two generations, the still more terrible battle of KashgQ. 

One of the stations on the route between Bara and Dabbeh is the oasis of 
Knintar, or Kajmar, where there is a small intermittent lake full of salt water ; 
but the wells in the vicinity furnish fresh water nearly as good as that of the 
Nile. In the vicinity, on the Jebel-IIaraza, Lejean has seen a rock covered with 
curious paintings, which probably rejjresent a razzia. One of the figures is 
represented of a gigantic stature, the beard cut to a point, and wearing a costume 
similar to that used by the Franks during the First Crusade. 

Beyond this point, on the route to Dabbeh, lies the oasis of Es-Safi, which, 
thanks to its magnificent vegetation, is one of the most beautiful in all Africa. 
Although not permanently inhabited it may be considered as the centre of the 
Kababish nation, who cultivate the soil and water their cattle at its streams. At 
the period of Cuny's visit, at least fiiteen thousand camels were grazed in the 
district surrounding Lake Es-Safi. The water, which probably filters from the 
Nile through the sand or subterranean rocks, covers a vast space, and is dotted 
with islands. During the rainy season the trees on the banks are partly submerged 
by the rising waters. Flocks of ducks and geese swim on the sui'face of the lake, 
whilst its banks are lined with waterfowl — storks, herons, ibis, secretaries, and 
pelicans. 




CHAPTER X. 



DAE-FOK. 




^7^1 AR-FOR, or the " Country of For," more commonly called Darfur, 
by fusing the two words in a similar fashion to that in which the 
French say " Angleterre," instead of "Pays des Anglais," is the 
•region which stretches west of Kordofan on the route to the 
river Niger. Dar-For does not entirely belong to the Nile basin. 
Its western slope, which has as yet been explored but by few travellers, appears to 
lose its waters in depressions with no outlet ; but if the rainfall were sufficiently 
abundant the wadies of this region, changed into permanent watercourses, would 
ultimately reach Lake Tsad. 

The streams draining in the direction of the Xile also run dry in the plains, 
except in the season of the kharif, when the streamlets rising in the southern 
part of Motint ilarrah fall into the Bahr-el-Arab. Wady-ilelek, or Wed-el-Mek, 
that is to say the " Royal Valley," also called "Wady-Mas-Sul, which rims to the 
north-east of Dar-For towards the great bond of the Xile, is also flooded with 
water during rainy years, possibly for ten or fifteen days together ; but it never 
reaches the Xile, its mouth being blocked by shifting sands. The enormous 
fluvial bed, nearly always dry, might roll down a volume equal to that of the 
Rhone or the Rhine. Its sandstone or limestone cliffs, here and there interrupted 
by lava streams, are from 3 to 30 miles apart, whilst the hollows are filled with 
trees, which form a continuous line like a band of verdure in the midst of the 
desert. 

The eastern half of Dar-For, belonging to the Nile basin, is the most important 
part from a political point of view, probablj^ on account of the commercial 
attraction exercised by the Nilotic towns, and because, in the neighbourhood of 
the moimtains, where water is more plentiftil, the people naturally settle down in 
larger nmnbers. In this respect Dar-For is a second Kordofan, but on a much 
larger scale. Around a central district dotted with settled ^•illages stretches the 
zone of the wilderness and grassy savannahs. 

A country of this description can scarcely have any fixed boundaries ; here 
camps, wells, clumps of acacias or brushwood, and bleached bones are the signs by 
which the traveller knows he is crossing from one district into another. As far as 



272 NOETH EAST .VPEICA. 

can. be judged, without attempting an at present impossible approximation, tbe 
area of Dar-F6r and its dependencies may be estimated at 200,000 square miles. 
This extent of country is bounded to the north by the desert, east by Kordofan, 
south by the Bahr-el-Arab, and west by Wadai, whilst its total populations, 
according to Xachtigal, amounts to at least 4,000,000. Mason, however, who has 
also visited this country, thinks that the population does not exceed one million 
and a half. 

PuoGREss OF Discovery. 

Dar-F6r, whose capital is more than 360 miles from the NQe in a straight 
line, is too far removed from this great commercial route to have been frequently 
visited. It was not known even at the end of the last century except by name, 
and it was then that it entered for the first time into the history of geographj', 
thanks to the voyage of the Englishman, Brown, who remained in the coimtry 
three years, although rather as a captive than a free man.* An Arab, Mohammed 
el Tunsy, or the " Tunisian," dwelt still longer in Dar-F6r, and wrote a very 
interesting work upon it, which has since been translated into French. It is still 
the only book which contains the fullest and most valuable account of the history, 
manners, and customs of the Dar-Forians. 

The Frenchman Cuny in 18-58 presented himself at the court of El-Fasher, 
but he mysteriously died there a few daj's after his arrival, and not even his diary 
from El-Obeid to El-Fasher has been preserved. The sovereign of Dar-F6r had 
doubtless wished to act up to the name bestowed on his coimtr^^ " the mouse- 
traj) of Infidels," who, it is said, "can easily come in, but never get out again." 

It was to Nachtigal, the third European visitor, that fell the honour of 
describing, for the first time during this century, the interior of a country hitherto 
so little known. This explorer was still in Dar-F6r when the slave-dealer Zibehr 
commenced its conquest, which was soon afterwards achieved in the name of the 
Egyptian Government. The country was opened to travellers, and the European 
staff ofiioers were able to draw up a map of it ; but the Egyptian occupation has 
not even lasted ten j'ears. The governor nominated by the Khedive is a prisoner 
of the insurgent Mussulmans, and the frontier of Dar-F6r is again forbidden to 
explorers for a time. 

Physical Features. 

More truthfully than to most other countries the expression " backbone " may 
be applied to the mountain system of Dar-F6r. Here almost more than elsewhere 
the whole living organism — streams, plants, animals, man himself and his history 
— are attached to the main ranges as to the bones of a skeleton. "Without the 
mountains of Marrah there would be no Dar-F6r. This chain of lavas and granites, 
whose general shape is that of a crescent, commences north of the fourteenth degree 
of latitude, and after running southwards for a distance of about 120 miles, sweeps 
round to the west. At the point where Nachtigal crossed it, towards its northern 
* AV. G. Brown, " Travels in Africa," 1799. 



PHYSICAL FEATURES. 



273 



extremity, it bears the name of Kerakeri, which signifies "rubbish," or " rabbit- 
burrow,' ' which term has been procured for it by the thousands of crumbling blocks 
covering its slopes. 

At the highest point, which is crossed by the route from Wada'i to El-Fasher, 
Nachtigal determined an approximate height of 3,553 feet, which the neighbour- 
ing summits exceed by from 500 to 1,000 feet. During their short occupation of 
the country the officers of the Egyptian army, notably Mason, Purdy, and Messe- 
daglia, partially explored the interior of the uplands, measuring some of the crests 
which overlook the rest of the lofty granite masses. One of them, that of Tura, 



Fig. 8S.— Central Region or Dae-F6h. 

Scnle 1 : 4,400,000. 



rt^**'-> 













/ 






afc' , •i'^°''° 




15" 



C/-: 



^DAH ELt'-GHARB 



A A^^— <^/:^ ■rO'^'^f^i 4> 
,d); 1 M, A 







,,L.l ^, 

I \Toia5K 



■Vf^ 



V-;' 



r 



'^ 





^' 



E - of G 



reen .v'ch 



Q. FerrQn 



. 00 Miles. 



in the northern part of the chain, rises to a height of 4,800 feet. According to 
Mason, the culminating point of the Marrah range attains an altitude of 6,100 
feet, or about 2,660 feet above the low-lying plains of Dar-F6r. The rocks of 
Marrah contain numerous caverns, several of which formerly served as pri.sons, 
some for the sons of princes, othcis for the viziers. 

To the north and south are secondary chains and isolated masses lOce those of 
Kordofan. Such are the superb Gurger Mountains to the north-west, and the 
Jebel-Si, standing quite alone in the plain and terminated by an enormous crag in 
the shape of a throne. A village is perched round these escarpments, protected by 

VOL. x. T 



274 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

a circular enclosure. In "the more remote regions of central Dar-F6r are also a 
few isolated ujilands. The confines of Wadai, towards the north-west angle of 
Dar-F6r, are indicated from afar by the Jebel-Abu-Ahraz, or the " Mountain of 
the Father of the Acacias." A second height, better known, as it commands the 
caravan route from Kobeh to Siut to the west, develops its peaks, such as the 
Jebel-Dor and the Jebel-Anka, in a lino with the northern continuation of the 
main axis of the Marrah range. 

To the north-east of Dar-For, the Jebel-Medob lifts its sandstone ^-alls and 
granite cupolas, here and there broken by lava streams, to a height of nearly 4,000 
feet. Beyond this point extends the plateau of the Jebel-Ain, skirted by the 
"Wady-Melek. To the east the Jebel-el-Hillet, which is skirted by the route from 
El-Fasher to El-Obeid, and to the south, in the hydrographic basin of the Bahr-el- 
Arab, are stiU several other isolated uplands, connected by no intermediate ridges 
with the Marrah highlands. The Jebel-Hadid, one of these groups of hills, is 
very rich in iron ores. Some 30 miles to the south-west of the Jebel-Dango, 
another mountain mass rising above a plain, are the copper-mines of Hofrah, 
celebrated throughout the whole of central Africa. The mineral vein which is 
now being worked lies on the right bank of the Bahr-el-Fertit, an affluent of the 
Bahr-el-Arab. An excavation, 500 feet long by 50 feet broad, with a mean depth 
of 10 feet, has been dug out by the miners, and shafts, now abandoned, have been 
sunk in all directions within a radius of 1,660 feet from the pit. It was mainly 
with a view to obtain these copper-mines that the Khedive caused Dar-For to be 
occupied. Few other regions have been the cause of more wars between the 
African populations than these now valueless mineral beds. 

Hydrographic System. 

The rainfall and the waters of the wadies are regulated by the atmospheric 
currents, as in Kordofan; however, it would appear that the higher mean elevation 
and the greater extent of the Dar-For highlands cause more of the rain-bearing 
winds to be arrested, thus securing a more copious rainfall for this region. 

Near the centre of this mountainous district, in a closed amphitheatre, lies a 
lake which has never yet been visited by European travellers. 

The rains are more abimdant in the western region of Dar-For ; and as the 
concave side of the crescent-shaped Marrah range faces westwards, the water- 
courses of this watershed all converge on the main branch, the Wady-Azum, a 
relativel}' copious stream, although its bed is dry for a portion of the j^ear. On 
the convex slope of the Marrah Mountains the running waters, diverging east and 
southwards, become lost in the desert, and hence are unable to unite their sandy 
beds in one common hydrographic sj'stem. On the southern slope alone, where 
the rains fall more frequently, the rivers have a longer course and constitute 
veritable fluvial basins. Thus, during the rainy season, the Wady-Amor and the 
"Wady-el-Ko combine to fill a rahad or lake of some considerable size, at which the 
Rizegat Baggaras water their cattle. 



jiNivttisrrvoi iLLiiv.. 



FLORA. 275 

Farther westwards, other wadies send down during the kharif a sufficient 
volume to cause the floods to spread out into vast temporary lakes, in which the 
I dunes and argilaceous hills appear like islands. Here and there are even some 
lakes in the steppe, such as Lake Taimo, in which water is found at the height of 
the dry season. Xeverlheless "Wilson and Felkin state that at S/it'kka, during the 
diy months, the people use the juice of the water-melon instead of water for 
household purposes, and that the cattle have scarcely any other liquid to drink. 
The upper Bahr-el-Arah, which receives the surplus of all the wadies of southern 
Dar-F6r, is flooded throughout the year, and in the Bahr-el-Fcrtit, a northern 
afiluent of the Bahr-el-Ai-ab, water is always to be obtained at a depth of a few 
inches below the surface. The fish take refuge in the deep pools excavated by 
the cuiTent at the base of the rocks, and the river is said to be navigable during 
the kharif. The southern region, which is often flooded, is the least healthy, 
whilst that of the north, being drier, and at the same time lying at a higher elevation, 
is generally salubrious. 



Flora. 

The flora of Dar-For is identical with that of Kordofan, at least in the region 
which is not watered by the afiluents of the Bahr-el-Arab. The plants and wild 
beasts, as well as the cultivated species of the domestic animals, differ in no 
respect in the two regions. The same living forms and products are to be found 
in the corresponding climatic zones ; however, the western region of Dar-For, 
where water is more abundant, and the layer of vegetable humus thicker, is by far 
the richest in variety of species. 

In both coimtries, woods and groves are found only on the banks of the wadies, 
the intermediary tracts presenting the appearance of a steppe or even a desert. 
Acacias, tamarisks and sycamores are the commonest varieties of trees. The 
baobab, which in Dar-For is also used as a reservoir' dm-ing the dry season, finds 
its northern limit towards the middle of the country. In the moimtains the 
branching euphorbias recall the flora of the Abyssinian plateau ; here are also 
foimd cedars, orange-trees, citrons and pomegranates, which reminded the Italian 
ilessedaglia of his country. Before the war, the fruit of the tamarisk, kneaded 
into small cakes, was exported to Xubia and Egypt. One of the most valuable 
trees is the higlik (halaniies uSiji/ptiacaJ, whose fruit, neglected in the zeriba 
region, is used as an ahment by the Forians. The fruit, made into a paste with 
pounded roots, is also used as soap, whilst the young leaves and shoots make an 
excellent seasoning. The ashes yield a kind of pickle, also employed in their 
diet, and its wood bums without giving out smoke. Thus the higlik is to the 
Forians what the date is to the Egj-ptians. The palm is rarely seen, although the 
western districts possess the wine palm (raj)/iia viuifera). Dar-For and Kordofan 
are comprised between two zones of vegetation, to the north that of the date, and 
to the south that of the deleb palm. 

■r 2 



276 NORTH-EAST AJ?EICA. 

Fauxa. 

The southern part of Dar-F6r also forms the northern boundary of the forest 
zone, which, however, thanks to the rains, encroaches towards the north on the 
basin of the Bahr-el- Arab. Here stretch the dense forests of El-Hallah, frequented 
by the elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, and buffalo, which are chased by the Baggara 
hvmters of the Kambanieh or Habanieh tribe. The ostrich, and various species of 
antelope, are also found in large numbers in the surrounding steppes ; but the 
plains of the northern provinces are the favourite resort of the ostrich hunters, and 
the finest feathers are procured from this region. 

In the vast steppes which intervene between Kordofan and Dar-For, the nomad 
pastors engage twice yearly, before and after the rainy season, in a general battue. 
All the domestic animals of the tribe, such as the camels, horses and oxen, used as 
mounts or beasts of burden, are brought into requisition and driven to the hunting- 
ground, where the beaters spread out into a circle so as to drive the game towards 
the entrance of a narrow passage strewn with traps and well guarded at the 
outlet. Horsemen then fall upon the captive animals and massacre them before 
they have time to destroy or free themselves from the traps. Occasionally as 
many as three hundred large animals — antelopes, gnus, and buffaloes — are thus 
obtained in one day, and the tribe are in this way enabled to pay the arrears of 
their taxes. In the southern region of Dar-For, the ardha, or white ants, exist in 
such numerous colonies that whole forests are destroyed by them. In times of 
want the natives eat these termites, mixed with the fruit of the tamarind. After 
sunset they light fires before the pyramidal hills of the " white ants," who rush 
out in thousands, and thus whole boxes are packed with them " like the boxes of 
currants in Greece." 

Inhabitants of Dar-Fok. 

The race of "pure Forians," as Mohammed the Tunisian called them, occujjy 
the mountainous region in the centre of the countr}% As far as can be judged 
by the meagre reports on the tribes that have been studied by travellers, thej' are 
Nigritians of a dark brown complexion, the nose flat and the forehead low and 
receding. They are divided into several groups, of which the most important are 
the Kunjara, who till recently ruled over the countr)', and governed Kordofan 
before the arrival of the Egyptians. Although considered as Nas-el-Belid, or a 
" stupid jjeople," the Forians have at least this advantage, that they lack the 
cruelty and avarice of their neighbours. Under their rule the people of Kordofan 
increased and prospered, whereas they have become impoverished and have 
decreased since the departure of the Kunjaras. The Kimjara language, which 
after Arabic is that most generalh' spoken in Dar-For, is said probably to belong 
to the Nubian group. But Lepsius has discovered that there are essential 
differences between the speech of the Nubas and that of the Kunjaras. 

The Massabat nomads, who are found in the plains between Dar-For and 
Kordofan, are also said to be of Forian race, although thev are now assimilated to 



THE AEABS OF DAR-FOR— SOCIAI. USAGES. 277 

the Arabs in speech. There are moreover numerous other communities, who.se 
classification is a matter of great difficulty. All call themselves Arabs, so as to 
appear of more noble extraction ; but the bulk of them arc probably allied to the 
Forians. The powerful Massalit tribes, several of which live in complete inde- 
pendence on the western frontiers of Dar-F6r and in Wadai, are amongst those 
tribes believed to be of aboriginal descent. Till recently they were in constant 
feud with the Habanieh tribe, who occupy more especially the southern region of 
Par-For ; but peace has now been restored. According to Xachtigal, some of 
these people are still addicted to anthropophagy. 

The Arabs of Dar-F6r. 

The northern part of the country, on the verge of the desert between Kordofan 
and Wadai, is peopled by Barabra immigrants, Zogawahs, Bideyats, and many 
others, and even by Bisharins from Eastern Nubia. There are numerous Wadai 
colonies in Dar-For which, like the other natives of the western countries, are 
generall)' known by the name of Takrur or Takarir. Dar-For has also been 
colonised by Fulas, belonging to the same race as those of Western Africa, and by 
Homrs, Hamrs, or Beni-Hamrans, who possess many camels, and who claim to have 
come from Marocco. They live principally to the north-east of the Marrah ^loun- 
tains, in the Om-Bedr oasis, and to the west in the Wady-Bareh, where they 
practice sorcery ; some of their families have even penetrated as far as Kordofan. 
According to Ensor, the Homrs are distinguished from the other inhabitants of 
Dar-For by the respect which they show to their wives. The majority of the 
strangers consist of Arabs, or of " peoples assimilated to the Arabs," who have 
come from the north and east. Already some centuries ago, and probably even at 
a period anterior to the Hegira, nomads from the Ai'abian peninsula had penetrated 
into Dar-For. The Tuujur or Tunzer, who governed the coimtry and whose 
descendants still live in the mountains and plains situated south of El-Fasher, 
claim to be Arabs and are considered as such, although they are not Mohammedans, 
and although the peoples in these countries are usually classed according to their 
religion. In the opinion of Lejean they are not Arabs, but Tubbu tribes who 
have migrated from the north-west. The Mussulman " Arabs" also, who roam in 
the plains, di^-ided into numerous groups, are evidently of mixed origin, like those 
of Kordofan, whom they resemble in customs and speech. In southern Dar-For 
all the tribes belong to the great Baggara family. According to Mohammed the 
Timisian, children born of mixed Arab and For parents die at an early age, whilst 
those born of parents of the same race are usually of sound and vigoroiis constitu- 
tion. Consumption is extremely rare amongst them, and this malady is almost 
unknown elsewhere in Dar-For. 

Social Usages. 

The civilisation of the Forians is of Mussulman origin, and the Arabs have 
evidentlv been the instructors of the nation. Literature and science, if these two 



278 NORTH-EAST APEICxV. 

terras can be used in connection with a people who have scarcely emerged from 
barbarism, are reduced to a study of the Koran. A few magical practices, probably 
of African origin, are mingled with the Arab traditions; and even dui-ing this 
century human sacrifices were made at the chief royal ceremonies. On the 
accession of every sovereign, and on other occasions, two young brothers were 
sacrificed with great pomp, and the king with his high functionaries feasted on 
their flesh. 

Agriculture is still in a very rudimentary state, their plough consisting of a 
kind of hoe which a man drags after him. But this occupation is, nevertheless, 
highly honoured. Formerly the sultan of Dar-F6r, like the king of the Funj in 
Senar, the emperor of China, and other sovereigns, was extremely proud of being 
the first sower in his kingdom. After the rains he went forth in great pomp, 
accompanied by the State dignitaries and a hundred young and handsome women, 
and cast the seed into a prepared field, all the courtiers imitating him. Then the 
people sowed in their turn each in his own field, and when the harvest recom- 
pensed his toil, the faithful subject offered up his homage to the " royal farmer." 

Nearly all the mountain region is jDerfectly cultivated in terraces, and produces 
cereals and cotton. But according to Ensor, at most a hundredth part of the 
arable lands on the plains has been reclaimed. Industries in Dar-F6r are still in 
a very undeveloped state, except those of brickwork and pottery. But the cotton 
stuffs that are woven in the tents are verj' durable and much sought after. By 
the natives they are even preferred to those sold by the Dongola merchants, which 
are of European or American manufacture. These latter are generally iised as 
money, but salt bricks are also employed as a means of exchange. 



Commercial Relations. 

Since the annexation of Dar-F6r to the vast Egyptian possessions, commercial 
relations had become frequent with the Nile. The caravans frequently journeyed 
between the river and El-Fasher by the market-towns of Kordofan, or else directly 
towards Dabbeh, on the great bend of the river. Since 1875 the Egj-ptian 
Government has even projected a future line of railway foUowing the natural 
route offered by the bed of the Wady-Melek, which is generally shunned by the 
caravans on account of the danger of attack from marauders. Before the 
Egyptian conquest, nearly all the traffic of Dar-F6r with the rest of the world 
was conducted by the mediimi of the " great caravan," which was increased by 
numerous smaller " kafilahs," setting out from the banks of the Tsad and Niger. 

Every year, or else every two or three years, according to the political situation 
and the state of the markets, the Takrur pilgrims banded themselves together into 
a kafilah in northern Dar-F6r, and the merchants combined with them in order to 
take part at once in this pious duty and in a profitable work. The great caravan 
consisted occasionally of some thousands of persons and fifteen thousand camels. 
This moving army, which none of the pillaging steppe tribes dared to attack, did 



TOPOGRAPHY— EL-FASHEE—KOBEH— TOE A . 279 

not take the dii-ection of Ktartum, or even that of the Xuhian Xile. Guided by 
the stars, the sun, and old beaten paths, it marched from station to station in a 
northerly direction, attaining the Nile at Siut. Like the caravan of Kordofan, it 
had its particular route, wells, and oases, and hence did not run the risk of having 
to fight for the possession of the water gushing forth here and there in the desert. 
Moreover it was split up into several sections, which followed each other at a few 
days' interval, so as to give the water time to collect again at the bottom of the 
wells. 

Some caravans, compelled to move rapidly, completed the journey in forty- 
five days ; but they usually rested at the stations and in the oases, and did not 
arrive in the valley of the Xile till after a journey of two or three months. 
Bearing the valuable products of central Africa — ivory, ostrich feathers, gum, 
tamarinds, skins of wild beasts, and rhinoceros horns, to which were added slaves, 
eunuchs and the bulk of the camels of the caravan — the merchants usually remained 
about sis months in Egypt, awaiting the return of the pilgrims from Mecca. 
They then set out on their return journey to Dar-For laden with woollen goods, 
pearls, glass trinkets, and chased weapons, articles light of weight but of great 
value, for the transport of which they did not require such a long convoy of 
animals. At the time of the French expedition into Egypt, General Bonaparte, 
desiring to open up relations with the Sultan of Dar-For by means of these 
caravans, asked him to send in exchange for his merchandise, " two thousand 
black slaves, over sixteen years of age, strong and vigorous." 

Topography. 

Dar-For is naturally divided into a central pro^-ince, that of the moimtainous 
region, from which the watercourses descend, and where the masters of the 
country have nearly always resided, and into the provinces of the surrounding 
lands, including the region of the steppes. The clar or central region, which 
comprises the highlands, is kno■^^■n by the name of Torra ; the others are termed 
according to their geographical situation, Dar-Tokonavi or "the north," Dali or 
"the east," Uma or "the south," Dima or "the south-west," and El-Gharb or 
" the west." Moreover, aU the well-defined geographical regions bear the name of 
dar or " country," independently of the political or administrative divisions. 

El-FaSHER KOBEH TORA. 

The present Fasher, that is to say the " Residence," is situated at a height of 
2,4.56 feet on the eastern slope of Dar-For, between two sandy hills, and on the 
edge of the Tendelti lakelet, which is fed by a wady descending from the northern 
Marrah lulls. Its current, being retained by a dyke, supplies the inhabitants 
with water for more than half of the year ; however, before the rainy season the 
bed of the lake has to be excavated to a depth of over 30 feet before drinking 
water can be procui-ed. El-Fasher lies nearly midway between the capitals of 



280 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

Kordofun and Wadai, on the regular caravan route. It is not the largest town in 
the country, being merely a group of clay huts thatched with straw, with, accord- 
ing to Eusor, a population in 1875 of merely 2,650 persons. 

The principal city, which was also the "residence" towards the end of the 
last century, is KoheJi, also lying on the caravan route some 30 miles to the north- 
west. Of all the towns of Dar-F6r, it is the onlj^ place which boasts of a few 
stone houses, a proof of the influence of a remote civilisation. These houses 
belong to the merchants or the heads of the caravans, and are surrounded by huts 
similar to those which are found in all other towns and villages of this country. 
Towards the end of last century, Brown estimated its population at 6,000 persons. 

Omshanga, situated nearly midway between El-Fasher and El-Obeid, at the 
junction of the Shekka route, is also a large town, provided with an abundance 
of excellent water, which is contained in wells 130 feet deep. South-west of El- 
Fasher, in an upland mountain valley, the town of Tora, Torra, or Toran, which 
has given its name to the central province of For, is also said to be regarded as a 
kind of capital, and here are all the royal tombs. 

Since the Egyptians have obtained possession of the country, new towns have 
been founded, the most important of which is Fojeh or Foja, the arrival station of 
the Egjqjtian caravans. The oasis of Om-Bcdr, about 60 miles to the north, has 
no settled villages, although it is the centre of the Homr populations. At times 
over six thousand persons and fifty thousand camels assemble together on the 
temporary camping-ground. 

Dara — Shekka — Tiesiia. 

Dara, in the northern region of the province, till recently enjoyed some little 
distinction as the residence of an Egyptian niudir or governor, and as the caravan 
station between Dom-Suleiman and El-Obeid. A mere group of tokuls, it lies 
near the left bank of the Wadj'-Amur, on which also stands the village of 
Menovachi, about 60 miles farther north. Near here in 1874 was fought the 
decisive battle which cost King Brahim his life, and converted Dar-F6r into an 
Egyptian province. 

To the south-east the town of Shekka or Shakka, which still lies within the 
limits of the ancient kingdom of For, was the chief town of the province of the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal, under the khedival rule. It is peopled with Jellabis or "mer- 
chants," as is also the case with a small group of villages, bearing the general 
name of Kobesh, but which is usually termed Kahika, like the surrounding country. 
Midway between Shekka and El-Fasher, the principal caravan station is Tuesha, a 
second group of villages whose name is but too well known throughout the 
Mussulman world. It is a depot for slaves, who are here generallj- made eunuchs 
before being forwarded to Egypt. The routes converging on Tuesha are covered 
with the bleaching bones of these unfortunate people, whom no one thinks it worth 
while to burj\ 

In its western division, beyond the Marrah Mountains, Dar-F6r appears to 



DAEA— SHEIvKA— TUESIL\.. 281 

possess no groups of settled habitations deserving the name of town or village. 
Here it is everywhere conterminous with the powerful Mahommedan kingdom of 
Wadai, with which it is connected by only one known militarj' or caravan highway. 
The drainage also lies in the same direction, all the streams rising on the western 
slopes of the Alarrah range flowing intermittently through the Batha and the 
Bahr-es-Salamat westwards to the basin of Lake Tsad. 




CHAPTER XI. 



XUBIA. 




HE torm Niihia, applied to the country wliicli lies beyond Egypt, 
has no precise geographical sense; nor can any meaning be attached 
to it from a political or administrative point of view. It probably 
had once a real ethnological value, at a period when the Xubas, not 
yet driven back by other populations, were the onlj- dwellers on the 
banks of the Nile throughout a great part of its course. But wars and invasions 
have for a long time modified these former conditions. At the present time the 
term Nubia is variously employed in current language. At one time it is applied 
merely to the region of the Wady-Nuba, which comprises that part of the river's 
course which is broken up by the thousand rapids of the second cataract, whilst at 
another it is used to designate the whole of the region bounded north by the rapids 
of Assuan, south by the junction of the two Niles, east by the Red Sea, and west 
by the trackless desert. 

The natural geographical limits of Nubia, on the southern side, seem to be 
formed by the junction of the Nile and Atbara, and by the route from Berber to 
Suakin. Nubia, thus bounded in the direction of the Abyssinian plateaux, does not 
include any of those regions which are connected with Abyssinia, properly so-called, 
by their mountains, hydrographic system, or populations. Its approximate area 
within these limits and on the western side as far as the twentj'-seventh degree of 
cast longitude, is estimated at 100,000 square miles, with a population of about 
1,000,000. According to Riippell, the arable land of Nubia, limited by the desert, 
is not more than 1,300 square miles in extent, and all the inhabitants are concen- 
trated within this fertile riverain tract. 

The region, some himdreds of miles broad, which north of the Atbara and 
Barka separates the valley of the Nile from the Red Sea coast, is commanded by 
chains of heights, similar to those traversing the territory of the Hadendoas, 
Hallengas, and Bazens ; but these chains, separated from the Abyssinian spurs by 
the deep breaches and by the nearly always dried-up beds of numerous wadies, 
constitute a special orthographic sj'stem. Whilst the Abyssinian chain, although 
abruptly terminated by the deep bed of the Red Sea, reappears as it were in Arabia 
as the Yemen uplands, the mountains of the Bisharin country develop tlicir axis 



THE NUBIAN COAST RANGE. 



283 



parallel with the shores of the Arabian Sea. Besides, kno^Ti mider different 
names at each of their several sections, they extend for a distance of over 600 
miles to the very gates of Cairo. It is the Egj^ptian part of this long ridge which 
takes the name of the " Arabian " range, because the riverain Nile populations see 
it standing out against the skj- in the direction of Arabia. The Nubian Mountains, 
east of the Nile, are also sometimes coUectively termed Etbai, a name which is 
more especially reserved for a hill which rises near the coast opposite Jedda. 

The Ncbiax Coast Raxge. 

The coast or border chain of Nubia between Suakin and the Ras-Benas, north 
of the ancient port of Berenice, consists, like its Egyptian extension, almost entirely 



Fig. 89. — Mineral Region of the Etbai Ui'Lands. 
Scale 1 : 3,000,000. 







Cferron 



60 Miles. 



of primitive rocks, such as granite, gneiss, and crystalline schist ; towards the 
south alone the system presents extensive limestone formations. Rising gradually 
from the south to the north, it cidminates in the Jebel-Olba, which, according to 
TVellsted, exceeds a height of 8,000 feet. Connected at this point with the 
mountains of the interior by lateral offshoots, the chain again falls in a north- 
westerly direction. At Moxmt Irba (Soturba) it attains a height of 7,010 feet, and 
at Mount Elba, the Etbai properly so-called, it rises to more than 4,080 feet, that 
is, about the same height as the Jebel-Farageh, the Pentodactyle of the ancients, lying 
farther north, and which Schweinfurth vainly attempted to scale. In certain 
places the base of these escarpments is washed by the waters of the Red Sea, 



284 NORTH-EAST AFBICA. 

■whilst at other points the sahcl or Ichama of the coast is occupied liy the low hills 
of the tertiary epoch, moving sand-hills, and coraline reefs. The pyramid-shaped 
islet of Zcmerjil, which lies GO miles o£P the coast in a line with the Eas-Benas 
headland, serves as a landmark to the vessels entering the dangerous waters of the 
Arabian Sea. 



The NiiiiAN Gold Mixes. 

The Elba Mountains merge in the interior with other heights of divers forma- 
tions, in which the ancient Pharaohs worked gold and silver mines. It is certain 
that, during its long period of splendour, Egypt was very rich in precious metals ; 
in this resjjcct the monuments are in harmony with the statements of the Greek 
authors. Nubia appears to have furnished the greater part of the gold, and accord- 
ing to a tradition, to which weight is added b}' the heaps of rubbish and galleries 
hewn in the auriferous rocks and formerly inhabited caves, the principal mining 
centre was at Wady-AUaki, which is a series of ravines stretching away to the west 
of the Elba Mountains. These ravines were worked till the middle of the twelfth 
century of the Christian era. The Pharaohs, Ptolemies, Greek emperors, and Arab 
caliphs were obliged to protect their colonies of miners against the attacks of the 
surrounding nomad peojjles, successively termed Blemmyes, Bejas, and Bisharins ; 
but the difficulties of obtaining sufficient wood to light the mines or water for the 
miners were probabl}^ the greatest obstacle in the way of profitabh' working the 
mines. All the supplies from the springs of the district had been carefully 
husbanded, and along the ancient desert routes, above the springs, crosses sur- 
mounted by a circle are still to be seen, indicating the presence of water. 

The description given by Diodorus Siculus, as well as the appearance of the 
galleries, shows that the gold was not collected in the sands, but extracted from 
the rock itself by the crushing process. This method was extremely costly, and 
could not now be adopted unless the mines were extremely rich, like certain 
Californian " placers." But the first exploration, undertaken by Linant de 
Bellefonds for Mohammed Ali, followed b}' numerous visits made by various 
geologists, have proved that the ancient mines of Nubia are no longer sufficient!}'- 
rich to be profitably worked. 

Hitherto no inscriptions or sculptures have been discovered in the mining 
region ; however, a column found at Kuban, on the right bank of the Nile between 
Korosko and Assuan, and the texts of the Egyptian temple of Eadesieh, built on 
the riverain route to the mines of Akito, shed much light on the resources of the 
Pharaohs. Moreover, there is in the nmsemn of Turin a fragment of an Egj^tian 
map, which represents a mining station with its shafts, depots, galleries, reservoirs, 
and temple of Ammon. This precious document, the oldest of its kind, siuce it 
dates from the time of Ramses II., is disposed in a way inversely to that of our 
maps, the east side, which is that of the Red Sea, being to the left of the sheet. 
It is as yet uncertain what mining district it is intended to represent. 



THE CENTE^VL HIGHLANDS. 



285 



The Centual Highlands. 

To the west of the border chain which skirts the lied Sea, the mountainous 
ridges run transversely either from the east to the west, or fron\ the north-east to 
the south-west, in the same direction as the portion of the Nile comprised between 
Abu-IIamed and Dabbeh. Some of these ridges are continuous ; such, for instance, 
as that of the " Cataracts," which forms the natural barrier between Nubia and 



Fis;. 90. — Nim.\x Gold Mines. 




From the Tmin Papyrus, rein-oduced by Chabas. 



A. The Amiferous hills are colomed 

red on the plan. 

B. Gold Mountdu. 

C. Shrine of Ammon on the Holy 

Mountain. 



D. Eoad to Ta Menat-ti. 

E. Face of the Mountain. 

F. Abode of Amnion. 

H. Houses for Storing the Gold. 
I. King Kamanem's Stele. 



C. Pen-on. 

K. Cistern. 

L. Wells. 

M. Road to the Coa&t. 

N. Another Road to the Coast. 

0. Road to Tapimat. 



Egypt, west of Assuan ; such also is the range whose culminating point is the 
Jebel-Shikr, north-east of Abii-Hamed. 

Other ridges are intersected at intervals by broad breaches, and from a distance 
present the appearance of walls partially crumbling away. Like the mountains of 
the border chain, those of the highest transversal chains consist of crj'stalliue 
rocks, granites, gneiss, porphyries, syenites, diorites, and volcanic formations. In 
many parts of the desert occur metamorphic sandstones, which have overflowed into 
the crevasses in the soil. But between the mountains, which form the backbone of 
Eastern Nubia, are other projections of less height, nearly all isolated, although 



286 



NOETH-EAST AFBICA. 



Fip 



91. — KoROSKO Desert. 

Scale 1 : 2,800,000. 







SS' 



*^*'"-; 



gg. 



Bab-el-Korosko 



9 . 



scattered by iboiisands in the desert. The}' are small sandstone hills merely 
rising some 60 feet above the i^lain, but at some points attaining a relative elevation 
of 060 feet, or from 1,630 to 2,000 feet above the sea. The granite heights in the 
interior reach an altitude of over 2,160 feet, some of the peaks even rising to 
nearly 3,300 feet. 

The sandstone rocks of Nubia present 
the most diverse forms. .Some stand out 
like regular towers, others in the form 
of pj^ramids, whilst others again, whose 
central portion has disappeared, re- 
semble volcanic cones. Consisting of 
horizontal layers of quartzose sandstone 
of varying density, they offer more or 
less resistance in different places. In 
one place the summit crumbles awaj', 
elsewhere the base leaving the crest 
crowned as if with a table ; several rocks 
are also pierced with openings through 
which light is visible. The very names 
that the nomads and caravan leaders 
give to these sandstone heights are a 
proof of the variety of their forms. 
They imagine they see in them palaces, 
animals, and processions of warriors. 
Thanks to these fantastic outlines, the 
guides of the caravans can always de- 
termine their whereabouts in these 
endless labyrinths of breaches wiuding 
between the rocks. The various colours 
of the stone also assist them in finding 
their way. Certain strata are shaded 
with green, yellow, pink, or blue ; whilst 
others, in which ferruginous sands pre- 
dominate, are of a brilliant red. Jasper, 
chalcedony, and siliceous crystals are 
embedded in the walls. But on each 
journey the guide finds some changes. 
The sands produced by the disinte- 
gration of the rocks shift their position 
according to the direction of the wind, 
which carries it in a cloud aboA'e the 
crests, and scatters it now on one side, now on another, forming rounded heaps 
which blend in graceful curves with the coarser sands at the base. Shifting dunes 
of sand, some of which are as much as 166 feet high, move here and there through- 



50' 







DJebe/ DJsr^'^^i r.S-"'"'' 



Abdu-In^eH-Chourrout 

■'■■■' -'^-■;;.-'; 

.■■ ■■'■ yii'/!'-/';'-:-' ■ 

'— ' — .•.\>^'. Hamed 




20' 



5?" *L V of Greenwich 55 



C.l^crron 
, GO Miles. 




-■'Ki^ife 






GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 287 

out tlie open plain. They are all in the form of a crescent, the horns turning to the 
south under the influence of the north wind. 

Geologic.\l Forjiatioxs. 

Nearlj' all the sandstone rocks and dunes are destitute of vegetation ; but few 
shrubs are found on the sIojjcs of the crystalline mountains, which are embellished 
bj' these verdant thickets. Hitherto no fossils of animals have been discovered 
in the sands of the desert of Korosko, but only some petrified trees, like those in 
the Bayuda steppe, in Egypt, and several other countries of Eastern Africa. 
According to Russegger, these Nubian sandstones have been deposited since the 
chalk jDeriod. One of the most extraordinary products of this geological formation 
consists of spheroidal stones of all sizes, resembling balls, shot, and bullets. They 
are so thickly scattered over the soil that travellers had seriousl}' proposed to 
Mohammed Ali that he should suppl}^ his artillery parks from this source. These 
stone bullets, similar to those found in Himgary in the mountains near Koloszvar, 
are formed of concentric beds of variously coloured sands, hollow in the middle, or 
else filled with loose sand, and with a very hard ferruginous exterior. The cir- 
cumference of the stone is frequently marked by a ridge similar to that which the 
moulds leave on the bullets at their point of contact. 

The great caravan route which traverses the Nubian desert, to the east of the 
Nile, from Abu-Hamed to Korosko, extends over a space of about 300 miles, which 
comprises some of the most remarkable localities, offering examples of all the 
geological formations of the country. This region is speciall)' termed atmur, a 
name probably of Berber origin, for in the language of the Tuaregs termira means 
a " tract of country." After having ascended the trachyte-crested hills, and 
surmounted the granite escarpments, the caravan route winds from breach to 
breach between the sandstone hills, and even crosses a plain which, according to 
the Arabs, is an ancient lacustrine basin, the Bahr-bela-ma, or " Waterless River." 
Nevertheless there are no indications which point to the jjresence of running or 
still waters having ever been in this place. One well only, that of Morad, yields 
a scanty supplj^ of fresh water to travellers crossing the atmur. But there are 
resions in this desert where the sand contains abundance of saline substances 
which doubtless proceed from ancient evaporated lakes. In the vicinity of the 
river the natives extract this salt and sell it to the caravans. 

The largest of the dry valleys which wind through the desert of Nubia is that 
of Wady-AUaki. Taking its origin in the mountains of the Etbai, it follows a 
north-westerly course and falls into the Nile below Korosko ; its basin is more 
than 10,000 square miles in extent. It has occasionally happened that the 
"Wady-Allaki, suddenly filled by heavj' showers, has for some hours suddenly 
become a powerful affluent of the Nile, the force of its cuiTent completely barring 
the main-stream. But the valley of the wady and the tributar}' gorges are nearly 
always dry ; nevertheless, the concealed moisture is revealed by the trees, under 
which the Bisharin tribes are accustomed to encamp. 



288 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



The Bayuda Steppe. 

To the west of the Nile, whose long silver band, skirted with green, stretches 
in two great curves across Nubia, rise mountains similar in formation to those of 
the east — primitive rocks, sandstone cliffs, and volcanic lavas and scoriae. The 



Fig. 92. — Bayuda .Steppe. 
Scale 1 : 3.4m,<X«. 



Abou Hamed 




It ^ Ofnderfnan 



L . o'f Ureen 



wich 



G. Pcrr 



GO Miles. 



highest groups of summits, Jebel-Magaga, Jebel-Gekdul, and Jebel-Gilif, occupy 
precisely the centre of the immense circuit, three-fourths of which are described 
by the course of the Nile between the Sixth Cataract and Dabbeh. Their peaks 
are said to attain a height of from 3,330 to 3,660 feet. The whole of the space 



THE BATUDA STEPPE. 289 

commanded by these heiglits is a mountainous country covered with hollows, or a 
few groves of green mimosas duriag the rainy season, and bounded to the west 
between Khartum and Ambukol by the depression of the Wady Mokattam, or the 
" Valley of Inscriptions," into which pi-obably flowed an ancient arm of the Nile. 
The whole region, though much less barren than the atmur of Eastern Nubia, is 
termed the steppe or desert of BajTida. Gekdul and Magaga, whose highest 
point, Ussub-Ommaneh, is a cupola of red porj^hyry, or erupted masses, around 
which the sandstone rocks, probably liquefied by the outpourings of lava, have 
spread over the sands in sheets of siliceous scoriae. Accordiag to Russegger, it is 
owing to the eruption of these ancient volcanoes that the Nile, formerly flowing to 
the west, was compelled to turn eastwards in order to effect its great bend of over 
480 miles. In the western part of the steppe the ferruginous sands of the moun- 
tains, washed down by the rains, have covered the soil in thick layers. Here and 
there the sand has collected in the hollows where the wadies have deposited their 
alluvia ; the surface of the plain is thus streaked with long bands of diverse colours 
of the strangest appearance. 

The Jebel-Simrieh, formed of pink sandstone, and other hills to the west of the 
depression of the " Valley of Inscriptions," are less elevated than Magaga, and 
like it are not very long ; the valley of the Wady-ilelek, whose bed, during the 
floods, gives passage to the waters of Dar-For, bounds these mountains on the west. 
On the banks of the Nile itself, in the space comprised between Marawi and New 
Dongola, there are nothing but sandstone cliffs, the crystalline rocks reappearing 
only at the Third Cataract. Here the heights on the left bank form part of the 
chains which rise in Eastern Nubia ; to the west thej' soon become lost under the 
sands, being succeeded by oases at a short distance from the river and parallel with 
it. In this respect the western zone of the Nubian region forms a complete 
contrast to the tracts beyond the Nile. To the north of "Wady-Halfa, and nearly 
opposite the colossi of Ibsambul, lies a deep valley overlooked by the black or 
reddish walls of ancient volcanoes. This is the Wady-Jehenua, or " Valley of 
Gehenna," a terrible region which the Arabs shun as if it were still burning. 

In Western as well as in Eastern Nubia, the sandstones rapidly crumble away 
under the influence of the wind, rain, and heat, and change into loose sand which 
the aerial currents reform into dunes or taluses. In many respects the sands of 
Africa recall the snows of the great Alps ; like the snowfields they collect in the 
depressions and crevasses of the rocks, glide over the ravines in avalanches, crown 
the needle-like points of the peaks, and here and there project over the precipices, 
forming narrow strips which give way at the slightest shock. Between the dunes 
and the populations of the oases on the edge of the desert the struggle is incessant ; 
the sands, borne forward by the winds, surround the trees, cover up cultivations, 
block up the fountains, and encroach upon the inhabitable domain. But on his 
side the peasant utilises the sand by mixing it with his soU. The extent of ground 
he can render productive depends entirely upon the quantity of water at his 
disposal. 

VOL. X. Tr 



290 NORTH-EAST iVFRIOA. 



Climate. 



Nubia is divided into two climatic zones, whose limits, changing yearly, arc 
defined by the struggle between the northern and southern winds. In summer, 
when the solar rays fall vertically on the soil between the equator and the northern 
tropic, the southern winds follow the sun into the northern hemisphere, carrying 
the rain-clouds with them ; but they scarcely ever reach the seventeenth degree of 
latitude. The last periodical rains fall in the valley towards the junction of the 
Atbara, the last tributary watercourse of the Nile. In this spacious region the 
force of the southern winds is neutralised by that of the aerial currents blowing 
from the north, the result of this struggle being the constant shifting of the 
parting-line. 

Travellers across the Bajoida territory in ilay or June have to struggle 
against the winds, being at one time forced from their course by the south wind 
at another by that of the north, their way thus lying between two conflicting 
temjiests. However, the winds often blow alternatelj', that of the north prevailing 
during the day and being replaced at night-time by that of the south. To the 
south of this zone fall periodical rains, the more copious and longer in duration 
the nearer the equator is approached. To the north, the soil is not watered by the 
simimer rains, being visited only by a few showers, which sometimes even cease 
for several years together. "When the northern winds predominate in the inter- 
mediary zone and drive the opposing currents south of the usual limit, the drought 
becomes general, bringing to the Nubians distant from the Nile famine, involun- 
tary exile, and brigandage. 

The region of the border mountains, in the vicinity of the Red Sea, is more 
favoured than the countries of the interior. The abundance of the vapours in this 
littoral zone promotes the advance of the rain-bearing clouds towards the north. 
Instead of stopping at the seventeenth degree of latitude, they extend as far as the 
twenty-first degree of latitude, and beyond this limit occasional showers are 
frequent ; but brought down by the northern winds they fall in winter, whilst the 
opposed southern winds cause the moisture to be again precipitated in summer. 
The result of this relative abundance of the rains on the coast region is a great 
contrast between the Nubian districts near the Red Sea and those of the interior. 
To the east the Arab nomads find abundance of wells, fountains, and pasturages 
for their cattle ; but to the west nothing is visible but rocks and sands, the eye of 
the traveller seldom lighting upon a grove of palms or mimosas, or any trailing 
shrubs growing on the banks of the wadies. In some years the drought is so 
complete that no shepherd dare venture into the desert. 

Nubia thus offers some well-defined natural divisions. The southern part of 
the country, comprising nearly the whole peninsula of Bayuda, is a district of 
steppes; the coast of the Red Sea presents an analogous appearance, whilst all the 
rest is desert and atmur, with the exception of the verdant and populous Nile 
Valley lying between these two dreary wastes. In many places this valley is 
reduced to a strip a few yards in width ; it even disappears altogether at the 



FLORA. 291 

luontli of the gorges, where tlie cliffs spring directly from the river bed. But 
however narrow and exposed this river valley may be, its appearance is none the 
less charming to travellers coming from the arid desert, where the only fluid 
obtainable is the brackish water of the wells, and where the horizon is bounded by 
the eternal rocks and sands. On approaching the river the Arabs perceive its 
vicinity by the moistness of the air, and they press forward with joj'ful cries of 
" Allah be praised ! we feel the A^ile ! " 

The Nubian desert is one of those whose temj)erature varies the greatest 
between the heat of the day and the cold of the night. Although these regions 
are traversed by isothermal lines of 79° F. and 81° F., and although the thermo- 
meter frequently exceeds 10-1° F., nevertheless traAellers often shiver with the 
cold before sunrise. The cause of this is the excessive drpiess of the atmosphere, 
which causes the heat to radiate into space during the night ; the north wind, 
which blows nearly constantly, also contributes to this fall of temperature after 
sunset. The moisture of the air is so slight that it rarely ever falls in dew on the 
Nubian deserts. The bodies of animals which have died on the journey dry up 
without becoming decomposed, the flesh gradually crumbling into dust beneath the 
hard and extended skin without emitting the least odour. Althoug-h the bodies of 
those who die during the journey are scarcely covered with a few inches of sand, 
they would easily pass imnoticed were it not for an upright stone placed over 
them by some pious hand. The purity of the dry desert air explains its perfect 
healthiness, not only for the native Nubian but also for the foreigner. No sana- 
torium could be preferred to an encampment far from the exhalations of 
the moist plain, at least by those who, like the Arabs, are careful to clothe them- 
selves in such a way as to be unaffected by the abrupt changes in the temperature 
of night and day. The Egj-ptian plague has never penetrated into Nubia, and 
ophthalmia, so dreaded in the regions of the lower Nile, is unknown above the 
cataracts of AVady-IIalfa, in spite of the glare reflected from the polished rocks 
and the glittering surface of the river. But in the Nubian regions where the 
inundations of the Nile stretch far into the plains, leaving stagnant pools here and 
there, malignant fevers are very common and frequently terminate fatally. The 
majorit)- of the natives do not di-aw their drinking water directly from the river, 
but sink wells some distance off into which the water filters through the sand, and 
they leave it exposed to the sim for some time before using it. They are also 
careful not to follow the example of the Turks, and build their towns on the river 
bank ; their villages stand on the steppe or on the edge of the desert, beyond the 
zone of the marsh fevers. 

Flora. 

A land of transition in its climate. Nubia also presents transitional forms in its 
famia and flora. The baobab is no longer found in the plains to the north of 
Kordofan and the advanced Abyssinian ranges. The deleb-pahn, which predomi- 
nates in the region of the two Niles, is no longer met with north of the confluence ; 
the southern variety of palm which is the true dum-palm, advances farther towards 

u 2 



292 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

Ewypt, but it scarcely ever exceeds the limit of the Suakiu- Berber route ; north 
of this point it no longer grows spontaneously. The argun, groves of which are 
found in some hollows in the Korosko desert, and which the majority of travellers 
call dum, is another kind of hyphasne resembling the dum, however, by the 
characteristic bifurcation of its branches. The peculiar taste of its fruit might 
procure for it the name of the gingerbread-tree. 

Elsewhere the date, which is the characteristic plant of Northern Nubia, 
supphnng the people with food, shelter, hurdles, baskets, seats, and coarse gar- 
ments, is becoming scarce in Southern Nubia, the last specimens being in the 
gardens of Khartum. Sycamores are still found in the streets of Dongola, their 
evergreen foliage contrasting with the grey walls, but they are gradually dis- 
appearing towards the south. Far from the river, the prevailing trees are acacias 
and mimosas of various species. A tree called ochas yields a quantity of fruit 
covered with silky down very brilliant and perfectly white ; according to Cluny 
fine fabrics are woven from its fibre mixed with wool. The fruit-trees of the 
Mediterranean zone, such as vines, oranges, and citrons, are cultivated only in the 
gardens, their fruit being sour and tasteless, and generally rotting before maturity. 
The cereals cultivated in Nubia, either on the banks of the Nile or else in the 
" Valley of Inscriptions," and in the steppes of the interior, belong to the same 
species as those of Egypt. 

Favxa. 

The wild fauna of Southern Nubia does not differ from that of Kordofan and 
the slope of the Abyssinian mountains. Lions, leopards, hyaenas, antelopes, and 
gazelles, giraffes and ostriches, inhabit the mimosa forests on the banks of the 
White Nile and the Bayuda steppe ; monkeys descend the Nile as far as Berber, 
but neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros pass beyond the forest regions on the 
middle Atbara. The last hippopotamus that has been seen towards the north was 
killed in the Hannek cataracts about the middle of the centui'y, although ancient 
pictures represent it as inhabiting the stream below Syene. 

Millions of aquatic birds swarm in the islets and on the banks of the Nile. 
Russegger has followed in the fresh mud deposited by the waters of the Nile the 
traces of an animal whose footsteps resemble those of the quadrumana, and which 
were directed from the water towards the shore ; but he did not see the animal 
itself, the amanit, about which the Nubians tell strange stories. The termites, still 
so much dreaded at Dongola, are not found farther north than the twentieth degree 
of north latitude. 

The Nubians possess only one kind of domestic animal, the horse, which is tall 
■and endowed with special qualities. Evidently of Arab origin, like those of the 
Kababish race bred in the neighbourinff oases, these coursers, with erect heads and 
thin legs white up to the knees, possess none of the beauty of their ancestors, but 
they are astonishingly nimble and fiery ; they are fed on milk and durrah, and 
occasionally on dates. The gallop is their usual gait ; they roam throughout the 



IXHABITAXTS. 293 

wliole region, even in the mud of the Xile and on the rocky slopes of the moun- 
tains. But they cannot stand a change of climate ; they die out of Xubia, and 
even in the country itseK have been greatly diminished since they have been so 
much sought after by the Egj-ptian officers. The camels of the Bisharins and 
Ababdehs are no less famous for their speed than the horses of Dongola. 



IXHABITAXTS. 

Often conquered, and consisting of little more than the double riverain zone of 
the Xile, Xubia is peoj)led with tribes of very mixed origin, such as Hamites, 
Arabs, Xigritians, and Tui-ks. 2severtheless the basis of the Nubian population 
may be said to consist of Barabras, who call themselves " the people of the soil." 
Some authors have considered this term Barabra synonymous with that of Ber- 
beri, applied to the Tuaregs and to the Kabyles of the Sahara and Mauritania, 
who are related by their speech to the people of Siwah, an oasis bordering on 
Egypt. But so great is the difference of colour, type, and mental qualities of 
these populations, that it would be difficult to believe them related, without going 
back to times far anterior to recorded history. According to a general but 
probably groundless opinion, the term Berberi, Barabra, corrupted to Berberins or 
Barbarins in the language of the Franks living at Cairo, is merely the Greek or 
Latin word "barbarian" applied to the black populations who live above the 
cataracts beyond civilised Egypt. 

The principal Xigritian tribes, mentioned over forty centuries ago on the 
pillars of the temples as having dwelt on the spot where the present Barabras now 
live, are designated by the name of TJaua, a term which seems to convey a species 
of contempt. It is just such a word as would be applied to a nation of " yelpers," 
a name differing little from that of " stammerers," which for the Greeks had the 
primitive meaning of the term " barbarians." But since the name of Beraberata 
has been discovered on the Theban lists of tribes, it is hardly to be doubted that the 
term " Barabra " is derived from it. 

But however this may be, the Uaua Xegroes, as well as the Beraberata, have 
become the Barabras of our days, but not without diverse crossinss with different 
populations. From the twelfth to the twentieth dynasty the whole of the Xile 
Valley, colonised by the Egyptians, had become a Eetu land in language and race. 
The reactionary movement scarcely commenced before the Persian epoch, but it 
was not till the Roman period that the native elements again took the upper hand. 
During the government of Diocletian the Blemmyes, the present Bejas, and more 
especially the Bisharins, invaded the region of Xubia and settled there in a 
compact body. It was found necessary to withdraw the Eoman garrisons, and in 
order to replace them an appeal had to be made to the warlike tribes called the 
Xubotfe, who were very probably of the same stock as the Nubas of Kordofan. 
From these people the Uauas and Blemmyes have received the dialects which still 
exist, though greatly corrupted by Arab terms. 



294 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

The Nubians Pkoper. 

The Barbarins are amongst the darkest of the African tribes. Their com- 
plexion varies from the colour of Florentine bronze to an almost bluish-black ; but 
under their dark skins are transparent reddish hues, by which they are clearly 
distinguished from the Central African Negroes. The head is dolichocephalous, 
and the receding forehead is covered with hair which, without being woolly like 
that of the Negro, is nevertheless very wavj*. Like the Nigritians they have a 
scanty beard, but their features are much more regular ; and Barabras are 
frequently met with who come up to the standard of European beautj'. The nose 
is straight and firm, with broad nostrils ; the lips, clearly cut, are rarely thick or 
2)outing ; the teeth are small and beautifully white ; the cheekbones are slightly 
prominent, and their regular features are set off by large, open, lustrous eyes. 

The Barabras are of middle height and well proportioned ; the chest is shapely 
and broad, the forearms and calves are somewhat slight, but less so than amongst 
the Bedouin nomads. Like the Funj and Bejas, they have the custom of making 
three oblique scars on each cheek, for which they can give no reason, as it does 
not serve to distinguish them from other peoples of Negro or Beja race. Under 
the pretence of working medical cui-es, the Barabras also disfigure their handsome 
bodies with wounds. Directly they experience anj' local pain or mere uneasiness, 
the barber cuts a gash in them, and draws off the blood wliich escapes from the 
wound through a cow's horn ; but to prevent the wound from healing too quickl}' 
it is kept open by irritating powders. At other times nails are made red-hot 
and thrust into the flesh by the head or point, according to the gravity of the 
disease. 

The usual dress of the Nubians consists of a tunic, over which they wear a 
long blue cotton robe like that of the Egyptian fellahin. The dress is completed 
by sandals and a felt skull-cap, for which some substitute the turban. Weapons 
are forbidden, but there are few men who do not carry a knife or poiguard con- 
cealed in the left sleeve and attached by a twisted leather thong. 

In the southern part of Nubia the majority of the j'oung girls, instead of 
tunics, still wear the rahad, or girdle of fringe ornamented with pearls, glass 
beads, and shells. Nearly all the northern and southern Nubian women wear a 
ring in one of their nostrils, and jjierce the lobe of the ear, inserting pieces of 
white wood, awaiting the time when their husbands shall replace them by trinkets 
of metal. The female manner of wearing the hair is still the same as that repre- 
sented on the Egyjjtian monuments ; but when a woman dies it is quite a day's 
work to unravel her hair, which is saturated with grease and ochre, because their 
religion forbids that they should be buried with the hair dressed. Some women 
after having curled their hair, cover it with a thick coat of gum, which causes it 
to grow round the head in the shape of a polished helmet. 

The Nubians are laborious agriculturists. Like the Egyptians, they water the 
soil with the shaduf or sakieh, and sow it with durrah, dokhn, and other cereals. 
But the produce of their fields, restricted to a narrow zone between the river and 



THE DANAGLAS AND KENUZI. 295 

the steppe, is not sufficient to support them, and the migrating movement, which 
attracts so many Danaglas towards the southern countries, also yearly brings a 
number into the towns of Egypt to seek their fortune. Jlost of them become 
servants in the palaces and hotels of Cairo ; others, clothed merely in a wide- 
sleeved blue tunic, or else splendidly attired in brocade and gold, become sa'is, and 
run before the carriages of the pashas and rich Europeans. Faithful and obedient, 
relatively clean, ncai'ly all knowing arithmetic, and how to read and write Arabic, 
they are usually preferred to servants of other races. Those who succeed in 
escaping diseases and accidents gradually manage to save a little, and when 
sufficiently rich they return to their country and purchase a plot of land, and live 
peacefully on their income. Egj'pt thus contributes to support the Nubian 
population, thanks to the thrift of the immigrants; but the taxes and exactions of 
every kind have taken away from them much more than they ever received. 
Before the Egj'ptian conquest the people of Nubia were certainly much better off 
than they are at the present day ; in man}^ places are to be seen on the rocks and 
river banks the picturesque ruins of houses and even villages, such as would at 
present be no longer built, whilst remains of abandoned agricultural tracts are 
found at a height to which it is not now thought necessary to bring water. In 
man}' a village the people no longer defend their dwellings, even against the 
tei'mites ; when the house falls they take refuge under a hut of branches or mats. 

Emigration on the one hand, and on the other the passage and sojourn of 
officials and soldiers of all races, have naturally variously modified the primitive 
tyi^e, and men and women are frequently met amongst the Nubians who recall the 
type of the Iletus, figured on the Egyjjtian moniunents. But how many of them 
are there ^A'ho no longer possess the general character of the race, and whom 
servitude and misery have rendered as cowardly, timid, and effeminate as the 
fellahin ! But, taken collectively, the Nubians are active, cheerful, confiding and 
gentle. But when brought into contact with the Egyptians they too often 
contract their drunken habits. 

Since their conversion, the Nubians have become much more zealous jjartisans 
of Islam than the lowland peasants of the Nile, and regularly observe the usual 
prayers and prostrations. Nor are they incapable of a higher state of civilisation, 
as is proved by the many Nubians who have had the opportunity of studying in 
Cairo or even in Europe, and as was shown in the past by the existence of the 
ancient pagan realm of Meroe, which was succeeded by the Christian states of 
Dongola and Aloa. The name of la'ruge, derived from the Greek kyriake, that is 
to say " Day of the Lord," which they still use to designate the Sunday, is a 
reminiscence of their now-extinct Christianitj'. 

The Danaglas and Kexi'zi. 

The Barabras, who are more especially termed Danaglas or Danaglehs, that is 
" People of Dongola," live in southern Nubia, principally round the capital and 
in the islands of the river. They differ from the northern Barbarins hy their love 



296 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

of trade; from Xliailura in Kordofan to Darfur they are grouped together in 
numerous colonies. They also hire themselves out as mercenaries, and iu this 
capacity they were formerlj' largely emplo3-ed to make raids into the zeriba region 
to procure slaves for the dealers. 

The dialect of the Danaglas differs little from that of the northern Barabras ; 
but it is much more corrupted by Arabic words, thanks to their commercial 
relations with this people. The comjjlexion of the Mahas, who occupy both banks 
of the Xile about the region of the Third Cataract, is darker than that of the 
Danaglas, and they are usually more boastful, haughty and morose in character ; 
they look upon themselves as a distinct race. The Kenuzi, the Kens of the 
ancient inscriptions, inhabit a valley farther north, between Korosko and the First 
Cataract. 

The pastoral peoples, who enclose the Nubian peasants on both sides of their 
narrow Nilotic valley, all call themselves Arabs, whatsoever their origin may be. 
Their language is that of the Prophet, which becomes yearly more universally 
spoken. The name they apply to the Nubians, in its true sense recalliug the 
ancient term of "barbarians," is said to signify " emharrassed, constrained, 
speaking with difficulty." These pastoral peoples nowhere intermingle with the 
Nubian peasantry ; they have their own villages, feast-days, and national dress, and 
nearly all of them go bareheaded. 

The Bish.\rin. 

The most characteristic representatives of these Nubian "Arabs," and of those 
constituting the most numerous group of tribes, are the Bisharin, who are pre- 
eminently Bejas, and whose name, slightly modified, may probablj^ be that of the 
whole race. These Bejas are usually estimated at 200,000 persons. The Bisharin 
rarely attain a great height, but they are extremely shrewd, and although thin and 
sinewy, are well proportioned. Their complexion differs greatly from that of the 
Nigritian peoples, and excepting in those families that have been modified by 
crossings, does not present any blackish tinge. Their colour is more of a red, like 
that of the American Indian, and amongst the women, who are under cover of the 
tent, differs little from that of the Calabrian and Sicilian peasant-women. The 
youths are so slender and graceful in form that they might easily be taken for 
young girls. 

During their prime the features of the Bisharin are regular and slightly 
angular ; the nose is straight and shapely ; the skin, always healthy and clean, 
appears as if stretched over their hollow cheeks, and on smiling, a glimpse is 
obtained of their pure ivory teeth, whitened by the continual mastication of the 
bai'k of the arak, an evergreen tree fouud in abundance near Dongola. They 
never smoke. Old age comes upon them rapidly, fatigue, miserj^, hunger and 
thirst quicklj' changing their appearance. The eye is bright but half shut, which 
is caused by their custom of half closing the lid to evade the blinding light 
reflected from the sands. 



THE ABABDEH OF NUBIA. 297 

This ocular peculiarity gives them a somewhat ferocious appearance, and many 
of them might certainly be accused of crueltj-. They are often spoken of by 
travellers as men without pity or honour, and avarice is their ruling passion. 
Cheerful, inquisitive, and garrulous, they converse with animation. While few of 
them are of a religious temperament, they have nevertheless preserved a few 
practices of an origin anterior to Islam ; they never kill the serpent or the par- 
tridge, which latter they look upon as a sacred bird. 

From the linguistic and geographical standpoint, the Bishariu form a connect- 
ing link between the Hamitic populations and the Egyptians. The demotic and 
liieroglyphic inscriptions of Meroe are supposed to be written in their ancient 
dialect. Property amongst the Bishariu is not personal, but common to all, being 
divided amongst the families or tribes. Some parts of the steppes are, moreover, 
considered common property, all the tribes having the right to graze their herds on 
these tracts. The great courage of the Bisharin is made manifest in the rules 
regulating their duels. Each man in turn seizes a knife, which he thrusts into his 
adversary's body, taking care not to wound him mortally ; the elders act as umpires, 
praising or blaming the attitude of the combatants, and separate them when honour 
seems to be satisfied. Amongst some of the tribes adultery is considered a very 
minor fault ; the nobilitj- of the race is transmitted by the women. 

The Ababdeh of Nubia. 

The Ababdeh, " Arabs " of African origin, probablj- the Gebadei of Pliny, are 
said to have numbered 40,000 at the period of Eussegger's voyage in this country. 
But they appear to have diminished greatly, having doubtless amalgamated with 
the Bisharins, whose hereditary enemies they were at the time when they con- 
stituted a powerfid nation. Their principal tribes are encamped in Nubia, the 
others overrunning the region of plateaux and ravines comprised between the Nile 
and the Red Sea, as far as to the north of Kosse'ir. 

The Ababdehs call themselves " Sons of the Jinns," as if to point out that they 
are aborigines born in the desert. They somewhat resemble the Bisharin ; but 
their features are more delicate, their movements more graceful, and their disposi- 
tion milder. The northern Ababdeh speak Arabic intermingled with Barabra 
words, those of the south have retained their Beja dialect, whilst the predominating 
language amongst those in the vicinity of the Nile is said to be that of the Bar- 
barins. Klunzinger has ascertained that the Ababdehs of Kosseir refuse to speak 
their national tongue before strangers, as they think that to reveal their mysterious 
dialect would bring ruin upon them. EvQ would also fall amongst their family if 
a girl were to set eyes on her mother after her marriage. Hence, as amongst the 
Bantus of southern Africa, the Ababdeh husband is expected to select for his resi- 
dence some distant place where he is never likely to meet his dreaded mother-in- 
law. 

Unlike the Arab, he does not live under the tent, Init builds a hut with hurdles 
and mats, which he pulls down and transports on camels, when it is necessary to 



298 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

seek fresh pastures. The Ababdeh likewise dwell iu grottoes, similar to those of 
their ancestors the Troglodytes. If the clay of these caverns were explored, it woiJd 
undoubtedly yield a rich harvest of prehistoric objects. 

Gums, a few other simple products, and fish, in the vicinity of the Red Sea, are 
the only means of exchange by which the Ababdeh pi-ocure the durrah required for 
their frugal diet. Most travellers speak highly of their honesty, gentleness, and 
frankness, and however miserable thej' may be, they never beg like the fellahin. 

Other Ethnical Elements in Nubia. 

The powerful Kababish and Ilassauieh tribes, who extend beyond their own 
domains, where thej' are too much crowded together, into Kordofan and into the 
peninsula lying between, and formed by the two Niles ; the Shukrieh, encroaching 
on the steppes to the north of the Atbara ; the Sawrat, the Ilawins, and the Jeraiad of 
the Bayuda ; lastly, the Eobabat, and Shaikieh, who occujiy the two banks of the Nile 
between Berber and Dongola, and now speak the Danagla language, complete the 
population of Nubia. These Arabs or peoj^les assimilated to the " Arabs " possibly 
amount to 200,000 or 300,000 j)ersons. Immigrants from other regions have been 
amalgamated with the body of the Barabra nation, and the memory of their origin 
has been retained oulj' bj' the aristocratic families who have taken interest in pre- 
serving their genealogies. 

Such is the case with the Bosniaks, who are descendants of the soldiers sent in 
1520, on a mission to re-establish j^eace in the countiy. They caused fortresses to be 
built on the escarpments overlooking the river, settled there as sovereigns of the 
country, and allied themselves by marriage to the ancient chiefs. At the present 
time these " Kalaj " of Bosnia are still the most important people of Lower Nubia, 
more especially between Assuan and Korosko, and to them it is that the Egyptian 
Government has intrusted the local administration. 

Topography. 

Below Berber, Ahu-Hanicd, the principal starting-point of the caravans, 
occupies one of those positions which in time become market-towns. A large city 
might even spring up iu this place were both banks of the Nile not bounded by a 
vast desert. Here it is that the river, ceasing to flow north-westwards, trends 
abruptly round to the south-west, commencing the great curve which it completes 
at a distance of 240 miles farther north. To avoid this enormous detour the 
merchants are compelled to leave the Nile, and journey for seven or eight davs 
amid the rocks and sands of the desert. 

South of Abu-IIamed the vallej' of the Nile is broadened by the large island of 
Mograt, which leaves to this mart fertile lands more extensive than those of most 
other Nubian villages. But the port where the merchants of Korosko embark and 
disembark is merely a group of cabins, inhabited by camel-drivers and fishermen. 
JJuubtless the caravan traders in this country have no need of warehouses to protect 



MAEA"S\^— BAHKAL. 299 

their goods ; they deposit their hales in the sand, under the protection of the shrine 
consecrated to " Saint Ahu-Hamed," and when they return, after an absence of 
months, or years, they always find their property just as they left it under the 
shadow of this venerated tomb. 

Makawi — Barkal. 

Some ruins are found on the banks of the Xile between Abu-Hamed and the 
Fourth Cataract, but it is below these rapids that, next to those of Meroe, the most 
remarkable ruins of Upper Nubia are met with. Maraid, the village which at 
present stands in this part of the valley, is a name which seems to be derived from 
that of the ancient capital ; nevertheless, archaeologists, relying on the statements 
of authors, are certain thatMarawi is the Xapata of Herodotus, and the inscriptions 
deciphered are unanimous on this point. 

Marawi, situated at the. foot of white rocks, occupies an important geographical 
situation, being the place where navigation recommences below the Foiu-th Cataract, 
and the converging point of the two routes from Berber and Shendi, across the 
Bayuda steppe. The Wady-Dum, one of the most fertile and least dried-up 
valleys of this region, forms a confluence with the Nile valley precisely opposite 
Marawi. Large heaps of rubbish mark the site of the destroyed monuments, and, 
not far above, the remains of sreat buildiuM are still to be seen at the base of the 
superb Mount Barkal, an enormous quadi-angular sandstone mass, poised in the 
middle of the plain like a pedestal awaiting its statue. The hieroglyphic name of 
Barkal was " Holy Mountain," and its principal temple was dedicated to the glory 
of Ammon-Ra. Of this building but few ruins remain, suiEcient, however, to leave 
no doubt as to the Egyptian origin of the monument attributed to Ramses the Great. 
Nevertheless, the name of Amenemha III. is also found on the granite rams and 
lions of natural size. In 1863, Mariette discovered amongst the monuments of 
Barkal five columns of the highest importance, j)roving that Ethiopia had a very 
important position among the Egyptian dynasties. For a period of fifty-one years, 
three Ethiopian kings, residing in Nubia, ruled over the greater part of Egypt. 
One of these conquerors, Tahraka by name, carried his expeditions even into Asia. 
The European museums possess several of these monuments from Moimt Barkal. 

Groups of pyramids are found near the temple. But the most remarkable 
structures of this description are those which, to the number of twenty-five, stand 
on the left bank of the Nile, near the village of Ntiri. These latter, larger than 
the pyramids of Meroe, are not so well preserved, owing to the less durable 
qualities of the sandstone, and nearly all have lost their exterior coating of 
polished stones. In the interior are found vaults, a method of support which was 
tiU recently believed to be an Etruscan invention, but which, nevertheless, occurs 
in various Oriental countries, notably at Saqqarah in the tombs of the sixth dynasty. 

In the wady of Abu-Dum, south of Nuri, are seen the ruins of a fine church 
and of a convent in the Byzantine style ; but nowhere, on the left bank of the river, 
are to be found the traces of such an important town as Najmta must have been, 
which stood on the northern bank. The whole of this country formerly possessed 



300 NORTH-EAST APRICA. 

a large population. The numerous ruins found beyond the group of buildings of 
which Marawi is the centre, belong to diverse historical epochs ; they consist of 
pyramids, dating from the period of the Byzantine influences, and fortresses 
constructed after the triumphs of Islam. 



Old and Xf,\v Dongola. 

The head of the curve which the Nile describes before resuming its northern 
course, like that of Abu-Hamed, could not fail to become a rendezvous for 
merchants. But the deviation of the river is here much more extensive, aud the 
caravans have had the choice of several sites for their stations of arrival aud 
departure. Thus follow in succession on the left bank of the river, going north- 
wards, the trading stations of Korti, Amhukol, Abu-Ditm {Ahdum), Dabbeh, and 
Abu-Gossi, where terminates the route to Khartum through the Wady-Mokattam. 
Dabbeh was the station chosen by the British expedition of 1884 as the centre of 
their supplies. Abu-Gossi has been fixed by the engineers as the point where the 
Nile railway will enter on the desert along the valley- of the Wady-Mclek ; at 
the Sotahl wells the line will branch off on one side towards Khartum, and on the 
other towards Darfur. 

Bongola-el-AJum, or Old Bongola, which is believed to have existed under the 
name of Deng-ur at the period of the ancient Egyptian Empire, was till recently 
the most important towTi of the country. It stands farther down on a sandstone 
rock which commands the right bank of the river from a height of about one hun- 
dred feet. Here was discovered a column which has since been placed in the 
Berlin museum. 

Dongola was the capital of a Christian realm which lasted for eight himdred 
years, down to the fourteenth century. It was still populous at the time when the 
Mameluks, flying from the wrath of Mohammed- Ali, settled down in the country 
in the character of devastators, the Turks, who followed close on their heels, 
completing the work of destruction. The islands which follow in succession 
between the arms of the Nile, from Old to New Dongola, are mostly cultivated, 
and present a charming appearance, with their borders of palms reflected in 
the flowing stream. Naft, one of these islands, is the bii-thplace of the Mahdi, 
Mohammed Ahmed. 

Dongola-el-Jedideh, or New Dongola, the present capital of Nubia, is also known 
by the names of Kasr Dongola CCastle of Dongola), and Al-Ordii^ihe Camp), in 
reference to the fact that it really sprang from a camp which the Mameluks pitched 
near the village of Marakah. It lies over a mile west of the great arm of the Nile, 
on the bank of a canal which at high tide serves as a port, but which at low water 
becomes a mere stagnant pool emitting dangerous miasmas. Consisting of low 
houses with courts, outhouses, and gardens, Dongola occupies a considerable extent 
of ground, and some of its buildings, amongst others a fortress in which are to be 
seen the remains of a castle built by the naturalist Ehrenberg, give to the whole a 
sufficiently imposing appearance. According to Ensor, the mean popidation of the 



OLD AND NT:W DONGOLA. 



801 



town does not exceed 7,000, wliich, however, is doubled when the peasantry return 
from their fields in the neighbourhood. 

To travellers coming from the north, who are accustomed to houses with 



Fig. 93. — DOXGOLA AND THE ThIRD CaT.1U.4CT. 

Scale 1 : 800,000. 




% 



E . c-f Gr 



U. ^ar^3n 



eiUles. 



terraces, Dongola offers a great surprise. They notice the inclined roofs, which 
immediately point out the change in the climate, the transition from the dry zone 
to that of the periodical summer rains. They also observe the incessant work of 



302 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

destruction carried on by the termite, an insect unknown to the riverain peoples of 
the Lower Nile, and which compel the people to be continuallj' engaged in repairing 
their dwellings. Before the war, which for several months caused Dongola to be 
one of the most important bulwarks of the Egyptian Empire, this town enjoyed a 
fair amount of commerce ; and its port was often crowded with craft scarcely inferior 
in size to the dahabiyeh, but carrying a square instead of the lateen sail used below 
the cataracts. 

Below Dongola the course of the Nile is divided by Argo, one of the largest 
islands of Xubia and one of the most beautiful, thanks to its wooded hills, cultivated 
fields, villages hidden beneath the foliage, and its sakieh or waterwheels, which the 
oxen tiirn slowly beneath the shade of the sycamores. Thousands of j'ears ago 
Argo was one of the centres of Egyptian civilisation in the Nubian regions ; here 
was settled, at ihe period of the third dynasty, a powerful colony of Egyptians. 
On this island have been discovered huge ruins dating from this epoch, notably 
two quadrangular masses or tombs, a magnificent colossus of Sookhotpu IV. and 
remains of sculptures of the most exquisite style and partially engraved with hiero- 
glyphics. Two unfinished columns of grey granite lying upon the ground have 
been probably overthrown by some conquering people before being able to witness 
to the glory of the sovereign who had caused them to be erected by his enslaved 
subjects. At the period of the conquest of the country by the Turks Argo consti- 
tuted a distinct kingdom. 

The Wady-Kab and Selimeh Oases. 

To the west of Dongola lies the Wady-Kab, a chain of twelve oases rmining 
northwards, and following the Nile at a short distance from it. According to 
Russegger it should be regarded as an ancient arm of the Nile, continuing that 
occupied by the present depression of Wady-Mokattam. Bounded right and left 
by low eminences disposed like the cliffs along a watercourse, the Kab imdoubtedly 
resembles a river-bed, and passes into the Nile valley above the cataract of 
Hannek. It is supposed to lie at a lower level than that of the present Nile ; but 
the numerous sources and sheets of water contained in the wady might be 
accounted for by the infiltration of water from the river. The pasturages, brush- 
wood, and groves of dates and other trees make of this depression a chain of oases 
which could support a numerous population, yet it is only periodically visited 
by Kababish nomads, who come to graze their herds and to procure dates, and 
the wood which they sell at Dongola for the construction of the houses and 
sakiehs. 

StQl farther north are other oases, but of much less extent. That of Selimeh, 
which lies on the caravan route between Assuan and Darfur, had no fixed popula- 
tion at a recent period, although its springs, sheltered by groves of palms, are filltd 
with good water. At the period of Browne's expedition, towards the end of the 
last century, it is said to have had nothing but pasturages ; but in the year 1822 
Cailliaud here found tamarisks and some hundreds of palms, which had probably 



SOLEB-AMAEAH— SEilNEH— EMKA. 303 

been but recently planted. At one time the English appear to have entertained 
the project of constructing a fort, and maintaining a permanent garrison in the 
Selimeh oasis for the purpose of commanding the route to Darfur, and overawing 
the neighbouring peoples in the Xile valley. 

SoLEB — Amarah. 

The usual route by river to the Selimeh oasis starts fi-om the village of Sohb, 
below the Third Cataract. The houses of the village are overtopped by the ruins 
of a temple, one of the finest and largest specimens of ancient Egyptian workman- 
ship to be found in Xubia. The columns which still stand are as elegant as those of 
Greek temples ; hut the sculptures and inscriptions in honour of Amenemha III. 
are not numerous, and the interior is a mere chaos of rubbish. 

Lower down on the right bank of the river stand the sculptured pillars of the 
temple of Amarah, surrounded by palm groves, whose fruit is the most highly 
valued throughout the whole of Xubia. Here bes-ins that region of eoro-es and 
rapids which the Arabs call " Botn-el-Hagar." Although the cliffs on both sides 
almost meet here and there, the banks of the river are everywhere cultivated. 
When the strip of alluvia is only a few yards broad, it is usually sown with 
haricots or lentils ; but when the arable zone is not so narrow it is used for raisin ^ 
crops of durrah ; and if still more extensive it bears a few palms, under which 
nestle small groups of huts. 

The crests of the neighbouring rocks are crowned by the towers of strongholds 
and the walls of ancient entrenched camps. The remains of a feudal system 
similar to that of Europe, the Nubian castles differ little from those of the Ehine, 
except that the battlements and keeps are built in red brick, whilst the roofs, 
slightly inclined, are broader at the base than at the summit, and all the towers are 
conical. One of the thermal springs which rise in these gorges on the banks of 
the Xile, is much frequented by the sick persons of the surrounding country, but 
only during the season of low water, as at other periods the beach is covered by 
the floods. The sands give birth to several springs, many of which are probably 
ri\-ulets which filtered through from the Xile during the floods, and are now 
returning to the main stream. 

Semxeh — Emka. 

At Semneh, one of the few villages situated in the Botn-el-Hagar, two cliffs on 
the banks of the Xile each bear an Egyptian fortress of the twelfth dynasty. At 
the period of the inundations the broad bed of the Xile is entirely flooded ; but 
at low water nearly the whole of the space comprised between the two cliffs is 
occupied by shining black granite rocks, pierced with holes and intersected by 
deep crevasses. It is now merely a narrow channel about 100 feet broad, through 
which rushes a foaming body of water at the rate of several himdred cubic feet 
per second. In no other part of its course does the Xile present a more magnificent 
appearance. 



804 NOETH-EAST AJ-EICA. 

Senineh is the well-known place where Lepsius discovered numerous inscrip- 
tions carved iu the rock, indicating the height of the Nilotic floods during the 
reign of Amenemha III., and showing how considerablj' the water-mark has been 
changed during forty centuries. But even at a level much higher than that 
reached by the floods in the time of the Pharaohs, labyrinths of polished rocks 
are seen absolutely similar to those now washed by the present waters of the 
river. Opposite the village of Emka, the rock is more deeply scored with a 
horizontal line, which M. Pouchet believes to be the primitive level of the Nile 
floods. Not far from this spot lies Wady-Sarras, the present (1885J terminus of 
the railway which skirts the cataract. 

Wady-Halfa. 

Wady-Halfa, or the " Yalley of Reeds," is situated on the right bank of the 
Nile, over a mile below the last rapid of the Second Cataract. A few fields and a 
belt of palms growing in the sand surround the huts of this village, which has 
become of great military and commercial imjjortance as a station where the 
caravans unload and reform. Moreover, Wady-Halfa, as the capital of the 
frontier district, now enjoys an extensive administrative jurisdiction, the oflScial 
boundary of Egypt and Nubia having been transferred from the First to the Second 
Cataract. During the campaign of 1884-5, the English here established their 
principal provisioning depot in Nubia, and since 1875 the Egyptians have made it 
the terminus of the railway which skirts the Cataracts, and which may ultimately 
be jjushed on to Dongola. 

A bridge will have to be raised at Koyrh, near Soleh, below the Third Cataract, 
so as to open up a route to the capital of Nubia across the western desert. In 
order to surmount the rapids of Wady-Halfa, the English employed boats of a 
special make, the guidance of which was intrusted to Canadian and Iroquois 
boatmen, accustomed from their youth to sail down the rapids of the Canadian 
rivers. May not the presence of these Iroquois boatmen on the Cataracts of the 
Nile be taken as a striking proof of how greatly the size of the world has been 
reduced by steam ? 

Derr — KoRosKO — Ibsambul. 

Till recently the population of Wady-Halfa was much smaller than that of 
Derr, a village situated on the right bank of the river, its houses scattered amidst 
groves of palms, in the most fertile part of Nubia, known bj' the name of Bosfnn, 
or " the garden." 

The traffic of Wady-Halfa was also less important than that of the station of 
Korosko, situated on the right bank, at the northern extremity of the caravan route 
which avoids the great curve of the Nubian Nile. Between Wadj^-Halfa and 
Derr the river flows by the foot of two temples which take their place amongst 
the marvels of Egyptian art ; they are the monuments of Ibsambul, more com- 



DEEE— KOEOSKO— IBS.UIBUL. 



805 



monly known by the erroneous name of Abu-SImbel. They are both hewn out of 
the red ferrugmous sandstone composing the mountains which rise on the left 
bank of the river. Between the two rocks gushes forth a cataract of yellow sand, 
borne thither by the wind from the Libyan desert, and forming an ever-increasing 
mound before each temple, which, on various occasions, it has been found necessary 
to clear away from the entrances and statues. 

The southern or great temple, built in honour of Ammon-Ra, the sun-god, is 
entirely hewn out of the living rock. Before the gate sit four colossi, over 60 

Fig. 94. — The Temple of Aisu-Sdieei., in Xubia. 




feet in height, of noble and placid countenance, supposed to represent Ramses II. ; 
but of one of these gigantic statues, decapitated by an English traveller, the lower 
part is all that remaius. 

AU the colossi are covered with inscriptions, Greek and Phoenician being 
even foimd in the midst of the hieroglyphics. In the iaterior of the rock follow 
iu succession three large halls and twelve of a smaller size, whose walls arc embel- 
lished with hieroglyphic paintings and sculptures, whose colours are still brilliant. 
One of these compositions, which comprises no less than eleven hundred figures, 
represents the battle of Kadesh, the principal event of the Egyptian Iliad. Xearly 

VOL. X. X 



806 NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 

all the other sculptures also commemorate the glory of Ramses, conqueror of the 
Hittites. On the ceiling of one hall are carefully drawn various species of 
animals no longer met with in Nubia, but only in Kordofan and Scnar. 

The smaller temple, consecrated to the goddess Hathor, has six colossi over 
30 feet in height before the facade, and four of these huge masses again represent 
Eamses II. ; two of the statues, the second and fifth, reproduce the features of 
Nofrcari, the "Divine Beauty," and their children are placed between the knees 
of the wedded pair. 

MaHARKAKAH BEiT-EL-"WALLI, 

The imposing sanctuaries of Abu-Simbel are succeeded by many other temples, 
which extend as far as the First Cataract. Fourteen have been described by 
archaeologists, without including the sepulchral grottoes, gateways, and towers. 
Passing beyond the temple of Sabi(a, almost buried in the sand, and the ruins of 
the ancient town of Mahcndi, whose tunnel-shaped galleries are still to be seen 
passing imder the houses, the traveller reaches the Roman ruins of Maharvakah, 
which crown a promontory commanding an extensive prospect. 

Then come Dahkeh, vith its gigantic gateways, and Garf-IIossain, a sombre 
cavern hewn out of the limestone rock, now infested by bats, like all the abandoned 
edifices of ancient Egypt. Beyond this point are seen the ruins of Kalahshah, 
another superb temple built by Ramses II., where a Greek inscription has been 
found recording the victories that the Nubian king, Silco, gained over the 
Blenunyes, Close by yawns the well-known speos or sepulchral cave of Beif-el- 
Walli, whose sculptures, representing triiunphal processions, assaults, court and 
battle scenes, have been rendered more popular by engravings than any others. 
Although somewhat tarnished by the castings taken from them, the colours of the 
paintings of Beit-el- WalK are stiU remarkably brilliant. 

The defile leading from Egj-pt in the direction of Nubia is preceded by 
temples and necropolises, which form, as it were, a long avenue of tombs. Cata- 
combs are much more numerous than populated dwellings, and this region 
probably contains fewer living men than gods engraved on the walls of the 
temples or sculptured in the granite. 




CHAPTER XII. 




EGYPT. 

EFORE tlie form of the earth was known to be that of a globe, 
every nation thought that theii- country occupied the centre of the 
world, and a mere child could point out the precise spot — lake> 
mountain, or temple — which was sujDposed to be the middle of the 
earth. But the exploration of our planet has proved that on the 
circuit of the globe, no less than in infinite space, " the centre is everywhere and 
the circumference nowhere." 

Nevertheless, if the surface of the globe is studied according to the disposition 
of the continents, Egj'pt, the Misr of the natives, more than any other region may 
certainly be considered as occupying the veritable centre. From a geometrical 
point of view, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Mesopotamia might have as much right 
as the plaias of the Lower Nile to claim a central position in the group of the 
three continents of the old world. But Egypt has the advantage over them of 
offering an easy passage from one marine basin to the other. Here cross each 
other the two great diagonal lines of the world, that of the overland routes 
between Asia and Africa and the ocean highways between Europe and India. 
The very opening of the Suez Canal has placed Egypt midway between America 
and Australia. The ancient Egyptians were quite justified in giving their country 
the position of the heart in the terrestrial globe, and one of the etpuological 
renderings of its ancient name of Memphis gives it the sense of " The Middle of 
the "World." 

Historic Retrospect. 

The people who dwell on the banks of the Lower Nile played a part in history 
corresponding with the geographical position of the land. Egypt is the first 
region of which there is any record in the annals of hvmian culture. It already 
existed as a ci-\-ilised power conscious of its own greatness at a period antecedent 
to the foundation of Babylon and Nineveh, and when the whole of Europe was 
stUl overrun by savage tribes that have left no record behind them. 

The inhabitants of Asia Minor and Hellas, who were destined to become the 
teachers of the nations succeeding them, were still cavemen and denizens of the 

X 2 



308 NOBTH-EAST ^iFBICA. 

forest, armed only with clubs and sharpened flints, at a time when astronomical 
observations, arithmetic, geometry, architecture, all the arts and nearly all the 
industries of the present day, as well as the games which now delight our child- 
hood, or afford relaxation from the serious work of life, were already knoA^Ti to 
their Egyptian contemporaries. The origin of our sciences, and many moral pre- 
cepts still taught by the " wisdom of nations," are fomid recorded on the papyri 
and on the bas-reliefs of the monuments of Upper Egypt ; whilst many a dogma on 
which existing religions are based, may be traced in its original form to the 
docimients discovered in the tombs of Thebes and Abydos. 

To Egypt we owe the art of writing, afterwards modified by the Phoenicians, 
by whom it was communicated to all the peoples of the Mediterranean basLii. The 
verv groove of om* thoughts had its origin on the banks of the Nile, ilankind is 
undoubtedly ignorant of its first epochs, nor can anyone assert positively that 
civilisation first arose in Egypt. Nevertheless, we are imable to trace it further 
back than the written records of this land, whose pyramids mark for us the limit 
of past times. 

Egyptian Chroxology. 

The Egj'ptians had no chronologj' properly so-called, their only division of 
time consisting of the length of reign of their successive sovereigns. But the 
uncertain dates obtained from the succession of the reigns partially indicated on 
the biuldings, and those handed down by Manetho, a priest under Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, can be checked by a few fixed dates, such as those of astronomical pheno- 
mena. Biot, when examining the hieroglyphics translated by Emmanuel de 
llouge, was thus enabled to determine three dates in the history of Egypt com- 
prised between the fifteenth and thirteenth centuries of the ancient era. In the 
series of events the Egyptian annals accordingly j-Ield us at least one established 
date, seven centuries anterior to the Chaldean era of Nabonassar, which another 
astronomical comcldeuce has enabled us to place in the year 746. Chabas has also 
found In a " medical " papyrus In the library of Leipzig the cartouche of Menkera, 
or Mycerlnus, followed by a reference to the solar ascension of Sothis or Sirlus, as 
having taken jDlace In the ninth year of his reign. If the interpretation of the 
text be correct, calculation would fix the date between the year 3,007 and 8,010 of 
the ancient era, or a thousand j'cars after the ej)Och attributed to the reign of 
Menkera in Mariette's chronological table. In any case. It Is to be hoped that future 
discoveries will enable ns with certalntj' to trace back the com-se of ages, and to 
determine positive dates for the origins of history, with which may be connected 
the fluctuating chronology of the most remote events of which the human race has 
preserved the memory. The same necessity which has caused the metrical system 
to be adopted for the measurement of terrestrial spaces, and which is now 
endeavouring to establish a common meridian, renders It equally indispensable 
that a common era should be sought, so as to establish a concordance for the events 
of various nations. Sooner or later, when the savants shall endeavour to get rid 
of the absurd chronological system which at present prevails in Christian Europe, 



I 



SOCIAL CO^n)ITION OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. S09 

dividing history into two eras, ia tlie first of which the years and centuries are 
counted backwards, they will very probably search the Eg}-ptian annals for the 
first clearly defined starting-point between the dim twilight of unknown ages and 
the broad daylight of history. 

Social Coxditiox of the Axcie>t Egtptiaxs. 

So ancient is the ciyilisation of Egypt that in certain respects it was known 
oiily by virtue of its decadence. The national records reveal to us the peoples of 
the Xile YaUey constantly in a state of bondage, consequently Hviag under a 
system which must have debased them, suppressing all personal impulse, replaciag 
spontaneous growth of thought by formal rule, and substituting formulas for ideas. 

But the extent to which a nation can develop itself and increase its store of 
knowledge is determined by the amount of liberty which it enjoys. Wliat a 
ruler lavishly squanders in one day, to enhance his glory, had been laboriously 
acquired by free men or by those who enjoyed intervals of rest from the slavery 
imposed upon them by internecine warfare and the vicissitudes of theii- oppressors. 
Hence before being able to acquire their material resources, and the science of 
which the monuments they have left us are an existing proof, the Egyptians must 
have passed through a period of autonomy and obtained a state of relative indepen- 
dence. The erection of the Great PjTamids, which so many writers have appealed 
to as an indication of the highly civilised state of Egj-pt, is in fact a striking proof 
that before this period the nation had made very considerable progress in the arts 
and sciences. 

But at a period of about fifty centuries anterior to the present time the people 
had already commenced to degenerate. As Herder remarks, can anv one conceive 
the dire state of misery and the utter degradation into which the masses must 
have fallen before it became possible to employ them in erecting such tombs ? A 
mournful civilisation must that have been, which employed thousands of men for 
years in transporting a few blocks of stone I The .slavery of the Egyptians, attri- 
buted to Joseph by the Hebrew writers, must have been effected long before that 
time, to enable the kings and priests to employ them on such works. The land and 
its inhabitants had already become the property of the Pharaohs ; under these 
masters the people sank to the level of a mere herd of cattle. 

Like the Xile, the Egyptian civilisation conceals its source in regions hitherto 
unknown, and, in times antecedent to King Menes, whom the annals state to be 
the foimder of the empire, the hieroglj-phics show the Sor-cJ/esou, or " servants of 
Horns," also engaged in raising monmnents in Egypt, according to plans traced 
on gazelle skins. The social state of the people inhabiting the banks of the 'Nile 
at this period is unknown ; but the most ancient buildings that they have left us, 
notably the step p^-ramid of Saqqarah, and the temple of Annakhis near the great 
sphinx, assuredlj- prove that they already possessed a weU-established civilisation. 
K^o other Egyptian statue is more lifelike or approaches nearer to the high artistic 
standard than that of Khephren, although it is one of the most ancient. 

In the earlier times of Egyptian history, the paintings which cover the walls 



310 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. . 

of the necropolis show that the philosophy of the Eg3-ptians was humane and 
rational, and, as Mariette remarks, it in no way resembled the mystical fetishism 
which sprang up in Thebes twenty centuries later. From all points of view the 
most perfect epoch is precisely the most ancient that is known to us. When 
Egypt entered upon one of those periods of warlike rule which so many persons 
stiU. consider the indication of true greatness, the Egyptian sovereigns were 
enabled to use for their conquests the effective power which their armies had 
already acquired during the course of a long-established culture. Their empire 
already extended far beyond the natural limits of the Nilotic basin, even far into 
Asia. According to Mariette and most other Egj^tologists, the monarchy of the 
Pharaohs, at the time of its greatest extent, embraced the whole region comprised 
between the equatorial coimtries of the Upper Nile, the shores of the Indian Ocean, 
and the mountains of the Caucasus. 

But warlike expeditions are always the forerunning sign of decadence. Under 
the rule of the conquering Ramses II. the decHne became rapid, and the latter 
part of his reign is marked by barbarous works, and sculptures " of a most extra- 
ordinary coarseness." The force derived fi'om a superior civilisation ended by 
exhausting itself, and Egypt was conquered in her turn, and for more than twenty 
centuries she has never ceased to be under the ride of foreign dynasties. 

Present Social axd Political Position. 

The political and social destiny of the cultivators of the Egj-ptian soil is clearly 
indicated by the surroundings amidst which they live. The NUe, the common 
property of the nation, floods aU the land at the same time ; and before it had been 
surveyed by geometricians, the land itself should also have been rendered common 
property. The irrigating canals, which are indispensable for cultivation beyond 
the limits attained by the annual floods, can be dug out and kept in order only by 
multitudes of workmen labouring in imison. 

There is, therefore, only one of two alternatives to be accepted by the agricul- 
turalists, either to unite together in a commune, or else to become the slaves of a 
native or foreign master. Dui-ing the course of wi-itten historj', the latter alterna- 
tive is that which has been realised, whatsoever may have been the apparent pros- 
perity of the country under the sway of the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies, and the Sultans. 
The bas-reliefs of the moniunents show us the Egyptian of three thousand years 
ago bowed down beneath the lash, just as they are at the present day. The victim 
of a continual oppression, and an excessive extortion, the fellah is unable to shift 
his quarters like the nomad Bedouin. In the vast level plain of the delta, or in 
the narrow valley of the river, there is not a single retreat in which he can hope to 
find a refuge from his taskmasters. Although his misery is without issue and his 
future without hope, still he passionately loves the land of his birth. Away from 
the banks of his beloved river, the fellah is overwhelmed by sadness and dies of 
home- sickness. The most commonplace landscapes are still the most beautiful in 
the eyes of their inhabitants. 



PRESENT SOCIAL AND POLITICAL POSITION. 311 

For neiirl}- ii century the conquerors of western Europe have disputed the 
possession of Egypt, which was even in 1672 spoken of by Leibnitz as the natural 
centre of the Old World, and the key to all the colonial possessions on the shores 
of the Indian Ocean. The -s-ital imj)ortance of this commanding position could not 
fail to be observed by statesmen who were contending for the possession of the 
Indian peninsula. Had the armies of the French Republic succeeded in retaining 
Egypt, which they had so rapidly overrun, there would have been an end to British 
rule in Hindustan, and England would have lost the inheritance of the Great Mogid. 
But after the destruction of the French fleet in Aboukir Bay, Great Britain, resum- 
ing undisputed possession of the ocean highways, again became in her turn the 
mistress of Egypt, without even having the trouble to conquer it, and the French 
were obliged to withdraw after two years of occupation. 

To the clash of arms succeeded diplomatic manccu^TCs and incessant struggles 
for obtaining the upper hand at Cairo and Constantinople. At the time of the 
inauguration of the Suez Canal, which opened up a direct route for steamers to 
India, and was the work of a French engineer, France at last seemed on the verge 
of obtaining a kind of suzerainty over EgyjDt. But England, concentrating all her 
efforts to secure this highway to India, has finally succeeded in acquii'ing political 
possession of Egypt, just as she has secured to herself the commercial pre-eminence 
over the canal between the two seas. Officially, England intervenes only to advise 
and assist the sovereign, but in reality her envoys are not far from being the 
absolute masters of the land. They draw up the treaties, declare war, and conclude 
peace, distribute places and pensions, dictate the sentences to the magistrates. But 
they leave the authority to the Egyptian officials, when it is necessary to sanction 
lists of taxes or to undertake affairs for which it does not suit them to be respon- 
sible. 

It may be said that the Nile basin, with its 40,000,000 Inhabitants, has for a 
period, more or less extended, virtually become part of the vast British Empire. 
Although the English generals have scarcely any armj^ at their disposition, mer- 
cenaries of all nations will be found ready to assist them in finishing the conquest 
of the country, in recent times conmienced on behalf of the Khedive and the Sultan 
by Mimzinger, Baker, Gordon, Gessi, Stone, Prout, and others. 

But the military difficulties attendant upon the annexation of this country will 
not be the only ones that Great Britain will have to deal with. Even shoidd the 
other European powers assist England in consolidating her supremacy in Egypt, 
this authority w^ould not be supported, as in most other English colonics, by the 
co-operation of a population of British origin. Those amongst the foreigners 
settled in the country who dispose of the financial resources, establish industries, 
conduct the papers, and guide public opinion, are mostly Contiaental Eiu'opeans, 
Italians, Frenchmen, Greeks, and Austrians, whose interests and aspirations are 
often antagonistic to those of the English. These European immigrants, much 
better preferred by the natives to the phlegmatic EngKshman, who will always be 
prevented by the climate from founding colonies properly so-called, form in the 
towns an ever-increasing commimity, which already nmnbers nearly 100,000 



812 KOETH-EAST ^IFEICA. 

persons, and whicli will not fail to act as a clieck on the exercise of British 
power. 

Undoubtedly the new masters possess a certain means by which they can make 
themselves, if not loved, at least respected by the people. For they have it in their 
power to restore the land to its cultivators, to rescue them from the usurers who 
absorb their substance, to assure them an impartial justice, and to leave " Egypt 
more and more to the Egj'ptians." But what Government ever possessed this virtue 
of gradually effacing itself ? Will that of Great Britain set the example ? If the 
solemn and reiterated affirmations of the heads of the English Government are to be 
believed, their only ambition is to re-establish order in the finances and government 
of Egy^jt, and then, this pious work accomplished, to withdraw, leaving their 
successors to follow the good example they have set. 

GEOGKAnncAi. Exploration, 

Connected as it is with the circle of attraction of European politics, Egypt is 
naturally one of the best-explored countries of the African continent. At the time 
of the French expedition towards the end of last century, the nmnerous scientific 
men who accompanied Bonaparte, Desaix, and Kleber, thoroughly studied the land 
from the various standpoints of its mineralogy, geology, the history of the soil, 
hydrography, annals, archltectm'e, manners and customs, and the social economy of 
the country', and their joint labours still constitute the most considerable scientific 
monument which exists regarding the lower Nile valley. The general map, which 
they drew up to the scale of -o-oVo- o"' ^^^ ^1^° remained in many respects the most 
complete that we possess, notably for Upper Egji^t, or Said. The smaller map that 
Linant de Bellefonds, Director of Public Works In Egypt, caused to be engraved, is 
another valuable document. 

But, beyond the salient features of the countrj', defined by the rocky backbone 
which boimds the verdant plains, the outlines of the land change yearly, and any 
local maps, drawn up with the greatest care dui-Ing the preceding generation, would 
have to be nearly entii'ely recast. On one hand the slopes of the Nile have been 
eaten away by the water ; on the other, alluvial deposits have been developed, which 
the fellahin have already embanked and commenced to cidtivate. Choked up 
canals have been replaced by other irrigating channels, whilst routes and villages 
have changed both locality and name. The special maps, made for the sm-vey of 
the great domains, constantly assign them different outlmes. 

On the other hand, the " Arabian " and " LIbj-an" deserts are still imlmown, 
except along the track of a few explorers, on one side between the Nile and the 
ports of the Red Sea, and on the other in the dii-ection of the oases. It is time 
that the coimtry in which Eratosthenes, more than two thousand years ago, first 
measured an arc of the meridian, should at last possess a network of geodetic 
measurements vdth which all the local majjs might be connected. 

But most Egyptian explorers have studied the ancient history of the people 
rather than their present life and the special geography of the country. When 



EXTENT ANT) POPriAnOX. 313 

CliampolKoii's discoTery revealed the mystery of the hieroglypliics so long and so 
earnestly sought for, and when the savants were able at last to decipher the inscriptions 
which cover in thousands the walls and columns of the immense architectural library 
of Egypt, they plunged with rapture into this hitherto almost unknown field of 
inquin-. To the works of Herodotus and of the Greek geographers were now added 
still more precious documents, the so-called " tables," and the papyri written forty 
ceaturies ago by the Egyptians themselves. 

Thanks to the investigations of Mariette, now continued by il. Maspero, and 
thanks to the interpretations of Lepsius, Birch, Chabas, Emmanuel de Eouge, 
Diimichen, and so many other Egyptologists, the history of the ancient land of the 
2f lie is being gradually reconstituted. The Western nations are beginning to become 
acquainted with the private life, the deep moral character, and as it were the very 
soul of this people, fi-om whom they have inherited such a large part of their ideas. 

TSTiatever may be said to the contrary, great changes have taken place since the 
times represented on the oldest monuments. Doubtless the same type of face and 
figure may be found amongst many descendants of the Retu, and even fashions have 
survived, if not amongst the Egyptians at least amongst the Xubians whom they 
had subjugated. The art of husbandry has not been motlified, at least amongst the 
peasantry, and as formerly " the unchanging temperature of Egypt endows the 
people," as Bossuet has remarked, "with solid and constant minds." But the series 
of historic events could not have been accomplished without producing a correspond- 
ing effect on the Egyptian people ; immigrants of all races have completely 
modified the urban civilisation. After acting as the teacher of the surrounding 
nations, Egypt had to be taught in her turn, and the Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, 
and European peoples successively became her masters. 

EXTEXT -VND PoPrXATIOX. 

Egypt may possibly now possess a smaller population than she did when at the 
height of her power ; but towns and -^-illages have always been numerous on the 
banks of the Xile, and they foUow in close prosimitj- along the banks of the river, 
as in the time of Herodotus. In comparison with its extent of arable land, Egypt 
possesses one of the densest populations in the world. Indeed, Egypt proper 
consists entirely of lowlands which could be brought within the zone of irrigation. 
The rocky or sandy tracts which stretch beyond the valley of the IsHe form a 
portion of Libya on the west, or of "Arabia," as it is called, on the east. The 
narrow stnp of " golden thread," with its " fringes " in the delta, composes the 
whole of the domain of the feUahin, and the only inhabitable spots beyond these 
limits are a few oases to the west, and the pasturages found in the eastern 
uplands. The triangle of the delta and the winding river valley, which a pedes- 
trian traverses easily in a few hours, provided he can find a boat in which to cross 
the 2^ile, compose all the rest of the coimtry, which Amru described to the Caliph 
Omar in these words : " Imagine an arid desert and a verdant plain between two 
mountainous ramparts ; that is Egypt." 



814 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

EfTjiot is ofEcially said to possess a superficial area of 400,000 square miles, 
omittin"' the Asiatic possessions beyond the Suez Canal, but including all the 
Nilotic region between Assuan and Wady-Halfa. The population of 6,800,000, 
according to the census of 1882, would be very small in proportion to this immense 
space, much less, in fact, comparatively speaking, than that of Scandinavia. But 
the inhabitable part of EgjT)t, resembling in shape a triangular kite with a long 
sinuous tail, is scarcely 12,000 square miles in extent, which gives the country 
a density of population three times greater than that of France, and even superior 
to that of Belgium and Saxony. 

Egypt is the Nile, and its very name is that by which the river was formerly 
known. The most ancient name of the country, that of Kem, or Kemi, that is to 
say, "Black," also comes indirectly from the Nile, because it was derived from the 
violet tint of the alluvia deposited by the cm-rent, forming a contrast with the 
" red " sands and rocks of the desert. The term Kam, or Kham, applied to 
the African peoples in Genesis, is probably nothing more than the name of Egj'pt 
itself. 

From this black soil, composed of fluvial deposits, spring forth the nutritive 
plants ; whilst, according to an ancient legend, man himself issued from it. AU 
the towns and villages of Egj'pt are disposed along the banks of the river and its 
canals, depending for their existence on its life-giving waters. Communications 
between Upper and Lower Egj^Dt could recently be effected only by the Nile, 
which is easily navigable, since boats ascend and descend with equal facility, 
either driven up stream by the north wind, or else drift down with the current. 
Shipwrecks or pirolonged stoppages are likely to occur more especially at abrupt 
turnings, and on navigating the ravines, whence irregular winds sweep across the 
course of the stream. 

The Arabian or Coast Range. 

Here and there, from Assuan to Cairo, the banks of the Nile are commanded 
either by the slopes of mountains, or by the edges of plateaux, whose height 
ranges from 300 to 2,300 feet. From these heights a whole section of Egypt lies 
at the feet of the traveller, from the eastern to the western frontier, with all its 
villages, canals and cultivated lands. Lower down the yellow walls of the rocks 
in many places bear the aspect of quarries, whose cleared spaces are now laid out 
in garden-plots. It is especially towards the east that the cliffs here and there 
assume an imposing appearance, although nowhere rising to any great elevation. 

The traveller must penetrate some distance from the Nile to the neighbourhood 
of the Red Sea before he reaches the coast range or border chain, which, however, 
has been very imperfectly explored. It forms a northerly continuation of the 
Etbai range, some of whose peaks are said to attain a height of considerably over 
6,000 feet. These highlands of the Arabian desert, commonly spoken of simply as 
El-Jebel, or " The Mountain," consist of crystalline rocks, such as granite, gneiss, 
mica schist, porphyry, and diorite. They are disposed in several distinct groups, 
separated from each other by the ramifications of sandy wadies. One of these 



THE AEABIAN OR COAST EAKGE. 



315 



groups in Southern Egypt gives rise to the transverse chain of the Cataracts, which 
forms the northern frontier of Ifubia proper, and merges near Assuan ia the 
Libyan range. In the syenite and granite formations, here skirted hy the rapids. 



Pig. 95. — Dessitt of thb PoprLATiox of Egypt. 




§S 



I Fcrrort 



Inhabitants per Sqtiare ilik-. 

Lza ^ i_j 

0. to 2. 2 to 200. '200 to l.COO. 

• Towns with over 20,000 inhabitants. 
• 120 Miles. 



are situated the famous quarries, now abandoned, where the Pharaohs procured 
the materials for their obelisks, statues, and other huge monolithic blocks. Towards 
the east the same group of hiUs, whence springs the chain of the Cataracts, 



81G NORTH-EAST AFRICA. . 

advances into tlie Eed Sea in tlxe fomi of a triangular peninsula, terminating in the 
Eas-Benas headland, and sheltering on the south the gulf of Umm-el-Ketef, 
identified as the ancient port of Berenice. 

JVorth of the Nubian frontier, where the crystalline rocks occupy the whole 
breadth of Ujaper Egypt, the zone of granitic formations is gradually narrowed, 
while still maintaining its chief elevations in the neighbourhood of the coast. 
This region, now frequented only bj^ a few scattered nomad tribes, was formerly 
worked for its mineral wealth by numerous gangs of miners and quarrymcn. The 
Jebel-Zabarah, the Smaragdus of the ancients, which rises on the Ecd Sea coast, 
under the latitude of Edfu, contains in its veins garnets and other valuable crys- 
tals ; and in the year ISIG, Cailliaud here discovered the beds of emeralds, which 
though far from abundant and of rather indifferent quality, were woi'ked by the 
sovereigns of Egypt down to the j-ear 1358. North and south of the moimtain are 
still visible the remains of the villages erected bj^ the miners. 

Farther north, in the depression which runs from the Nile at Xeneh to the port 
of Kosseir, and near the Hamamat wells, have been discovered the remains of a 
town of two thousand inhabitants, built of stone, and not far off vast quarries of 
" verde antico," of " Egyptian breccia," and of other varieties of diorite, which 
were iised especially for cutting vases, sarcophagi, and statues. Still farther north 
follow the two groups forming the ancient Mount Claudian, now severally 
distinguished as the Jebel-Dokhan and the Jebel-Fatireh, the latter granitic, the 
former porphyritic. The monoliths hewn out of these hills were conveyed down 
to the coast of the Red Sea, and thence transported by the Suez Canal, or " Trajan's 
River," to the Nile, and so on to Alexandria, and there shipped for all the 
Mediterranean cities of the Roman world. The Jebel-Dokhan, or " Smoky 
Mountain," the "Porphyrites Mons" of the ancients, contained a group of 
quarries, which during the Roman epoch was more actively worked than any other 
in Egypt, although the Egyptians themselves had never quarried this close-grained 
stone. Since the reign of the Emperor Claudius, Rome and Byzantium continued 
to import the admirable red porphyry, which was used in the erection of their 
temples and palaces. Here are still foimd columns 58 feet long, and 2-1 feet in 
compass, hence larger than the largest block in " Pompey's Pillar." The Arab 
invasion of Egypt put an end to the operations carried on at these famous quarries, 
whose site is still indicated by enormous heaps of refuse and the remains of large 
towns. The poi-phyry formation of the Jebel-Dokhan crops out in the midst of 
the granitic rocks, like the analogous porphyries of the Jebel-Katherin amid the 
granites of the Sinai peninsula. 

Over against Mount Tor, on the Sinaitic coast, stands the Jebel-Gharib, whose 
granite peaks rise to an altitude of 6,120 feet. This is the last lofty summit of 
the border range, and according to Schweinfurth, it forms the culminating point of 
the whole Arabian desert. So abrupt are its sides that it seems quite inaccessible. 

In the distance are visible Mount Tenareb and the Jebel-Shellalla, the latter 
separated by the Wadj-el-Tih from the Jebel-Attaka. All the mountain groups 
in this region are distinguished by numerous pyramidal crests, whose spurs are 



GEOLOGY OF THE COAST EAXGE. 



317 



similarly disposed in pyramids grouped sj-mmetricallj- round the central cone. 
These uplands, -n-hich do not exceed 1,000 feet in altitude, and which are indebted 
for their imposing appearance to their abrupt walls falling precipitously down to 
the Gulf of Suez, form the northern extremity of the granitic system. Farther 
north, nothing occurs except limestone rocks or sand dunes. Both slopes of the 
range are also overlaid with laj^ers of more recent formation. On the east side 
cretaceous taluses are found in many places resting on a granite foxmdation, and 

Ffg. 06. — ASSTTiN- : AxCIEXI QuAESr, XOW ABiXDOXED. 




several of the headlands along the coast belong to these cretaceous formations. 
Here also occur deposits of sulphur, as well as naphtha springs and beds of bitumen. 
Basaltic eruptions occurred at some remote period in the Jebel range, and these 
lavas are visible as far as the ueighbourhood of Ismailia. 



Geology of the Coast Eaxge. 

On the coast the prevailing rocks are sandstones and Limestones of contemporary 
formation, in which are embedded fossil shells and poly|Ds. Some more recent 
sandstones and limestones of Hke origin are entii-ely foi-med of these animal 
remains. 

As on the Ai'abiau seaboard, a gradual movement of upheaval has been observed 



818 



NOETH-EAST APEICA. 



along tlie Egyptian coast, produced either by the vertical rising of the land or by 
the subsidence of the surrounding waters. Altogether the west coast is more 
healthy and less obstructed by coral reefs than the opposite side. The sea is 
also deeper near the shore, and good harbours are consequently more niunerous. 

"West of the granites, schists and porphyries of the border range, the rocks over- 
lying the crystalline nucleus consist of sandstones and limestones. In the southern 
district rises an isolated sandstone mass resembling those of Nubia, Kordofan, and 
Senar. This rock, especially at the Jebel-Silsileh between Assuan and Esneh, is 
very close-grained and disposed in regular layers, rendering it peculiarly suitable 
for the erection of large buildings. Hence from this source have been obtained 
the materials for the construction of thousands of temples and other structiires. 
The breaches made by the ancient quarrymen in the rocks on the right side inspire 
a sort of awe by their prodigious dimensions. According to Charles Blanc, these 
mountains supplied the building stone for at least half of the old Egyptian monu- 
ments. 

The quarries on the west side, although less extensive, are more remarkable 
from the artistic point of view, for they contain several temples excavated in the 
live rock, as well as sepulchral caves and statues. Scarcely had the quarries been 
opened when they appear to have been converted into tombs. 

In the northern section of the Arabian range the sandstones are replaced by 
limestones of various dates, some belonging to the cretaceous, others to the eocene 
epochs. To these chalk formations chiefly belong the cliffs stretching along the 
right bank of the Nile, which present the most varied and picturesque forms of 
monumental aspect, separated by mere fissures or by gloomy ravines, and often 
crowned with fantastic towers and pyramids. 

In the extreme north the last hills, terminating at Caii'o itself with the Jebel- 
Mokattam, or " Inscribed Moimtain," are composed almost entirely of nummulites — 
ostrsea, cerithium, and other shells massed together in a limestone conglomerate. 
Owing to the abundance of their fossils, they have become a sort of Eldorado 
for geologists. These nummulitic strata include in some places transparent 
alabasters of the choicest quality. Such are, west of Beni-Suef, those of 
the Jebel-Urakam, whence have been derived the materials employed in the 
construction of Mohammed All's mosque in the citadel of Caii'o. Such are, also, 
farther south the alabasters, which take their name from the city of Alabastron, 
whose site was not far removed from the spot now occupied by the town of 
Minieh, 

But more important than these costly marbles are the quarries of building- 
stone skirting the Nile, especially those of Turah and Masarah. From the vast 
pyramids erected on the opposite side of the river some idea may be formed of 
the excavations begun six thousand years ago in these nummulitic limestone 
quarries, which also supplied the building materials for the cities of Memphis 
and Cairo. 



TBffi LIBY.iX PLATEAU— THE MIRAGE. 819 

The Libyan Plateau. 

The Libyan hills are lower ttan those skirting tlie right side of the river. 
Taken as a vrhole, the relief of Egypt presents the character of a plane inclined in 
the direction from east to west. From the crest formed by the coast range the 
highlands and plateaux diminish gradually in height down to the 'Nile Yalley. 
From the western edge of this yaUey the ground also falls until at last it sinks 
below the leyel of the sea. 

On both sides of the strip of yerdant and inhabited land fringing the Nile the 
zone of rocks is alike destitute of permanent dwellings. But the Libyan recion 
being more uniform, yoid of lofty eminences and covered with sand, presents a 
more desolate appearance than the eastern zone. It already forms part of the 
great desert, which stretches thence westwards right across the continent to the 
Atlantic seaboard. 

Seen from the pyramid of Cheops, this Libyan plateau might seem to be nothing 
more than a boundless plain varied only by sand dunes. But this is merely the 
effect of an optical delusion, as we are assured by the few travellers who have 
ventured to penetrate into these dreary solitudes. Taken as a whole, the desert 
comprised between the Xile and the depression of the oases is a plateau of nummu- 
litic limestone rising to a height of 830 feet above the river level. The limits of 
this plateau are indicated by escarpments, while its surface is disposed in distinct 
sections by the erosive action of old marine waters. HOlocks of uniform elevation 
rising here and there above the plain serve to indicate the primitive level of the 
land. The base of all these promontories was undoubtedly washed in pre-quater- 
nary times by the ilediterranean, whose waves were broken into surf amid these 
rocky archipelagoes, where at present water appears only in the form of delusive 
mirages. 

The Mirage. 

Nowhere is this remarkable phenomenon of the mirage seen to greater advan- 
tage than in the Libyan and Arabian deserts. It often assumes the most weird and 
fantastic forms, the outlines of lovely landscapes, bills and valleys, yerdant plains, 
everywhere interspersed with the treacherous appearance of broad lacustrine basins, 
glittering under the torrid rays of the tropical sim. And so vivid are these scenic 
effects, that the most experienced travellers, and the animals themselves, are at 
times deceived by the pleasant phantom and thus beguiled to their destruction. 

When crossing the Arabian Desert in the year 1883, Colonel Colborne tells us 
that on one occasion the mii'age was intensely real. Before him stretched a large 
lake, its blue waters laughing in the sun, studded with gem-like islets clad in 
verdure, and bordered by castles, high pinnacles, turrets, and battlements, and again 
by gleaming villages and s mili ng hamlets — the whole scene fairyUke in its beautj', 
while presenting a most painful contrast to the arid sand and fierce heat and con- 
suming thirst from which the traveller was suffering. It is in vain that we rub 
our eyes and seek to disabuse ourselves of the illusion. The spectacle lies before us 



320 NOETK-EAST APEICA. 

undeniable, ai^parcntly solid and tangible. We loiow it is mocking us, like an ignis 
fatuus ; but the most accurate Imowlcdge of tbc physical laws wbich govern tbc 
phcnomeua will not brush the image from the retina. 

There is little wonder that the ignorant and inexperienced should have frequently 
yielded to the delusion. But life is always the price paid for such a mistake. Some 
years a^-o a company of soldiers perished 'from thirst in this very region. Disre- 
wardino' the warning of their guides, the unfortunate men, fresh from Egypt, and 
mad with thirst, broke from the ranks and rushed towards the seeming lakes of 
transparent water which were presented to theii* eyes on all sides. They pressed on 
eagerly towards the ever-receding phantom, and one by one fell prostrate, to leave 
their bones to bleach on the sands. On another occasion a detachment was sent 
across the desert to Berber on its way to Khartum. The soldiers, refusing to be 
checked by the guides, consumed all their supply of water when in sight of the 
El-Bok Mountains, confident of their ability to reach the imaginary lake. The 
heat was intense ; the men grew faint and in a few hoiu's died one by one in 
horrible agony. It is not surprising that by the Arabs this strange phenomenon 
should have been named the huIir-csh-Shcitan, or " Devil's Sea." * 



Geological Features. 

The surface of the Libyan desert is completely covered with sand, which 
accumulates in vast quantities in the depressions, leaving only the higher rocky 
eminences partly exposed. In few jilaces are the cliffs absolutely bare, being 
almost everywhere clothed with the yellow or reddish particles of disintegrated 
quartz. These quartzose sands are certainly of foreign origin, for the plateau 
itself presents nothing but limestone rocks and clays. These remains of primitive 
rocks have been brought from distant uplands by the action of the winds and, 
possibly, also of marine waters. By their ceaseless movement over the surface the 
shifting sands have imparted a remarkable smoothness to the surface rocks, which 
in many places exhibit the lustre of polished marble. All the scattered blocks arc, 
as it were, varnished by the sand, which has rounded off their angles and softened 
their rugged outlines. Some of these boiddcrs have thus acquired such brilliancy 
that observers have mistaken them for volcanic obsidians. 

The geologist Zittel supposes that the incessant friction may even have 
tended to produce a chemical modification In the very structure of the rocks ; 
for a large number of flints are met. In the centre of which Is embedded a core 
of nummulitle limestone. Hence the stone has been apparently transformed from 
the outside Inwardly, a phenomenon which can be attributed only to the constant 
friction of the sand on the surface. Amongst the myriads of nuimuiilites covering 
the ground In dense layers, all those occurring on the surface have by this action 
of the arenaceous particles been entlrel}' changed to flints, assuming a bluish or even 
a metallic appearance, whereas those lower down, being protected from the friction 
as well as from the action of light, remain white and retain their limestone formations. 
* " With Hicks Piisha in the Sudan," p. 244. 



THE EGYPTIAN PETRIFIED FORESTS. 321 

But whatever be the chemical forces that have converted the nuuimulites into 
flints, these do not remain intact after their transformation. The vicissitudes of the 
temperature, which beneath these cloudless skies varies so greatly between day and 
night, cause the stones to chip, strewing vast spaces with their fragments. 
Occasionally the breakage of these flints is effected in such a way as to give them a 
perfectly regular form. Thus in a wady of the Arabian range west of Beni-Suef 
are met, scattered about in considerable quantities, siKceous fragments resembling 
truncated cones and presenting eight symmetrical facets. 

To the sudden changes of temperature have also been attributed the broken and 
even -worked flakes that have been found in various prehistoric workshops through- 
out Egypt. But human labour is so clearly stamped on these specimens that it is 
quite impossible to confound them with the products of natural causes. In the 
Lib}-an desert Zittel sought in vain for any naturally produced siliceous chippiugs 
bearing even a remote resemblance to the spear and dart heads worked by the men of 
the stone age, whether in Egj^t, Europe or the New World. Amongst the stones 
of regular form found in the Egyptian deserts, Cailliaud and Russegger were the 
first to call attention to the carnelians, jaspers, agates, and other hard stones pre- 
senting the form of lentils or discs of various dimensions, encircled by a round ridge 
somewhat like a ring. The interior of these natural specimens is often disposed in 
concentric circles, and such concretions are very frequently found associated with 
fossil wood. 

The Egypti,\n Petrified Forests. 

By a remarkable contrast, petrified trees are known to occur in many parts of a 
region where living plants have become so very rare. On the east slope of the 
Jebel-Mokattam, not far from Cairo, is found, if not a " petrified forest," as it is 
usually called, or " masts of shipwrecked vessels," pierced with holes by phollades, 
and covered with marine deposits, as the early travellers pretended, at least a number 
of stems transformed to blocks of flint or chalcedony. But by penetrating farther 
into the desert we come upon far more extensive petrifications, which might really 
deserve the name of " forests." In a depression of the Arabian plateau, to the south- 
east of Cairo, the trunks of trees of all sizes are found in such multitudes that certain 
tracts are exclusively covered with the siliceous stems or fragments of fossil wood. 

In the Libyan desert, west of the Pyramids, other " petrified forests " contain 
stems over sixty feet long, with their roots and branches, and even with the bark 
still perceptible in some places. Travellers have also discovered similar masses of 
fossil wood in various parts of the Nubian desert, in Senar and Kordofan, and even 
on the upland plateaux of Abyssinia. In all these regions the vegetable remains 
so petrified belong to the order of the sterculiaceoe. In Egypt the prevailing variety 
is the uir/iolia Nilotica, and a species of bamboo obtained from these forests is also 
preserved in one of the natural history collections in Cairo. 

Whence come all these stems of petrified trees ? Some geologists have suggested 
that they may have been washed up by the sea at a time when the ilediterranean 

VOL. X. Y 



822 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

penetrated much farther southwards than at present. But in that case it is difficult 
to understand how these fossil woods could have been stranded in such a good state 
of preservation, and, moreover, without being associated with any of those vegetable 
or animal marine organisms which arc always found adhering to driftwood. Kor 
is anj- theorj- advanced to explain how this flotsam and jetsam could have been 
borne over lofty mountains to the upland plateaux of Abyssinia. 

On the other hand it is impossible to suppose that these petrifications can have 
been brought down by fluvial currents such as that of the Nile, because they are 
nowhere associated with any alluvial dejjosits. Hence these sterculiaceaj of the 
Nilotic basin must be regarded as still in nitti, or at least in the immediate vicinity 
of the places where they originally flourished. The opinion which finds greatest 
favour with geologists is that the vegetable fibres were gradually petrified under 
the action of thermal waters, such as still occur in various parts of Egypt, and 
especially in the region of the oases. Becoming saturated with these waters, the 
fallen trunks would be gradually changed to stone, just as they become converted 
into peat or turf in the swampy districts of more northern latitudes. 

Doubtless the petrifications of herbs and other vegetation at present going on 
round about the gej-sers of Iceland and of Montana in North America, differ from 
those of the Egyptian deserts in their general appearance and process of formation, 
for in these districts the plants are changed not into particles of quartz but into 
amorphous flints. But allowance should, perhaps, be made for climatic dif- 
ferences and for the long action of time. Close to the " petrified forest " of Cairo 
is observed a dome-shaped sandstone hiU, the Jebcl-el-Ahmar, or " Eed Mountain," 
the interior of which is easily quarried, thanks to the softer character of the deeper 
strata. May not this sandstone hill, isolated amid the surrounding nummulitic 
limestones, have been graduallj- accumulated by the action of some ancient geyser ? 
And to the similar action of thermal springs may we not attribute the preservation 
of the trees on the neighbouring plain, which at that time was doubtless thickly 
wooded ? 

The "Western Oases. 

To the west of Egvpt as well as to the west of Nubia a chain of oases is 
developed which describes a curve almost parallel to the course of the Nile. The 
first of these oases is that of Kurkur, which although scarcely more than 60 
miles from Assuan, has never been inhabited. At about the same distance in a 
north-westerly direction stretches the so-called "Great Oasis" of the ancients, now 
known as that of Khargeh, from the name of its chief town. Including the palm- 
groves of Beris, it occupies a depression stretching north and south for a distance of 
90 miles. It does not, however, form one continuous oasis, but rather an archi- 
pelago of small oases, a cluster of cultivated islands separated from each other by 
intervening tracts destitute of vegetation. 

"West of Khargeh lies the oasis of Dakhel, or Dakleh, that is to say, the 
"Interior," also known as the "Wah-el-Gharbich, or ""Western Oasis." Dakhel is 



THE WESTERN OASES. 823 

separated by a limostono wilderness, partly covered with shifting sands, from the 
oasis of P\arafreh, which is situated 120 miles to the north-west. The labyrinth 
of rocks occupj'ing the intermediate space between Dakhel and Farafreh is one of 
the most remarkable formations of the kind in the whole world. The narrow 
fissures winding along and intersecting each other at various angles amid the still 
preserved upright rocky masses resemble the -streets of some weird city lined with 
fantastic monuments, pyramids, obelisks, triumjihal arches, sjohinxes, lions, and 
even statues faintly reproducing the outlines of the human figure. One of the 
natural gates on the north side of this uninhabited city has by Rohlfs been named 
the Bab-el- lasmund, in honour of a fellow-countryman. A still more colossal gate- 
way, which stands at the outlet of the labyrinth facing the Dakhel oasis, is known as 
the Bab-el-Cailliaud, in memory of the first European traveller who in recent 
times has jDenetrated into these inhosjiitable regions. 

Several oases of smaller size are scattered round about the Wah-el-Farafreh, 
forming an archipelago which is prolonged in a north-easterlj' direction by the 
oasis of Bakharieh, probablj'tho "Little Oasis" of the ancients. It is one of those 
Ijang nearest to the Xile, being situated not more than 90 miles from the plains of 
Minieh in the fluvial basin. But in this district the series of depressions ramifies 
in two different directions. One branch continues to develop itself parallel with 
the Nile, while the other follovrs the line of the Mediterranean seaboard west of 
Alexandria. Its axis intersects the depressions of the Bahr-Bela-ma, or " Water- 
less Lakes," and other dried-up lacustrine basins, ultimately terminating in the 
oasis of Siwah, formerly consecrated to Jupiter Amnion. 

North of the Siwah depression rise the rockj^ escarpments of the p)lateau of 
Cj'renaica, while towards the south an isolated sj'stem of coarse limestones is 
encircled bj' lofty sand dunes. In this region bordering on the sea and already 
comprised within the zone of winter rains, the water develops vast lacustrine 
basins, all saturated with salt. Amongst them is the extensive Lake Sittra, which 
floods the lowest part of a depression lying midway between the Bahr-Bela-ma 
and the Siwah oasis. But this " sparkling saf)phire set in gold," as it has 
been described, merges in one direction in dreary morasses. Other cavities are 
now empt}'. Excavated in the form of wells to a depth of from 60 to 150 feet, 
the}' still retain at the bottom a deposit of mud mixed with salt and gypsum. 
Springs even continue to bubble up in some ; but the banks of these saline waters 
are everywhere destitute of vegetation. In the dried-upi lacustrine hollows 
nothing is seen excej^t a little scrub in places where the saline efflorescences have 
been overlaid by a thick layer of drifting sands. 

Not far from Lake Sittra stretches the now-abandoned oasis of El-Araj, which 
is being gradually swallowed up in the sands. The outer zone of plantations has 
already parti}' disajjpeai'ed ; the half-choked-up wells now contain nothing but a 
scanty suj^ply of brackish water ; and the time is rapidly approaching when the 
only evidence of the former residence of man in this district will be tombs in the 
Egyptian style excavated in the neighbouring cliffs. 

Y 2 



324 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



The Siwah Oasis. 

The Siwali oasis, where spoke the renowned oracle of Ammon, consulted on one 
occasion by the Macedonian conqueror, rivals in beauty that of Dakhel, although 
the limestone hills forming its outer enclosure cannot be compared with the 
picturesque heights of the Bab-el- Cailliaud. ^N^evertheless they present scarcely 
less fantastic forms. In certain parts of the plateau the cliffs terminate in flights 
of steps with perfectly horizontal slabs and of uniform depth, like those leading to 
some palatial structure. The strange effect is heightened by the colour of the 
stone, which contrasts vividly with the white sand strewn over the steps. In the 



Fig. 97. — Chains of Oases West of Egypt. 
Scale 1 : 7,500,000. 



50 



S5' 



ass/s Of S'l/vy/j 



S/^Ae i' eZ-A^er^ot/n 



( .\^ 



Si>wah 



<^'»e^' 



-1 *■- ^- //fifpz^ 



OAS/S Of S£f/Ji/f/£/^ , 



Kasr Fa^a**^a^r^. 
Aesia 




OAS/a Of OA/r/ffL 



OAS/3 Of JC/^AAOSy/ 
Beris |\ 



26' 



L ^ of breenwich 



59° 



C. Perron 



. 120 MUes. 



depression enclosed by these remarkable cliffs the steep heights rise to the level of 
the plateaux, of which they oi-igiually formed an integral portion. They now 
stand isolated amid the cultivated plains and palm-groves, some crowned with 
edifices, others disposed in ramparts and turrets presenting the appearance of 
fortifications. The blue lakelets scattered over the verdant plain impart to the 
oasis of Jupiter Ammon the aspect of a pleasant retreat from the interminable 
wilderness. But the traveller's anticipations are presently dashed by the brackish 
taste of the waters and by the miasmatic exhalations rising from the surrounding 
marshy tracts. Near the saline springs flow some streams of fresh water, though 



i 



OEIGIX OF THE OASES. 825 

for the most part thermal ; other waters contain sulphur, «-hile the so-called 
fountain of the "Sun," said to be alternately cool in the middle of the day and 
warm at night, has really a nearly uniform temperature of from 84° to 85° F. 
It has been identified with the spring still flowing at some distance from the 
temple of Um-beidah. At the same time it is easy to understand that, in the 
absence of precise measurements, the ancients may easily have been deceived as to 
its real temperature, and thus suppose it cold by contrast imder the burning sun, 
and hot during the chilly nights. 

With the date groves of the oasis are intei-mingled the olive, the apricot, the 
pomegranate, the plum, and the vine, while the clearings are planted with onions. 
Although annexed to Egyj)t in 1820, Siwah is rather a geographical dependence 
of Cyrenaica ; for it is connected with the slopes draining to the Gulf of Sidra 
by the Faredgha oasis and by other verdant islets surrounded by rocky and sandy 
wastes. 

Towards the north another depression in the p)lateau on the route to Alexan- 
dria is occupied by the oasis of Gara, which is inhabited by some forty persons. 
According to a local tradition this number of forty cannot be exceeded, death 
inevitably re-establishing the equilibrium whenever disturbed by an excess of 
births or by too great an inroad of immigrants. 

Origin of the Oases. 

At sight of the chain of oases diverging from the Isile, and winding through a 
series of valleys and gorges seawards, it was only natural to regard these low-lying 
and fertile tracts as the remains of some old watercourse, some western branch of 
the Nile now partly obliterated by the invading sands. The natives have pre- 
served legends recording the gradual desiccation of this waterless stream, and 
down to a recent period most travellers still sought the traces of the Nile in the 
oases of the Libyan desert. Even on some contemporary maps the channel of 
the so-called Bahr-Bela-ma is drawn fi-om valley to valley, as if its course had 
actually been determined by local survey's. 

It is in any case highly probable that at some remote geological age fluvial 
or marine waters, excavating straits and valleys, may have flowed through the 
region now occupied by the oases. But during the present epoch no branch of 
the Nile or inlet of the Mediterranean has penetrated into these depressions of the 
desert, which contain neither alluvia of fluvial origin, nor marine deposits asso- 
ciated with contemporary molluscs. Nevertheless the thermal waters of the oases 
contain animal species belonging both to the Mediterranean and Red Sea fauna. 
Such, for instance, are the two little fishes called ci/priiiodon dispar and cijprinodoH 
calaritanus* ■ 

But if in their formation the oases are independent of the present Nile, the}' 
may possibly be connected with it thi'ough the waters which feed their date 
plantations. Certainly the copious springs serving to irrigate the oases of Dakhel 

* Zittal, " Die Sabar.i." 



326 NOETn-EAST AFEICA. 

Mid Furafreh cannot have their origin in the districts themselves, for rain is here 
the rarest of phenomena. The natives are thoroughly convinced that these waters 
are derived from the Nile, and they even protend to have observed a certain 
increase in their volume during the period of the great inimdations. But this 
would be very surprising considering the great extent of sands which the imder- 
groimd currents would have to filter through. Yet the explorers CaiUiaud and 
Russegger accepted the theory of the natives that the oases derive their supplies 
from the Nile. But Dakhel being at a much higher level than the main stream 
imder the same latitude, the source of its springs must in any case be sought in 
the upper reaches of the Nile. They probably come from the southern regions 
lying within the zone of the tropical rains. 

But, however this be, the high temperature attained by the current during its 
underground passage shows that it must flow at a depth of several hundred yards 
below the surface of the gromid. All the springs have a mean temperature of 
from 98° to 100° F., and they are utilised as well for the cure of certain maladies 
as for irrigation purposes. Since the year 1850 their volume has been consider- 
ably increased in the Farafreh oasis, thanks to the intelligence of a native, who 
after travelling with the French engineer Lefebvre, returned to his home, where 
he sank a number of wells and carried out a regular system of irrigation. Care 
was also taken to construct underground galleries analogous to the k'inafs and 
khariz of Persia, Afghanistan, and other parts of the Iranian plateau, in order to 
prevent excessive evaporation. So far the new wells do not appear to have at all 
diminished the abundance of the old sources, so that the underground supply seems 
to be practically inexhaustible. 

In the oasis of Beris, south of Khargeh, two hundred weUs have been choked 
with the sands. But there still remain twenty-five whose thermal water ranging 
from 77° to 86° F. is highly ferruginous, and is found only at a depth of 200 feet 
from the surface. According to the ancient writers some of the wells in the great 
oasis had in former times been sunk to a depth of over 650 feet. The walls of the 
shafts are supported by beams of acacia wood affording access to the bottom. But 
the boring of new wells and the work of clearing the old pits of their accumulated 
sands are not imattended by danger. After the last laj'er of sand is pierced, 
wherever the flow is abundant, as in Dakhel and still more in Khargeh, the water 
tends to spread out in malarious swamps. 

The Natrox Lakes. 

North of the Bahr-Bela-ma, and parallel with the series of depressions collec- 
tively known by this name, a valley of more regular form running south-east and 
north-west is occupied in its lowest cavities by seven shallow morasses. These 
are the so-called " Natron Lakes." Although separated from the nearest bend of 
the Nile by a shingly desert over 24 miles broad, the El-Natrun Valley most 
probably receives its supply of moisture from the river. During the three months 
following the autumnal equinox the water, "of a dark blood-red colour," due 



THE NATRON LAKES. 



327 



perhaps to the infusoria inhahiting it, oozes up to the surface from the east side 
of the valley, whence it flows in rills and rivulets down to the lakes. 

In these hasins the waters increase till the end of December, hy which time 
they have attained a depth of about 5 feet. Then the)' subside, leaving some of 
the cavities quite dr}'. Their composition varies with the different basins. In 
some marine salt prevails, in others carbonate of soda ; while the sulphate of soda 
is intermingled in diverse proportions. Two of the lakes, presenting a reddish 
appearance when dried tip, leave an encircling ring of red or brown salt, which 
emits the pleasant fragrance of the rose. The decomposition of the marine salt by 
the carbonate of lime contained in the moist soil produces crystals of soda, which 

Fig. 9S. — The Xatuon Lakes. 
Scale 1 : 250.000. 




50°I0 



SO-PO E «f Greenw 



0. Rernon 



are deposited in a greyish layer, and which are collected by the natives of Terraneh, 
a village on the left bank of the Rosetta branch of the Nile.* 

A few sj^rings of fresh water, which have their source in the neighbouring 
rocks, help to support a scanty vegetation, mainly comprising Mediterranean 
species and a few sickly palm-trees. The only inhabitants of the Natron district 
are the inmates of the Baramus, Saint Macarius, and other convents foimded in 
the fourth century of the Christian era, at a time when thousands of monks took 
refuge in the caves and valleys of this rocky and sandy region. Like the old 
anchorites, the recluses of the Natron Valley are forbidden to consume the pro- 



* Natron of the Terraneli lakes, according to Bcrthollet : — 
Chloride of sodium . . 52 per cent, j Sand 
C.irhonate of soda . . 23 ,, | Carbonate of lime 

Sulphate of soda . . - 11 ,, ! Oxide of iron 



3 per cent. 
0-9 „ 
0-2 „ 



3-28 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

ducts of their own gardens, so that all thoir supplies have to be brought from 
Egypt. However, the spirit of abnegation has nowadays little to do with the 
peopling of these monasteries of the wilderness, most of their inmates being in fact 
exiles condemned to a lingering death. 

No remains of ancient monuments are found in these solitudes, with perhaps 
the single exception of the traces of a glass manufactory, which may be recognised 
by the ruins of some brick furnaces and the fragments of scorite and vitrified 
sands strewn about. Before the recent events, which have brought about the 
British occupation of Egypt, it was jjroposed to survey the region west of the 
Nile, for the purpose of ascertaining whether it might not be possible to construct 
a canal from the main stream, or from the Bahr-Yusef to the Bahr-Bela-ma 
depressions, and thus bring 500,000 acres under cultivation. 

General Features of the "Western Oases. 

The level of the oases does not present a regular slojDe from the frontiers of 
Nubia to the Mediterranean seaboard. Cailliaud's barometric measurements had 
already shown that the region of the depressions falls from the Dakhel oasis to 
that of Farafreh, again rising towards that of Bakharieh, beyond which it sinks 
in the Siwah district below the level of the sea. The operations executed by 
Jordan in 1873 and 1874 with more care and with better instruments have con- 
firmed this general conclusion, while slightly modifying the figures given by the 
French explorer. There is now no longer any doubt that the palm-groves of 
Siwah stand at a lower level than the Mediterranean, while the oasis of Araj would 
ajjjaear to be even some 150 feet still lower.* 

Farther on the chain of oases, which was perhaps a marine inlet during a 
former geological epoch, is continued south of the plateau of Cyrenaica through the 
Faredgha, Jalo, and Aujila oases. The whole series seems to be also below the 
level of the sea, a barrier of reefs and sand dunes alone preventing the marine 
waters from penetrating into the depression. Its mean level seems to be about 
100 feet below the Mediterranean. After having determined this geographical 
fact engineers began to discuss the jiroject of converting the whole of Cyrenaica 
into a large island bj^ introducing the sea into the region of the oases. In the 
same way it has been proposed to create a A'ast " inland sea " farther west beyond 
the Syrtes. 

The term oasis at once suggests the idea of an earthly Eden, diversified with 
running waters and verdant plains. By the ancients, the Egyptian oases were 
called " Isles of the Blest," as if a residence in these palm-groves in the midst of 

• Altitude of the oases, according to Cailliiiud and JorJnn: — 

Cailliaud. Jordan. 

Feet. Feet. 

Khargeh 3t5 . . . 226 

Dakhel 182 ... 330 

Farafreh 110 ... 252 

Bakharieh 117 . 376 

Araj — 200 . . . — 2C6 

Siwah —110 . . . —120 



THE LIBYAN DESERT. 829 

the vrilderness were a special favour of heaven. Jfevertheless the sovereigns of 
Egypt, and after them the Eoman and Byzantine emperors, were well aware that 
these oases were not the happy abodes sung by the poets, for thither they banished 
their enemies to perish of weariness and inanition. Thousands of Christians, exiled 
by their fellow-Christians of different theological opinions, yielded to home-sickness 
in these dreary "convict stations." Some of the oases, amongst others that of 
Dakhel, possess the romantic beauty imparted by a superb rampart of cliffs, with 
their fantastic towers and embattlements rising from 800 to 1,000 feet above the 
hamlets and palm-groves. But the traveller's admiration is, even here, due mainly 
to the impression of contrast presented by the patches of verdure to the dismal 
waste of bare rocks and sand encircling them. He is naturally enraptured when, 
after traversing the waterless desert, the constant sport of the mirage, he at last 
comes upon real streams of water, flowing beneath the shade of leafy groves. But 
then comes the inevitable feeling of oppression produced by the narrow limits of 
these garden-plots, everywhere surrounded by boundless wastes, stretching in all 
directions bevond the horizon. 



The Libyax Desert. 

The sands of the desert form shifting dunes like those on the Mediterranean and 
Atlantic coasts. Between the Xile Valley and the chain of oases several ranges of 
these dunes are disposed, nearly all in the direction from the south-east to the north- 
west, parallel with the course of the river between Assuan and Minieh. The sand- 
hills do not attain an elevation comparable to those of the French landes ; doubtless 
the laboratory where rocks are weathered into minute particles are more remote, 
while the winds are less powerful. A few stunted shrubs, especially the tamarisk 
plant, are the chief instruments employed by nature in binding the sand in compact 
masses. Behind these obstacles a little heap is formed, the horns of its crescent 
curving forward with the wind. Soon the plant is enveloped, and would in a short 
time be entirely swallowed up, if its growth did not keep pace with the rising 
sands. 

Thus are formed hillocks, whose mean height scarcely exceed 12 or 14 feet, 
and on the crest of which is visible the foliage of a tamarisk or some other shrub. 
A peculiar physiognomy is imparted to the Libyan desert by these low eminences, 
which in form and colour resemble eroded cliffs, but all of which bear a plant of 
some kind on their summits or slopes. The sands do not pass beyond any rocky 
heights exceeding the mean elevation of the plateau ; they are also arrested before 
the Pyramids on the edge of the limestone rocks skirting the valley of the Nile. 
Hence arose the otherwise groundless and absurd hypothesis that the huge tombs 
of the Pharaohs were erected to protect Eg^'pt from the invading sands of the 
desert. 

When the west wind prevails, thousands of small streams of red or golden sands 
overflow from the rocky battlements of the plateau, forming long ridges which 
here and there encroach on the cultivated lands. In this wav the course of the 



330 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

Babr-Yusef lias been graduallj'' deflected eastwards by the ranges of dunes skiifiug 
the left bank. But the progress of the sands is extremely slow, and may perhaps 
be compensated by the erosions caused by the action of the current along the 
right bank of the Nile. Moreover the sands themselves may be cidtivated like 
other lands, wherever they can be brought within the reach of the irrigating waters, 
brinffinnr down the rich alluvia of the stream. 

West of the oases, the Libyan desert has not yet been traversed bj- any explorers 
in the direction of the Kufra oasis and of Fezzan. An inhospitable region at least 
400,000 square miles in extent, inaccessible even to travellers provided with all the 
resources of modern industry, occupies this part of the continent, completely separa- 
ting Egypt and Cyrenaica from the lands comprised within the Tsad basin. The 
natives of the Egj^^tian oases are imable to give strangers an}' information regard- 
ing these mysterious and terrible regions bounding their horizon, and into which 
they are careful not to penetrate. A few confused legends destitute of all historic 
value are, however, kejit alive amongst them regarding strange events supposed to 
have occurred in these frightful solitudes. 

In the year 1874, Rohlfs, Zittel, and some other German explorers, vainly 
attemjjted to make their way in a straight line across this region to Fezzan. In 
anticipation of a long journey they organised a whole caravan of camels, carrying 
water in iron chests lined inside with tin. But after a six daj's' march from Dakhel, 
they became convinced that it would be imj)ossible for the camels to traverse the 
endless ranges of dunes barring the route in the direction of Fezzan. Hence they 
turned northwards to seek a refuge in the Siwah oasis. This point was reached 
twenty-two days after leaving the last watering-place, and throughout the whole of 
this expedition nothing was met except sand and rocks, and the " devil's water " 
shown by the mirage. 

The part of the Libj^an desert Ij'ing nearest to the Egyptian oases resembles 
that skirting the Nile Valley. Here the surface is still varied by a few limestone 
hills, interspersed with ranges of dunes and stunted scrub. But when the 
traveller reaches the region of quartzose sandstones all vestiges of vegetation 
disappear. Nothing now meets the eye except sand and stratified rocks, alternating 
with deposits of a very rich iron ore. The land rises gradually in the direction 
of the west, and towards the parting-line between the limestones and sandstones 
the plateau attains an elevation of 1,460 feet. Here begins the ocean of sand, 
which stretches for unknown distances in the direction of Fezzan. In the north 
it extends for no less than 240 miles towards the Siwah oasis. 

The vast dunes of this region, produced by the weathering of the sandstone 
rocks, have a mean altitude of over 300 feet, hence exceed in elevation the largest 
sand-liills of Europe. Some are even said to attain a height of 500 feet. Disposed 
in the dii-ection from south to north, or from south-south-east to north-north-west, 
perpendicularly to the polar winds, the ranges follow each other like the ocean 
waves imder the regular action of the trade-winds. Secondary systems of dunes, 
which may be compared with the false cones occurring on the flanks of Etna, are 
developed by the irregular atmospheric currents, and these are usually disposed 



CLIMATE OF EGYPT. 831 

transversely or obliquely to the normal ranges. The bottom of tlie trougli between 
two parallel ridges presents a tolerably good footing to the waj'f arer ; but progress 
is extremely difficult on the sloj)es of the crumbling sandhills. No springs rise 
at the foot of the dunes ; no living thing dwells in this region of death, where 
travellers themselves plodding wearily and silently through the sands seem like 
phantoms to each other. 

Climate of Egypt. 

The climate of Egypt, although very different in the neighbourhood of the 
Mediterranean and in the narrow valley of the Upper Nile skirted on both sides 
by the escarpments of the desert plateaux, is remarkable especially for the 
uniformity of its phenomena, the regular course of the atmospheric currents, and 
the di-yness of its atmosphere. In its meteorological conditions, the valley of the 
Nile, that is to say, Eg}'pt, resembles the Red Sea. As in all mountain gorges, 
the aerial currents which penetrate into this marine basin follow it regularly in the 
direction of its length. Here they become changed either into the shcinal, or wind 
of the Gulf of Suez, or else into the assiab, or wind of the Gulf of Aden. Thus 
the north-east monsoon, which in the Indian Ocean prevails from October to 
March, changes its direction on entering the Gulf of Aden, where it becomes a 
south-east wind. So also tlie khamsin, which comes from the Libyan desert — that 
is, from the west — on reaching the Red Sea is deflected northwards parallel with 
both coasts. In the same way the western, northern, and north-eastern currents 
from the Mediterranean, all alike take a direction contrary to that of the south- 
east monsoon. On the other hand, the land and sea breezes, which alternate -n-ith 
such remarkable regularity on most of the tropical coast lands, play a very feeble 
part along the shores of the Red Sea. tltilised to a limited extent by sailing 
vessels for a few hours of the day, they are borne now to the north, now to the 
south in the general current of the atmosphere. They acquire a little influence 
only at the change of seasons in spring and autumn. 

Under the action of the alternating northern and soutbern breezes, a correspond- 
ing movement takes place in the Suez Canal, where in summer the Mediterranean 
waters are di-iven towards the Red Sea, in winter, those of the Gulf of Suez 
towards the Bay of Pelusium. About 14,000,000,000 cubic feet of water thus ebb 
and flow from season to season, at a velocity varj-ing from 6 to 26 inches per 
second. In the Nile Yallej-, as in the long trough of the Red Sea, all the winds, 
whatever their original direction, change in the same way to currents setting north 
and south. In Lower Egypt alone, where no obstacle intervenes to obstruct their 
course, they blow from all quarters of the compass, according to their original 
direction and modifying local influences. 

The alternation of the aerial currents is regulated in the Nile Yalley with less 
u ni formity than in the Red Sea. In this longitudinal basin they succeed each 
other in almost rhythmical order. In winter the south-east monsoon, which rushes 
impetuously into the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, acquires the ascendancy, and makes 
itself felt at times as far as the neighbourhood of Suez. In summer, on the 



332 NOETH-EAST ATEICA. 

contrary, the north-west ^vinds prevail almost as far south as the entrance of the 
Gulf of Aden. In order to avoid this opposing current, mariners from India or 
from the Hadramaut coast found it convenient to land their cargoes at some port 
more easily accessible than the Gulf of Suez. To this cause was due the great 
importance acquired b}' the ports of Berenice and ilyos Hormos, inducing the 
Ptolemies and the Caesars to open up highways, provided with watering stations, 
across the desert between the Nile and the Red Sea. 

In Egypt also the northern currents prevail normally during the hot season, 
thus tending to temper the excessive summer heats. Theii- prevalence is due to the 
higher temperature of the surrounding sandy deserts, and to the same cause must 
be attributed the predominance of the same winds even in winter. From the end 
of March to the beginning of May alone, a struggle takes place between the 
opposing currents. During this season Egypt is frequently exposed to the influence 
of the so-called " fifty days' wind," although it seldom prevails for such a length 
of time ; nor is it ever felt during the night. Everything becomes parched by the 
hot breath of the khamsin, which is charged with particles of dust, according to 
Pictet, in the proportion of one gramme to 35 cubic feet of air. At times this 
pestilential wind deserves the name of simun, or " jjoison," and numerous instances 
are recorded of caravans and travellers who, even in Lower Egj^t, have lost their 
pack-animals, killed by the deadly blast of the khamsin. 

A graphic description is given by Mrs. Speedy of one of these frightf id sand- 
storms, by which her party were nearlj' overwhelmed in the Arabian desert. "On 
the horizon coming up behind us was a dense wall of impenetrable dust and sand. 
It had been scarcely visible in the morning, and even at the time I am now 
speaking of it was only rising into view. But the keen Ai-abs, children of the 
desert, had descried the long dark line as it lay almost immovable in the early 
morning, and scented the possible danger. Should the wind rise it would be 
brought up rapidly, and might sweep over iis before we could reach Tokar. 

" We were soon going like the wind. VTe on our camels, and the Arab on foot, 
fled before that sandstorm at the rate of between seven and eight miles an hour for 
over three hours, doing nearly four-and-twenty miles in that time. We had not 
gone half-way when I insisted on stopf)ing, fearing that the man would be utterly 
exhausted ; and it was during that rest that I discovered the real state of the case. 

" We dismounted and sat down among the undulating ridges of sand on the vast 
plain, when I turned my head and clearly perceived what we were flying from. 
The whole truth broke upon mo, and for the moment I felt almost paralysed. The 
wind was rising, coming up as the day advanced, and we were yet a long way from 
Tokar. There was but one thing to be done. Up again and press on as before. 
I think we scarcely spoke again before we reached Tokar ; the one absorbing 
thought was to get forward. 

" Shortly before we arrived at the town, however, the Arab slackened his pace 
and turned round. He made us turn too, and pointed out that the wind had 
unexpectedly changed, and swept the storm, which had at first set out in our 
direction, another way. The great thick wall, which might have imprisoned us 



EAINPALL. 333 

liad turned southwards, and was now travelling- over the desert away from us, I 
earnestly hoped, to expend itself in si^ace before meeting with any unfortunate 
victims. Inexpressibly thankful was I as we entered the town, for I could not 
but feel that it had jiei'haps been a race for life. It was now over and we were 
safe ; but it was several hours, or I may more truly say daj-s, before the effect on 
mj' overstrung nerves passed entirely awaj^" * 

On an average, northern breezes arc six times more frequent at Cairo than 
those from the south. But as we ascend the Nile and approach the equatorial 
regions the equilibrium tends to be established between the conflicting currents, 
and in Xubia the northern or winter are about fairly balanced with the southern 
or simimer winds. 

Rainfall. 

The region of the Egyptian delta is comprised within the Mediterranean 
climatic zone. Winter and summer here succeed each other as in Southern 
Europe, the only difference being that the intermediate seasons of spring and 
autumn are reduced to much narrower limits. f The Egyptian summer, during 
which the Xile waters rise and spread over the laud, is accompanied by the 
clearest skies ; yet the atmosphere is then heavily charged with moisture, often 
almost to the point of saturation. On the Red Sea coast especially, the traveller 
finds himself at times enveloped as in a vapour bath. 

Winter is the rainy season, but it is seldom attended bj' much humidity, 
although in the lower delta the rainfall often suffices to interrupt the commiinica- 
tions. The banks of the canals, here the only highways, are changed by the 
slightest showers into quagmires of treacherous and slij)pery mud. Even in 
Alexandria, lying as it does within the influence of the moisture-bearing clouds 
from the Mediterranean, the mean annual rainfall is only 7 inches according to 
Russegger, or 8 inches according to more recent observers ; that is to say, one-third 
of the quantity received by Paris, and one-fifth of the average for the whole of 
France.+ At Cairo, where the marine vapours arrive already deprived of much 
of their humiditj^ the mean discharge is much less, amounting to no more than 
about Ig inch, or the fiftieth part of the discharge at Cherra-Ponji in British 
India. 

The ancient Egyptians called themselves the inhabitants of the "Pure Region." 
Nevertheless the sky is overcast at Cairo for over three months in the year, and 
at times the downpours have been heavy enough to flood the streets. In 1824, 
and again in 1845, several houses were destroyed by these sudden freshets. In 
the Arabian and Lib}'an deserts south of the delta, the rains are still lighter, 
although not altogether unknown, as is so often asserted. Tremendous discharges 

* " Wanderings in the Sudan," vol. ii., p. 250. 

t Mean temperature of Egypt . , . Alexandria, 68° F. Cairo, 70' F. Port Said, 71° F. 
,, in August (hottest month) „ 79° F. ,, 85° F. 

„ „ in January (coldest mouth) „ .54' F. ,, 50° F. 

Highest recordpd „ 111° F. ., 116° F. 

X Mean annual rainfall at Alexandria from 1873 to 1881, 8-5 inches. 



334 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

were experienced both bj' Cailliaud in the Siwah oasis, and by Rohlfs in that of 
Dakbel farther west. In the Arabian desert the sudden rains on one occasion 
swept away the village of Desam, near Atfieh, which was afterwards rebuilt on a 
site farther removed from the bed of the wad\'. 

On the other hand, there has been at times a total absence of rain. Not a drop 
fell for the space of six yeai-s in the district between Kosseir and Keneh ; all 
vestiges of herbage disappeared from the valleys, and of trees the acacia alone 
resisted the effects of this protracted drought. Nevertheless the cisterns, which 
were fed by rain water along the old highway between Coptos and Berenice, are 
sufficient proof that this district does not lie within the absolutely rainless zone. In 
certain places natural cisterns or basins are met, formed by the subsidence of the 
nuniraulitic rocks, and here the water is collected on an impermeable bed of 
siliceous formations. These so-called mghda, which differ greatly from the surface 
springs, usually known by the name of el-aiii, nearl}' always contain excellent 
water, the existence of which the surrounding tribes endeavour carefully to 
conceal from Europeans. 

But however slight is the winter rainfall, it nevertheless suffices, even without 
the aid of irrigation, to impart to the vegetation an appearance of freshness and 
vitality', which again disappears during the summer months. In this respect the 
Egyptian winter season presents the most striking contrast to that of temperate 
Europe. In the delta, however, the rainfall rejjresents a part only of the actual 
discharge. Here the night dews are tolerably abundant, especially during the 
prevalence of the marine breezes, when they are heavy^ enough to regularly 
moisten the roofs and balconies of the houses in Alexandria. But the amount of 
dew diminishes in direct proportion to the distance from the Mediterranean, and 
in the Nubian desert, there is a slight discharge only in the vicinity of the river. 
In the heart of the Egyptian solitudes, where the bare rocks and white sands cause 
the heat of the sun to radiate into space during the night, it often hapjiens that the 
dew freezes towai-ds the morning. At its rise the sim, which will in a short time 
raise the temperature of the ground to over 100° F., begins by melting the 
slight layer of hoar-frost covering the desert. Even on the arable lands the plants 
are occasionally frozen, and Mr. Maspero picked up an icicle on the route between 
Edfu and Esneh. The extremes of heat and cold, althoiigh less considerable than 
in Nubia, arc nevertheless very great in Upper Egypt. They increase gradually, 
proceeding from the north southwards, ranging in this direction between the 
isothermal lines of 20° and 25°. 

Climatic Cii,\xges during the Historic Period. 

Egypt is one of those regions whose climate must have undergone the greatest 
changes within the historic period. To judge from the bas-reliefs decorating the 
walls of the Saqqarah necropolis, probablj' the oldest in the world, the habits of 
the people at that time were not those of a nation everywhere hemmed in by the 
wilderness. They had no knowledge of the camel, a domestic animal without 



CLIMATIC CHANGES DURING THE HISTOEIC PEEIOD. 



335 



which the Arab of our days could not venture to penetrate into the burning wastes. 
Before the arrival of the Hyksos they were even unacquainted with the horse or 
the sheep, and possessed the laborious ox alone. 

The Egyptians of that remote epoch had not yet become the herd of serfs, such 



Fig. 99. — Isothermal Ldtes axd Eaixfall of Egypt. 
Scale 1 : 11,900.COO. 



I 
I 



27°20- 



32°E0- 




L . oT breer^vvich 



C Perron 



"Cnder 4 Inches. 



Over i Inches. 
130 Miles. 



as they are depicted on the bas-reliefs and waU-paintings of subsequent times. 
They were stiU a light-hearted peasantry, lovers of feasts and the dance, ignorant 
of the hateful arts of war. All this would seem to justify the hypothesis that they 



33G NOETH-EAST APEICA. 

lived in a climate different from that of our days. Oscar Fraas goes even so far 
as to assert positively that "the desert was not yet."* Such an assertion is 
doubtless exaggerated ; but it is at the same time certain that water was formerly 
far more abundant in the now arid valleys of the Libyan and eastern uplands. In 
many places the traces may still be observed of ancient cascades, which flowed 
perennially in these now all but waterless regions. At that epoch the woodlands 
still yielded sufficient timber to work the mines, which now lie idle for lack of 
fuel. To bake their bread, the fellahin use nothing but cakes of dung mixed 
with mud and dried in the .sun. 

But while the supjDosition of a considerable change in the Egyptian climate 
since the dawn of histor}' may be accepted as highly probable, the statements of 
several travellers and meteorologists regarding certain climatic modifications, 
supposed to have occurred since the beginning of the last century, cannot be 
admitted as yet demonstrated. It is often asserted that the plantations of mul- 
berries and other trees made by Mohammed Ali have directly tended to bring 
about an increase of moisture, and the great progress in agriculture made during 
the present generation is supposed to have had a like result. But these statements 
rest eutirel}^ on personal impressions, which have not yet been confirmed by 
systematic observations. 

It may also be questioned whether the local climate of the Isthmus of Suez has 
really undergone anj' slight modification at all since the construction of the fresh- 
water and marine canals. These works, however gigantic in the eyes of man, still 
remain too insignificant, compared with the extent of the surrounding seas, to have 
produced any appreciable change, except perhaps in the immediate vicinity of the 
canal. They can scarcely have had any general influence in moderating the 
extremes of heat and cold, rendering the atmosphere more humid, or increasing 
the abundance and duration of the rainfall. 

Flora of Egypt. 

Few regions of the globe beyond the polar zones possess a flora so poor in 
vegetable species as that of Egypt. The uniformity of its plains, the lack of 
variety in the chemical composition of its soil, the absence of well-watered hills 
and uplands, the monotonous character of the agriculture, everything tends to 
produce this result. Thousands of 3-ears ago the peasantry had already destroved 
the forests, unless the tracts be regarded as such which are still partly covered 
with the sunt (^acacia Nilotica), the formerly sacred tree used by the Israelites to 
build the Ark of the Covenant. So valuable is timber in Egypt that the boatmen 
use cow-dung kneaded with clay and chopped straw instead of planks to deck their 
barges. 

Taken as a whole, the Egyptian flora presents a mixture of European, Asiatic, 
and African species. But the last mentioned are the most prevalent, at least 
beyond the region of the delta. The characteristic aspect of the Egyptian land- 

* " Au3 d«m Oriont." 



FLORA OF THE OASES. 337 

scapes is due especially to the prevailing African vegetation, here represented by 
the tarfa (tomflr/s Nilotica), the date, and sycamore. The dum-palm, which, 
however, nowhere grows spontaneously in Eg}-pt, is met in the gardens only above 
Esneh. Formerly the Fayum bore the name of " Sycamore Land ;" and one of the 
ancient appellations of Egypt itself was " Laud of the Bek Tree," probably a 
species of palm. 

AU the villages have still their avenues of palms encircling the walls, or fring- 
ing the banks of the canals, and everywhere the people gather in the evening 
beneath the shade of the broad-branching sycamore. The sycamore, a very 
different species from the plant known by that name in Europe, was formerly far 
more common in Egypt than at present. Its wood, supposed to be "incorruptible," 
was employed in the manufacture of costly furniture, and especially of the coffins 
jjlaced in the sepulchral chambers. After a lapse of three thousand years, the 
boards recovered from these tombs still retain their firmness and delicacy of texture, 
thanks to the excessive dryness of the atmosphere. The fruit of the sycamore was 
regarded by the ancients as one of the choicest, whence the saying that " the man 
who had once tasted it could not fail to return to Egypt." On this account it was 
customary on setting out for foreign lands to eat of these figs, in order thereby to 
secm-e the traveller's return to the JTUotic plains. Xow, however, the fruit of the 
Egyptian sycamore is regarded as fit food only for the ass. Has its flavour 
deteriorated, or has the taste of the Egyptians themselves undergone a change 
since those times ? 

But if some species would seem to have been modified, others are known to 
have entirely disappeared. The dug-out tree stems in which the dead were laid 
dui-ing the eleventh dj-nasty belong to varieties which are now met only in Sudan. 
The fruit of the dum-palm, which is no longer found north of Upper Egypt, and 
that of the argun, now confined to I^ubia, occur in great abundance in the old 
Egyptian burial-places. And what has become of the papyrus, whose name is 
associated more intimately than any other with Egyptian civilisation itself ? Salt, 
Drovetti, Eeynier, ilinutoli, have discovered it in the neighbourhood of Damietta ; 
but it is no longer found in any other part of Egypt. Thus it has all but disap- 
peared from its original home, while stiU flourishing in Syria and in Sicily, whither 
it was introduced from the Xile Vallev. 

Where also are the masses of pink lotus, with its broad-spreading leaves, 
beneath which the people of Alexandria, in the time of Strabo, floated on the still 
waters, enjopng the cool zephyrs and perfume of the flowers ? The white lotus, 
formerly diffused throughout the whole land, is no longer met beyond the limits 
of the delta. Reeds and the pink epilobium are now the plants most frequently 
occurring on the shores of the lakes and meres in Lower Egypt. 

Flora of the O.vses. 

The flora of the oases, separated from that of the Nile Valley for an tmknown 
cycle of ages, presents some remarkable features. Thus while the Egyptian 
vol,. X. z 



338 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

plants are raainlj' of African origin, those of the oases, whether cultivated or 
growing in the wild state, are mostly of European descent. Hence the inference 
that these depressions were in direct contact with the west Mediterranean lands at 
an epoch antecedent to their relations with Egypt properly so called. 

The greater the extent of the oases, the greater is naturallj- found to be the 
variety of their flora. In that of Farafreh Ascherson collected ninety-one species, 
more than double that number in Dakhel, and as many as two hundred in Khargeh. 
But the widolj^ diffused pJantaga major, found both in Farafreh and Khargeh, is 
imaccountably absent from the intervening oasis of Dakhel. In the Arabian 
desert the characteristic plant on the slopes and uplands is the vatama, a species of 
broom resembling that of the Canarj^ Lslands. The mugwort flourishes in all the 
depressions and along the banks of the wadies ; in other respects the flora of this 
steppe region is allied to that of Palestine. 

Fauna. 

Like its flora, the Egj-j^tian faima is more African than European. If some 
domestic animals have been associated with the ass, which is seen figured on the 
ancient monuments of Egypt, the camel, the sheep and the horse, the latter a 
"Turanian " variety introduced by the H3'ksos, have reached the Nile Yalley from 
Asia. Most of the wild beasts have disappeared from the region of the Lower 
Nile, where they have retreated before the advance of human culture. The 
monkeys, which are represented on the old bas-reliefs as associating familiarlj' with 
man himself, are no longer found in Egypt. The lion and the leopard have also 
moved southwards, while the hippopotamus and even the crocodile have retired to 
the Nubian reaches of the Nile. None are now found farther north than Ombos. 

Hyaenas are stiU common on the skirts of the desert ; but of other wild animals 
scarcely any have survived except the smaller species, such as the caracal, the 
jackal, fox, "cat of the steppe," siij)posed to be the ancestor of our domestic cat, the 
ferret, and the ichneumon, or " Pharaoh's rat." The fox-dog figured on the bas- 
reliefs of the temples, and on the paintings of the sepulchral chambers, lives freely 
in Egypt, venturing even as far as the skirts of the desert. The sjiecies of 
greyhounds sculptured on the old monuments have also survived to the present 
time. On the other hand the wild boar, although not represented on the ancient 
bas-reliefs, now infests the reed thickets in the Lower Nile region. 

In the solitudes bordering on the arable land, antelopes descended from varieties 
which the Egyptians had formerly tamed, are still numerous. They are here 
represented by several species, nearly all of which have adapted themselves to their 
surroundings, assuming almost the identical colour of the ground now inhabited 
by them. The mice and all other rodents, as well as the reptiles and insects, have 
also a grey or j'ellowish tint, causing them to be easily confused with the sands 
and rocks of the wilderness. 

The Egyptian avifauna is very interesting, owing to its European species, such 
as the stork and quail. These birds of passage cross the Mediterranean twice every 



FAUNA. 339 

year, flying in spring north to Europe to enjoy the freshness of the temperate 
climates, returning in autumn to reoccupy their nests, which stretch along the 
banks of the Nile as far south as the foot of the Abyssinian highlands. Of 
stationary birds in Egypt there are numerous species, several of which are 
distinguished for their rare beaut}-. The white eagle soars into the higher aerial 
regions ; while the nectarine with its metaUic sheen, lovely as the himiming-bird of 
the New "World, flits and darts amid the garden flowers. 

The charadrius JEyijpfiaeiis, supposed by the ancients to be the faithful companion 
of the crocodile, still enlivens the banks of the Egyptian Nile, from which the 
great saurian has long retreated to the Nubian waters. With him also the ibis 
has departed for the southern solitudes ; but pigeons still flutter in dense clouds 
above the cultivated plains. In fact this bird forms everywhere a characteristic 
feature of the landscape in the inhabited parts of the country. " Every village has 
its pigeon-houses, looking like great mud cones, and in the evening the owners go 
out and call them in. An amusing instance of the usual Egyptian dishonesty was 
told me the other day. When a man wants to get hold of extra pigeons, he goes 
out of an evening ; but instead of calling them he frightens the pigeons away. 
They do not understand this ; keep circling above, and swoop down now and then 
towards their houses. Other pigeons, seeing this commotion, join them, and as soon 
as the man sees there are enough, he hides. The whole of the birds, old and new, 
then go into the house, and the man returning, shuts them in. This would be a 
fine business if it were not that all of them do the same thing, and therefore each 
gets caught in his turn. They know this perfectly well, but no Egyptian fellah 
coidd resist the temptation of cheating his neighbour."* 

The waters of the lakes and lagoons, throughout the delta region, are also 
frequented by myriads of aquatic fowl. Amongst the commonest species here met 
are the flamingo, pelican, heron, crane, and duck. Some of these birds are captured 
by the hand. Concealing his head in an empty goui'd, which seems to float casually 
on the surface, the fellah swims stealthily towards the bird keeping guard, and 
seizing it suddenly by the feet from below, draws it under before it has time to 
give the alarm. Then the flock being more easily surprised, may be taken in large 
numbers. 

Like the aquatic birds on the sedgy banks, fish teem in multitudes in the waters 
of ilenzaleh and the other lakes of the lower delta. The annual opening of the 
fishing season is celebrated by a feast, which coincides with the arrival of the 
mullets from the ilediterranean in the Gemileh lagoon. All the channels leading 
into the interior of the basin are closed by a long line of nets ; then at a given 
moment the fishermen get their boats ready, armed with hooks and hai-poons, while 
on the neighbouring beach the feast is prepared bv the women. Presently the sea 
begins to glitter ; the shoal of fish, pursued by the porpoises and other voracious 
animals, crowd about the entrance, causing the water to sparkle with a thousand 
prismatic tints. A suppressed miirmur, as of many voices, caused by the rush of 
the living masses and splash of the troubled waters, gradually increases, and 

• E. Sartorius, " Tliree Jlontlis in the Sudan," p. 32. 

z 2 



310 NORTH-EAST APEICA. 

becomes mingled with the shouts of the men, aiul the shrieks of women and 
children. Now the terrified shoals get pent up in the narrow passage and entangled 
in the nets. Here they are easily captured in myriads, and in a few hours all the 
fishing-smacks are filled to the gunwales. But after this first take the fish are 
allowed for the rest of the season to enter freely into the lagoon, where they are 
hunted in the open waters. 

In the Nile itself the most common species is the so-called shabaJ, a fish anned 
on the back with three sharp and barbed spines, which inflict painful wounds on 
those who touch it. The shabal is amongst the very few siDecies that utter a faint 
cry when taken from the water. The sound resembles somewhat the chirp of the 
cicada, although not quite so loud. 

A large number of the Nile and Ecd Sea species have been represented on the 
ancient monuments with such truth to nature that Russegger has succeeded in 
identifj'ing all of them.* The opening of the Suez Canal has been followed by a 
partial intermingling of the Mediterranean and Red Sea fauna, which had hitherto 
remained quite distinct. Fishes, molluscs, and other marine forms have passed from 
one basin to the other, while shoals of various species have met midwaj- in the 
Bitter Lakes. The free navigation from sea to sea is obstructed by several causes, 
such as the exclusively sandy nature of the canal bed and embankments, the 
currents setting in and out, the excessive salinity of the water, the incessant 
passage especially of steamers. The carnivorous sjDecies do not penetrate to any 
great distance into the canal, owing to the absence or rarity of the fish they prey 
upon. Nor has the Mediterranean yet been reached by the vai'ious coi-als which 
are so richly represented in the Red Sea. 

One of the Egyptian insects, the aicnchus sacrr, o: sacred beetle, has acquired 
in the history of myths the symbolic sense of creation and renewed life. An image 
of the sun and of all the heavenly orbs in virtue of her globidar form, she also 
creates a little world or microcosm of her own with the clay in which she deposits 
her eggs, and which she rolls with untiring efforts from the river-bank to the edge 
of the desert, where she buries it in the sands. She dies immediately her work is 
accomplished ; but as soon as hatched, the young scaraba;i resume their creative 
functions. This particular variety appears to have migrated soutliwards, like so 
many other animal and vegetable species in Egypt. AVhile still very common iii 
Nubia, it is now seldom met below Assuan, although a certain number were lately 
seen by M. Maspero at Saqqarah. The cause of its almost total disappearance from 
Upper Egypt is perhaps to be attributed to the greater breadth of the cultivated 
zone which in manj' places now intervenes between the banks of the Nile and the 
skirt of the desert. In Nubia the distance the beetles have to traverse with their 
precious burdens is usually much less. Tlic Coptic mothers often suspend round 
their sick child's neck a living scarabicus wrapped in a rag or enclosed in a nut- 
shell. 

* "Eeisen in Europa, Asien, iiml Afiika." 



I 



I>rHABITANTS OF EGYPT— THE COPTS. 341 

IxnABITAXTS OF EgYPT. 

The present Egyptian descendants of the ancient Retii still greatly resemble their 
forefathers, although during the last fom- thousand years many foreign elements 
have tended to modify the original type, at least in the delta and Middle Egj^jit. 
The Copts especially may be regarded as of comparatively pure stock, and are in 
fact still often known as the " People of Farun," that is, of " Pharaoh." Under 
the dynasty of the Ptolemies, and later during the Roman period, they must have 
doubtless become diversely intermingled with the neighbouring races on the 
Mediterranean seaboard. But since their conquest, over twelve centuries ago, by 
the Mohammedans, religious hatred has erected a barrier between these Christians 
and the invaders, so that amongst them the national type has been better preserved 
than amongst the other Egj'ptian communities. 

The Copts. 

The Copts are much more numerous than has till recently been supposed. 
According to the patriarch of Alexandria questioned on this subject by Vansleb in 
1671, they appear at that time to have numbered not more than 10,000, or at the 
most 15,000 souls. But they were a few j-ears ago estimated at 150,000, while 
the census of 1882 retui'ucd them at no less than 400,000, or about one-fifteenth of 
the entire population. More than any other section of the community, these Copts 
have the right to the title of Egyptians. The very name of Copt, or Kubt, ajjpears 
to be a mere corruption of the ancient name of Memphis, Ha-ka-Ptah, or " Abode 
of Ptah," corrupted by the Greeks to Ai'guptos, a term applied indifferently to the 
river and the country. However, this appellation of Copt has also been referred to 
the name of Guft, or Coptos, a town where they are stiU very numerous. The des- 
truction of this Christian city by Diocletian is the starting-point of the Coptic era. 

The Copts are concentrated chiefly in Upper Egypt, in the districts of Assiut, 
and in the Fayum, where they possess whole villages all to themselves. In certain 
places they have taken for their habitations the so-called der or de'ii; partly fortified 
monasteries, whose former inmates were devoted to celibacy. In these remote 
regions, far removed from the capital and situated at some distance from the main 
routes of trade and conquest, they have succeeded in preserving their customs and 
the monophj'site form of Christianity which, like the Abyssinians, they had 
received from the earlj' Byzantine Church. In the Nile Valley, north of Assiut, 
they are found only ia the towTis as artisans, money-changers, and employes. 
Since the spread of religious tolerance they have taken advantage of the right to 
establish themselves in all parts of Egypt. But none of them have ever occupied 
high political functions, like the Turks, Armenians, and even the Jews. Before 
they had acquired equal civil rights with the iliissulmans, constant inroads were 
made on their numbers by Islam, especially through mixed marriages. Most of 
the Copts being cii'cumcised, in accordance with the old Egj'ptian custom long 
antecedent to the time of Mohammed, their entrance into the mosque suffices to 



342 XOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

make them be regarded as Mussulman converts. Formerly the men were dis- 
tino-uished by the colour of their turban, the women by that of their veil, from the 
Mohammedan feUahin ; and even then the Copts would often affect the white turban 
and o-eneral costume of their neighbours, in order to command greater personal 
consideration. 

At present there are one hundred and twenty Coptic churches in the various 
provinces ; but in many districts where the Copts are no longer found, the ruins of 
religious edifices attest the survival of Christianity down to comparatively recent 
times. The Christian communities are now once more normally increasing by the 
natural excess of births over deaths ; for the Copts, who usually marry later than the 
other Egyptians, pay more regard to the family ties, aud bestow greater care on 
their children. 

But if the religion of Mohammed has failed to triumph over that of the cross, 
the language of the Arab Mussulmans now everywhere prevails in Egypt. The 
old Coptic tongue, which has afforded the key to the interpretation of the hierogly- 
phics, thus restoring the speech of the Pharaohs, fi'om which it differs little, is no 
lono-er anywhere current. Most of the Copts learn the ancient language only for 
the purpose of reciting the prayers of a liturgy the sense of which they do not 
always understand. Some of their religious books are even now written in Arabic. 
The Coptic wi-iting system is merely a modified form of the Greek alphabet, to 
which have been added a few letters borrowed from the cursive or demotic forms of 
the national hierogh-phic writing. The oldest document in the Coptic language 
dates from the middle of the third century of the vulgar era ; in the tenth ceatury 
it was still currently spoken by all Egj-ptians except their rulers. But since the 
seventeenth century Arabic has become the general language throughout Egypt, 
although a great number of old Egyptian terms still survive in the local dialects. 
Ancient rites, undoubtedly long anterior to the introduction of the foreign religions, 
have also been maintaiued among the Copts. Thus their tombs are still built in the 
form of houses, and each family continues to assemble once a j-ear in the mausoleum 
for a funeral banquet. One of the names frequently given at baptism is Menas, which 
recalls that of Mena or Menes, true or pretended founder of the first Eg}-ptian 
dynasty. 

Those of the Copts who have received some education usually display a remark- 
able talent for keeping accounts and managing money matters. They are the 
worthy descendants of those ancient Rctu whose day-books, and ledgers, and 
treatises on arithmetic, with sums in fractions, rides of partnership in business, 
equations of the first degree, have recently been brought to light.* Under the 
government of the Mamelulcs the administration of the finances was entirely in the 
hands of the Copts, who by means of a specially devised system of book-keeping had 
rendered the public accounts so incomprehensible to all others, that they had 
secured an absolute monopoly of this department. But the introduction of European 
financial methods, and especially the continually increasing immigration of the 
Syrian Catholics, no less skilful intriguers and even more instructed, with a wider 

• The "Khind I'lipyrus" iu the British Museum. 



THE COPTS. 



343 



knowledge of Arabic literature, gradually deprived the uative Christians of the 
chief administrative functions. The inferior positions of scribes and notaries are, 

Fig. 100. — Egyptian- Type : B.is-EELiEF orsamkxtixg the Tomb of Sheikh Abd-el-Gcrxah, 

AT Thebes. 




however, still left iu the hands of the Copts, and the Egyptian bureaucracy com- 
prises altogether more Christians than ilohammedans. 

The Coptic clerk, we are told bj- Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, is even " practically 
the judge of first instance, for it depends upon his favour whether the peasant's 



344 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

suit ever reaches the governor's or judge's ears at all, and this favour is only to be 
obtained by hard cash, so that unless the peasant has enough money about him to 
bribe the Coptic intermediary he never wins audience of the judge himself at all. 
The only plan is to ' square ' the scribe, and thus you obtain, not necessarily 
justice, but your suit. These Coptic scribes are found in every town, and at some 
places, such as Girgey, a large proportion of the population is Coptic. The black 
turban and kaftan would always distinguish them, but a glance at their face is 
o-cneralh' enough. It is difficult to say exactly in what they differ in appearance 
from Mohammedans, but one is seldom wrong in identif j-ing them. They constitute 
the lower official class, and are decidedly more corrupt and voracious than the 
Turkish governors themselves. There is an exceedingly good understanding 
established between the two orders of thieves, so far resembling that which exists 
between a local justice of the peace and the clerk of the justices, that it is really 
the clerk who knows and administers the law, while the great man takes the credit 
of It. Probably any other official class would prove as venal as the Coptic scribes 
- — indeed the experiment has been tried with native Muslims without improving 
matters — but there can be no doubt that so long as our friend Girges or Hanna 
holds the clerkly inkstand and portfolio there will be no justice in the land." * 

The Fellahix. 

The fellahin, or peasantry, belong, like the Coj^ts, to the indigenous race, more 
or less modified by crossings. Those living away from the great cities of Cairo and 
Alexandria call them.selves Aulad-Masr, that is to say, " Children of Masr," or 
" Egyptians." Like their ancestors, both Copts and fellahin are in general of 
mean height, 5 feet 5 inches to 5 feet 7 inches, with pliant body, straight and 
strong limbs. The head is of a fine oval shape, the forehead broad, the nose regular 
and rounded at the tip, the nostrils dilated, the lips fidl but finely designed, the 
eyes large, black, and soft, with the lids slightly raised outwardly. Most of the 
children are of sickly constitution and sullen temperament, with dull eyes, wan 
comjjlexion, and full paunch. But such as escape the ravages of endemics grow 
up handsome and robust figures. Tlie stranger wonders how such fine young men 
and women could have developed in the wretched hovels of these villages. Men are 
frequently met of reallj' grand forms, recalling the characteristics of the sphinx, 
and most of the young women are endowed with an agreeable figure, a graceful and 
haughty carriage. There is no more pleasant sight than that of a J'omig mother 
carrying her naked babe astride across one shoulder, as is their habit. 

In the rural districts the women do not veil themselves so closely as in the 
towns. Nearly all paint the lips a deep blue, and tattoo a floral device on the chin. 
Some even decorate the brow and other parts of the body in the same way. All but 
the abjectly poor also wear diadems and necklaces of true or false pearls, coins, or 
gilt discs, the whole family fortune being thus at times lavished on them. The 
fellah has, so to say, no other want except this superfluous wealth, which he 

* " Social Life iu Egypt," pp. 62-3. 



THE FELLAHIN. 



345 



Ijestows on his partner in life. His dwelling is a mere mud liiit, a Leap of clods 
duo- out of the neighbouring ditch. His only dress is a pair of drawers, a blue 
cotton shirt, and the tarbush or felt cap. A few cakes of durrah, to which the 
wealthy classes add beans, lentils, onions, and dates, suffice to nom-ish him. Peace 



Fig. 101. — Village Huts. 




%i' . tim^l \ 






U. r 




— f'-v' i. 



he loves above all things, and in no other country where the conscription has been 
introduced are cases of voluntary mutilation of such frequent occurrence, the 
peasantry making themselves cripples, maimed of one hand, or blind of an eye, in 
order to escape military service. 

The Egyptian is generally of a simple, kindly disposition, cheerful, obliging, 



346 NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 

and as hospitable as his misery will permit him. Even if he has recourse to fraud 
or falsehood, the usual weapons of the weak against their oppressors, he seldom 
succeeds. His little tricks and subterfuges are easily seen through, and frequently 
serve only to redouble the brutal treatment of his masters. The Copt is as a rule 
more adroit in this respect than the Mussulman fellahiu ; for he has not only had 
to endure all kinds of hardships, like his Mohammedan neighbours, but has had 
over and above to cringe and play the hypocrite in order to escape from religious 
persecution. To avoid wholesale plunder he has had to conceal the few effects 
laboriously scraped together, carefully economising the fruits of a life condemned 
to ceaseless toil, stratagem, and beggary. 

The Arabs of Egypt. 

The Semitic element has been largely represented amongst the Egj^ptian popu- 
lations, even from times long anterior to the Arab conquest. Thus, according to 
Mariette, the indigenous communities settled on the southern shore of Lake 
Menzaleh are possibly the direct descendants, with but little intermixture, of the 
Hyksos, those "people of low race," who overran Egypt over forty centuries ago. 
Their type is said exactly to resemble that of the royal statues and sphinxes' heads 
discovered at San, the ancient Tanis, amid the alluvia of the lake. These supposed 
Asiatics inhabit the townships of Menzaleh, Matarieh, Salkieh, and the neighbour- 
ing villages. They are described as of tall stature and strong muscular development, 
with very broad features in comparison with the round cranium, large nose, prominent 
cheek-bones, very oj)en facial angle, high forehead, intelligent glance and smile. 
According to Bayard Taj'lor, the descendants of the Hyksos would appear to be also 
very numerous in the Fayum depression. 

But to the Arab and Syrian Mussulmans who arrived under the leadership of 
Amru, the population of Egypt is indebted for the largest proportion of its Semitic 
blood. Doubtless these Arabs have nowhere preserved themselves in a perfectly 
pure state amid the Egj^ptian communities ; but they and their successors were 
numerous enough profoundly to modify the aboriginal element, especially in the 
towns, where all the Muslims who are neither Turks nor Circassians are uniformly 
spoken of under tlie general appellation of Arabs. 

On the Red Sea coast the Abs, the Awasim, the Irenat, and other more recent 
immigrant tribes from Arabia, live on fishing and the coasting trade. In the rural 
districts on the verge of the desert, many Bedouin tribes collectively knovcn as Ahl- 
el-Wabar, or "People of the Tents," have ^jroudl}- preserved their lineage intact, 
tracing their genealogies back to the early conquerors. The Arab will no doubt at 
times take a wife from the familj' of a fellah, but will never condescend to give 
him a daughter in return. Leading a half-nomad life between the reclaimed lands 
and the wilderness, he despises the wretched peasant condemned to ceaseless labour 
in the furrow. Should he himself abandon his wandering habits, he would be at 
once looked upon by the nomad Bedouins as a mere fellah, like all the rest. But 
he usually dwells in the settled village communities only during a portion of the 




CAIEO ARABS. 



THE AEABS OF EGYPT. 



347 



year, returuiug to the desert after harvest-tide. Thus their manner of life rather 
than their racial descent distinguishes the various sections of the population. 

Nevertheless after settling down as sedentary colonists, the children of the desert 
continue to enjoy great privileges, and for generations are exempt from the corvee 
and conscription. At the same time the Bedouins of Egypt are by no means politi- 
cally independent. Separated into two distinct groups by the Nile valley, those of 
the Arabian desert, no less than their kindred of the Libyan oases, occupy districts 
easily commanded on all sides. Hence the}' are completely dependent on their 
neighbours for their supplies of all kinds. They are moreover divided into some 



Fie. 102. — A Bedot'ix. 



I 




fifty different tribes, several of which live in a constant state of hostility amongst 
themselves. No instance has yet been recorded of all the Bedouins of the desert 
making common cause in defence of their common freedom. 

One of the most powerful tribes of the Arabian desert is that of the Maazeh, or 
" Goatherds," who, according to Maspero, are the ancient Maziu Libyans assimilated 
to the Arabs within a recent period. They are the hereditary foes of the Ababdeh, 
who are of Beja stock, and who dwell to the south of Kosseir, in the valleys of the 
Cataract range, and in Lower Nubia. The Ababdeh live mainly on milk and durrah, 
the latter eaten either raw or roasted, or made into imleavened cakes. Their chief 



348 



NORTH-EAST APEICA. 



employment is stock-breeding and camel-dri\-ing. They keep camels, goats, and 
sheep, but never horses. Pasture is available only during the winter rains, so that 
in the dry season the herdsman has often to make long journeys to the hiUs in 



Fig. 103.— Arab Tribes in Eoypt. 
Scale 1 : 6,000,000. 




25' 



Afssze/i 



/^^e^/ '■ CAIRO 
I 




54^ L I oT breenwich 



'C. P«r'"9.a 



1-26 MUes. 



search of fodder. He is occasionally even compelled to diminish his flocks or liire 
himself out for a time to till the land iu the Nile Valley, always returning to the 
steppe when it is again clothed with verdure. Although all are excellent dromedary 
riders, the ])eoplc dwelling along the Nile are now more frequently emjjloyed than 



THE ABABDEHS AND TUEKS OF EGYPT. 



349 



the Abcibdeh as camel-drivers in large caravans. But some still live close to the 
trade routes, and besides keeping stock, earn something from the services of various 
kinds which they render to passing caravans. They are also stationed here as road- 
watchers, receiving a little payment from their chiefs for this service. 

The Ababdehs axd Turks of Egypt. 

The Ababdeh, who number about 30,000 altogether, are governed by an herc- 
ditarj' " chief," who nominallj' controls and deposes subordinate sheikhs for the 
diiferent districts. Although nominallj^ a vassal of the Khedive he pays no tribute, 
but on the contrary receives a sort of subsidy from a portion of the road dues 

Fisr. 104. — A Villace Sheikh. 




levied on the caravans which pass through his territory. The chief and his repre- 
sentatives, jointly with the tribal elders, settle all internal disputes, so that the 
Egyptian Government has nothing to do with the clansmen, neither imposing taxes 
nor forcing them into the army. The chief is, however, personally responsible for 
the safe conduct of travellers along the caravan routes traversing his coimtry. He 
furnishes camels and guides, and living himself in the Nile Yalley, is held a 
hostage for the security of the desert roads. Mohammed Ali introduced this 
system of hostages among the Bedouins, and the residt of this wise measure has 



850 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

been profound "peace and absolute security in these inhospitable tracts. Before 
this time, these and all other Bedouins were much dreaded marauders. They made 
inroads from time to time into the cultivated territories, and the merchants and 
pilgrims, as late even as the time of Burckhardt's visit, never ventured to cross the 
wilderness except when armed and banded together in large caravans. AU this 
has now been so much changed for the better that articles even lost on the road 
may now be recovered by giving due notice to the Ababdeh sheikhs. " * 

In the Libyan desert west of the Nile delta, the dominating tribe is that of the 
Aulad-Ali. The Hawarahs of Tpper EgAi^t, who furnish to the Egj^Dtian army 
nearly all its irregular cavalry, are of Tuareg (Berber) origin. According to the 
census of 1882, the number of all the nomad and semi-nomad Bedouins, hitherto 
estimated at from 70,000 to 100,000 at the utmost, was found to be about 246,000, with 
a considerable preponderance of the male sex. The men were said to outnumber the 
women by 11 per cent., a proportion nowhere else presented by any country where 
regular returns have been made, except in certain districts of the Japanese Archi- 
pelago.t But it may be presumed that in several instances inaccurate statements 
were made by the Arabs to the Government officials. 

The Turks, although the official masters of the country' since its conquest by 
Sultan Selim in 1517, are still looked upon as strangers. They have always held 
aloof from the mass of the people cither in their military or bureaucratic capacity. 
They are far from numerous, numbering according to the various estimates from 
about 12,000 to 20,000. But the statement currentlj^ made that the offspring of 
these strangers are condemned by the climate to a premature end appears to be 
groimdless. No doubt infantile mortality is excessive in families imperfectly 
acclimatised; but the issue of mixed marriages almost invariably follows the 
nationality of the mothers. It becomes Egyptian in the physical type as well as in 
speech, and the name of the foreigner merges in the local element. Accurate 
statistics have shown that the former Mameluks had very small families. But that 
all the Mameluks, whether Georgians, Circassians, or Albanians, did not become 
extinct is evident from the case of Mohammed Ali, the very man who pitilessly 
massacred these mercenaries. Although himself an Albanian from a Macedonian 
island he left a numerous progeny, founding in his own family the dynasty which 
is still supposed to rule in Egypt. 

The Levaktines, Ecropeaxs, and Nubians. 

Even the Levantines, that is to say, the Syrian, Greek, Italian, or Spanish 
Christians long settled in the coimtry, have certainly established themselves for 
several generations on the banks of the Nile, as have also their rivals in trade, the 
Yahud, or Jews. Although for many centuries marrying only within their own 
circles, they have in no respect lost their vital energies. The Europeans also settled 

• Khmziger, " Upper Eg_vpt," p. 25.5. 

t Proportion of the sexes amongst the indigenous inhabitants of Egypt in 1882 : men, 3,216,247 ; 
women, 3,252,869. 



THE "PLAGUES OF EGYPT." 851 

at Cairo and in the other large towns bring ujd their children successfully, provided 
they are careful to observe the ordinary laws of health. Infant mortality is even 
less amongst them than amongst the natives, whose poverty for the most part pre- 
vents them from bestowing the necessary care on their offspring.* Nevertheless 
the foreign colony, in which the men are far more numerous than the women, 
increases not by an excess of births over deaths, but only by immigration. 

At present the European element is represented in Eg;s'pt, or at least in 
Alexandria and Cairo, by much more numerous communities than those of the 
Turks.! In 1882 it exceeded 90,000, and will probably acquire still further 
expansion now that the coimtry has been placed under the protectorate of a Western 
power. Thanks to their greater intelligence, strength, and resources, the Euro- 
peans rather than the Turks are the true masters of the land. 

To this immigration of conquerors from the north corresponds that of the 
Nubian Barabra or Barbarins from the south. These Barabra, engaged almost 
exclusively in menial occupations, are the "Auvergnatsof Cairo." + The figures of 
Nubians carved on the ancient Egj-ptian monmnents show that this immigration 
has been going on for ages. There remain to be mentioned the Ghagars, those 
Hindu tribes to whom the Spaniards and English have given the name of Gitanos 
and Gypsies, that is, "Egyptians," and who are still found in the Nile Yalley. 
Amongst these wandering communities the men are chiefly horse-dealers, tinkers, 
mountebanks, and fortune-tellers. They also supply the tattooers and serpent- 
charmers, as well as the dancing dervishes, who are usually but wrongly supposed 
to be zealous disciples of the Prophet. Notwithstanding their Asiatic tj-pe and 
wild penetrating glance, by which the Gj"psies are everywhere distinguished, they 
aU claim to be pm'e Arabs, pretending to have migrated at first towards West 
Africa, whence they returned to Egj-pt many centuries ago. The most " noble " 
tribe of the Ghagars even takes the name of Barmecides, though more commonly 
known by the appellation of Ghawazi, whence may possibly be derived the terms 
Gabachos and Gavaches, applied in Spain and in the south of France to the Gitanos 
and even to all despised immigrants. Amongst the Ghawazi are chiefly recruited 
the dancing-girls, who are not to be confused with the more respectable class of the 
Almeh, or singing-women. 

The " Plagues of Egypt." 

The numerous population of Egypt, which has increased threefold since the 
beginning of the centurj-, and which is progressing at the mean yearly rate of 
about 50,000, is a sufficient proof of the salubrity of the climate. § In Upper 
Egj-pt especially, where the atmosphere is not charged with moist exhalations, 
the cHmate is very healthy notwithstanding its high temperature. It is even 

* Mortality of children under ten years in[1878 : Europeans, 39-9" per cent. ; natives, 5o-o5 per cent, 
t Europeans in Egypt, according to the census of 1882 ; men, 49,054 ; women, 41,832. 
t Edmund Ahout, " Ahmed le Fellah." 

{ Population of Egypt in 1800, under the French occupation : 603,700 houses, or 2,514,400 eouls, 
reckoning 8 per house. Average mortality, 26 to 27 per 1,000. 



352 NORTH-EAST .VFEICA. 

better still in the desert, as was shown by the medical statistics taken while the 
heavy works were in progress for the construction of the Suez Canal. Egypt is 
even visited in winter by a number of European invalids, especially those suffering 
from affections of the chest. But the largo cities of Cairo and Alexandria, where 
the streets are constantly swept by whirlwinds of dust, do not appear to be the 
best places of residence for persons subject to these complaints. Here in fact 
consumption commits great ravages amongst immigrants from the Upper Nile, and 
everj^ j^ear carries off numerous victims, even amongst the natives. In Cairo a 
seventh part of the mortality is duo to pulmouarj- affections, and in the military 
hosjiitals as many as one-third of the deaths has sometimes been caused by tuber- 
culosis. But the maladies Europeans have most to di'ead are dysentery and, in 
certain parts of the delta, marsh fevers. Hepatitis, a " specific poisoning of the 
liver," almost miknown amongst the Mohammedans, who abstain from alcoholic 
drinks, is very common among Europeans, owing to their less careful habits. 

The chief disorders of the natives are such as may be attributed to their abject 
poverty. The plague, formerl}' so terrible, and which in 1834 and 1835 carried 
off 4-j,000 persons in Alexandi-ia, and 75,000 in Cairo, has ceased its ravages in the 
Nile Valley. Even cholera, which in 1883 converted Damietta into a vast 
hospital, now confines its periodical visitations to a very restricted area. But on 
the other hand anemia, caused by insufficient nourishment, is everywhci'c endemic 
and fatal, especially to children. In no other country are blind and one-eyed 
persons so numerous as in Egypt. On landing at the quays of Alexandria the 
stranger is at once struck by the effects of contagious ophthalmia amongst the 
crowds clamouring around him, and this first impression is confirmed by his sub- 
sequent observations and supported by statistical returns.* Poverty of blood, the 
reflection of the light on the white walls and on the surface of the river, the 
sudden clianges of temperature, and especially the saline and nitrous dust formed 
by the decomposition of the Nilotic mud and raised in whirlwinds b}- the breeze, 
are the chief causes to which must be attributed these dangerous ophthalmic 
affections. Nevertheless the Bedouins of the desert are nearly all endowed with 
excellent sight. The flies, the " plague of Egypt," certainly contribute much to 
foster and aggravate these disorders. " When one sees the normal fly-ridden 
countenances of the Egyj^tian children, it is impossible to be surprised at the 
enormous proportion of blind or one-eyed adults. Ophthalmia arises in various 
ways ; but it is undoubtedly j^ropagated by flies, and to the carelessness and pre- 
judice of mothers and the uncleanness of infants must be ascribed a good deal of 
its prevalence. The women think it is unlucky to wash a baby's face, and prefer 
to let him go blind all his life to removing the pestilential flies that cover his eyes 
like a patch of court-plaster."t They lose even the strength to drive away the 
swarms of their tormentors, and patiently wait for sleep to relieve them from their 
sufferings. 

Leprosy, although less common than in S3Tia, has unfortunatelj' not dis- 

• Proportion of persons suffering from ojilitliuluiic disorders in Egypt, according to Auiici ; 1 7 per cent, 
t " Social Life in Egypt," page 59. 



EELIGION— THE MOHAMMEDANS. 358 

appeared from Egypt. The species of gastric fever known in the East by the 
name of dciig is also very prevalent, while the elephantiasis of the Arabs frequently 
attacks the natives, especially in the delta. Another skin disease, the so-called 
" button " of the Nile, analogous to the " date " of Bagdad and the " button " of 
AIcjDpo and Biskra, is endemic in the country. Most of the inhabitants as well as 
strangers suffer from this sore once during life or during their residence in Egj^pt, 
although for the most part imder a somewhat mild form of the malady. 

Religion. — The Mohammedans. 

Upwards of nine-tenths of the Egyptians are Mohammedans. But in a land 
where religions have succeeded each other like the alluvial deposits of the Nile, 
the people have not had time thoroughly to conform themselves to the oificial cult. 
Hence more than one observer has discovered in the legends and ceremonies of 
the fellahin traces of the religion which formerly attracted multitudes of wor- 
shippers to the vestibules of the great temples at Thebes and Memphis. Thus the 
nocturnal feast attended by the peasantry in the expectation of a visit from the 
golden cow in the ruined sanctuary of Denderah, recalls the solemn processions 
made in honour of the divine heifer Hathor.* In truth the Egyptians are 
Mussulmans only on the surface, and compared with the indifferent masses, very 
few are those who scrupulously observe the prescriptions of the Prophet. The 
mosques are little frequented ; the fellah does not always perform his ablutions in 
the canal flowing by his dwelling, nor does the Bedouin stop in the wilderness to 
carry out the prescribed formality with sand in the absence of water. 

During the last fifty years the spirit of religious tolerance has made rapid 
strides in Egypt. However intense the zeal of the most ardent hajis, none of 
them came forward to oiDpose the English until the " holy war " was proclaimed, 
and even then none of the few volimteers who entered the ranks were natives of 
Lower Egypt, t However proud of belonging to the chosen people, the Egyptian 
Muslims have forfeited the right any longer to despise ahens to their faith, with 
whom they have not dared to try issues, and who confront them with all the 
marks of intellectual superiority and aU the resources of material strength. 
Nevertheless within the limits of Egyptian territory is found the very centre of 
the hostile movement against the Christians. The formidable Mussulman brother- 
hood of the Mahdi, or " Guide," Sidi Mahommed Ben Ali-es-Senusi, has its metro- 
politan convent at Serhub, or Jarahiib, in the oasis of Faredgha. But the Guide 
himself, allied apparently with the Mahdi who raised the Arab tribes of Kordofan 
and the Upper Nile, is a native of Algeria, and from Mauritania come nearly all 
the faithful that have rallied round him. The choice of this place was due to two 
distinct advantages which it presented — an almost central position for the pro- 
■paganda in the Mussidman world, and its remoteness from all military and trading 
stations in the hands of Europeans. Here he has been able almost secretly to 

* G. Maspero, " Manuscript Notes." 

t Mackenzie Wallace, " Egypt and the Egyptian Question." 
VOL. X. A A 



854 



NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 



develop his projects auriiig the past twenty years free from the danger of inter- 
ference from foreign states. 

In accepting their religion from the Arabs the Egyptians have also, notwith- 
standing their great numerical superiority, adopted the language of their con- 



Fig. 105.— Religioxs op Egtpt. 

Scale I : 6,000,000. 




• To^rns where the CopU and other Chi-istians are numerous. 

D Coptic monasteries. The names of Senued communities are tinderlined. 



120 Miles. 



querors. Arabic is spoken with purity in Egypt, and the University of El-Azhar 
at Cairo is even one of the places where are discussed and regulated the most 
delicate questions of Arabic grammar and literature. The only differences 
between the local idiom and that current in Hejaz are the use of a few Coptic and 
Turkish terms, and a peculiar manner of pronoimcing certain letters of the 



SOCIAL USAGES. 355 

alphabet. But if they are now Arabs in religion and speech, the Egyptians have 
become Turks in their political organisation, administration, and absence of a 
hereditary aristocracy. 

Social Usages. 

In their social institutions they have also to a large extent assimilated them- 
selves to their Arab and Turkish rulers. More readily even than by the Turks 
polygamy has been adopted, especially amongst the governing classes ; while mono- 
gamy is still universal among the peasantry. Divorce is more generally practised 
than in any other Mussulman country, and nearly half of the marriages are said 
to be followed sooner or later by repudiation. In certain Coptic circles it is 
customary to contract temporary alliances even for so short a period as a few 
weeks. Yet the priests bless these unions with the same solemnity as those of a 
permanent character. At the same time such temporary marriages may be 
made binding, should the contracting parties so desire. Cousins are frequently 
betrothed fi-om the cradle, and marry on arriving at the age of puberty. Adul- 
tery is of rare occurrence in the Egj-ptian family. 

A curious account is given by Mr. Lawrence Oliphant of a Coptic wedding 
witnessed by him. " The ecclesiastic who performed the ceremony occupied 
evidently a very subordinate position in the Church, and his principal object 
seemed to be to finish the operation as speedily as possible, and get paid for it. 
He seated himself on a low chair in front of the happy couple, pulled a Coptic 
prayer-book out of his breast, and gave the signal to his attendants to commence 
operations, on which a man squatting on his heels behind the chair clashed a huge 
pair of cymbals, and half-a-dozen others in a like attitude set up a lugubrious 
chant in a loud nasal voice. AVhenever they paused the women ranged on the 
benches burst forth in a shrill scream, with a quaver or ululation resembling the 
note of the screech-owl. It had a wild barbaric effect, as from time to time it 
broke in upon the xmcouth chanting and clanging cymbals of the choir. Then 
the priest took up his part and read the service at a racing speed. All this time 
the men were talking and laughing loudly, babies were crj-iag, and every now and 
then the jDriest would stop, apparently to hold a little conversation with those 
nearest to him on the topics of the day. Anything more irreverent or less like a 
religious ceremony it would be difficult to imagine. In the midst of it all the 
priest seized the bridegroom's left hand and put a ring on his little finger. After 
some more chanting, reading, screeching, and general conversation he took a phial, 
which I presimied contained holy water, and crossed the foreheads of the bride 
and bridegroom with its contents. Again after an interval he produced a black 
cord which he bound round the body of the bridegroom under his outer garment, 
and tied a piece of scarlet thread roimd his head, and did the same to the bride, 
who must long since have been nearly stifled. In spite of the rapidity with which 
the ser^•ice was read, what with chanting and talking at least an hour elaj^sed 
before the priest seized the heads of the bride and bridegroom, pressing them 

A A 2 



356 NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 

against one another and waving his hand over them, which I presume was a 
blessino-. He then untied the cords and threads, meaning I suppose that another 
spiritual knot had been tied, and then abruptly snatched the handkerchief out of 
the brideo-room's mouth and spread it over his own knees. For the first time 
there was a silence as of hushed expectation ; then some silver coins, amounting I 
should say to about ten shillings, were dropped into the handkerchief, and the 
priest rose suddenly, put some of the money into his pocket, and proceeded to 
distribute the rest among the minor officials, on which arose the most furious 
clamour and dispute how the filthy lucre should be divided. But order was some- 
how at last restored and the bridegroom got up and walked to the door. The 
bride, however, seemed more difficult to deal with. Her mother and two or three 
other women seemed to be packing her up in some mysterious way against her 
will, rolling her about on the bench like some bale of goods. At last in the midst 
of her struggles a man, I presume her father, rushed in, put her on his shoulder, 
and carried her off, followed by the rest of the women." * 

Sl.^very. 

OificiaUy slave-dealing is strictly prohibited in Egypt as well as in the 
dependent territory of the Upper Nile basin. In virtue of previous conventions 
made with England personal servitude should have already been completely 
abolished by August 4, 1884, within the limits of the Khedival possessions. But 
the articles of these treaties have remained a dead letter, and the representatives 
of Great Britain, now paramoiuit in Egypt, have limited their action to the 
despatch of a circular recalling the law imposed on the Khedive. It seems pro- 
bable that they will observe in this respect the same reserve that Gordon did in 
Egvptian Sudan, lea\ing to the owners the absolute possession of the men and 
women acquired by capture or by pm-chase. If the slave-markets are closed the 
traffic goes on all the same, while the grandees always find the means of procuring 
eunuchs to look after the women of their harems. The maintenance of slavery in 
Egvpt is necessitated by these very harems, whose mysterious regime could not be 
enforced ^s-ith servants free to break their contracts at pleasure. At the same time 
it is certain that outside the palaces of the highest Mohammedan circles, domestic 
service is gradually replacing slavery. All Negroes who apply to the police for 
their " paper of freedom " obtain it, and may take up any industry in any place 
they choose. Thus the Western conquerors, like their Arab and Turkish predeces- 
sors, have introduced a new social organisation. 

" It should also be stated that in Egypt, as in most other Mohammedan cotmtries, 
the slaves are usually treated with great kindness. They are regarded as useful 
members of the household by the head of the family, whose interest it is to look 
after their health, and make them feel as satisfied as possible with their position. 
The more content with their lot, the more willing they are to work, and they thus 
gradually learn to identify their interests with those of their masters. Hence they 

* "The Land of Khemi," p. 16-1 et seq. 



LAKD TENUBE. 357 

soou give up all desire of returning to their tribal homes, and be'^in to despise their 
kindred, regarding them as savages and ' infidels.' ' Here we are well cared for 
by our kind father,' said some slaves of the Dinka nation from the country south of 
Scnar ; 'he clothes us, and when meal- time comes we sit under his roof and eat our 
fiU, and at night we have good bedding and shelter. When we desire it he gives 
us money to go to the bazaar ; and what belongs to Mm belongs to us. We are of 
his family. Why should we wish to return to the misery and incertitude of our 
early life ? ' 

'•'Such appears to be the general feeling of those in servitude. They become, so 
to speak, members of the household of their masters. They benefit largely by the 
ci\-ilisation, such as it is, that surroimds them. They form ties and affections. They 
marry and have children, and they become thoroughly identified with the country 
and suiToundings of those who own them. 

"The female slaves, if really they can be called so, seem to sit as high at their 
dress tables as the ligliter-coloured mistress whom they serve. Of ornaments they 
have plenty, silver and gold coins being woven into their innumerable thinly-plaited 
tresses. Amber, coral, and jasper necklaces fall in rows over their, when young, 
statuesque bosoms, here, as is the custom of the country, left untrammelled by robe 
or corset. 

" To sum up briefly, the curse of slavery is not the actual holding of slaves, but 
the misery caused by the destruction of villages, the severing of family ties, and 
the cruelties perpetrated in the work of capture. People are dragged miles and 
miles without water, chamed by the neck ; in fact, the trails of the capturers may 
be followed by the skeletons of the captives left on the line of route. Hence, what- 
ever may be the kindness shown by the master to his bondman, all must rejoice 
that the days of slavery seem at last to he numbered in all Mussulman countries 
brought under European influences. The Government of the Khedive, rightly 
influenced, is determined to stamp it out ; and the presence of English oflS.cers no\v^ 
in the service of His Highness in the distant provinces of the Sudan will undoubt- 
edly aid in effecting the extinction both of domestic slavery and of the slave 
traffic throughout Eastern Africa." * 

Laxd Tenure, 

The administration of landed estates is also being modified through the inter- 
vention of Europeans in the internal affairs of the country. According to the 
strict letter of the Mussulman law the community of the faithful, represented by 
the be'it-el-mdl, or pubUc treasury, is the sole owner of the land, which can only be 
held temporarily by private persons such as mortgagees, who have come to inherit 
it bj- custom rather than legal right. However, this principle has long fallen into 
abeyance, and as in Europe, private proprietary rights have been established over a 
large portion of the Egyptian territory. Since this revolution, which allows the 
free exchange of laud, its value has been greatly enhanced. The present 

* " With Hicks Pasha in the Sudan." 



358 



NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 



proprietors themselves, who no longer pay the taxes in kind, have certainly 
benefited by the new order of things. At the same time a new social class has 
been constituted, that of the agricvdtural proletariates, a multitude of hand to mouth 
labourers, who have no longer any share in the land, and who are obliged to accept 
employment on any terms in order to live.* The lauds of dispossessed peasants, 
nearly all confiscated for non-payment of taxes, have enlarged the personal domain 
of the sovereign, of various members of his family, and of many high dignitaries 
of State. The Suez Canal Company has also become one of these large landed 
proprietors. AU the estates that under sundi-y titles have fallen into the hands of 

Fig. lOG. — Domains of the Daieah in the Delta. 
Scale 1 : 2,500,000. 



50' 




30 



L . of Gree'^wicl-1 



Cf*Cr''o'^ 



Estates of the Khedive. 



GO 3Iiles. 



the khedival family are estimated at about one-fourth of all the arable land in 
EgyjDt. Between Assiut and Bedrashein nearly all the soil belongs to the Khedive. 
Another fourth of the land consists of the so-called uslntri, or " tithings," held in 
absolute right by those cultivating them. On the other hand the lands of the poor, 
divided into small lots round the villages, and comprising, with the commercial 
possessions, about half of the country, are burdened with the l<araj, a variable tax, 
M-hich may be increased at the pleasure of the Government, biit which still averages 
about one-fifth, as in the time of Joseph. On paying this tax the occupier of the 
* Average wages of the peasant lutourer : fouipence to sevenpence, according to the season. 



I 



a?HE KHEDIVAL D03IAIX. 859 

land still remains none the less at the mercy of the State. He holds it only on 
sufferance, nor are the rights of his heirs acknowledged until they show them- 
selves capable of cultivating the estate bequeathed to them and paying the imposts. 
If they want to change their karajieh lands to an absolute property, they can do 
so only on condition of paying in advance a six years' tax, either in a lump sxmi or 
by iustalments. Besides a safe title, these anticipated disbursements relieve them 
in future from half of the land-tax. The icakf (^irahif) estates belonging to the 
mosques or schools will probably ere long change hands in part, if not altogether 
The confiscation of this mortmain property might enable the Government to cover 
the present annual deficits. 



The Khedival Domain. 

OflBcially the largest landed estate in Eg}-pt might seem to be that of the 
Khedive. But this domain, the so-caUed dairah-sanieh, having been mortgaged to 
European lenders since the year 1878, is administered by a commission, whose 
headquarters are not in Egypt, and the real owners are at present the European 
bankers. A considerable portion of the estate is rented to speculators, who sub-let 
to the peasantry. Certain parcels are directly ceded to the labourers ; but a large 
pai't of the dairah, which would certainly be brought under cultivation if in the 
hands of the fellahin, is allowed to lie fallow. For direct exploitation the creditors 
of the Khedive have recoui'se either to hired labourers, or to agents and " middle- 
men," who arrange with the village headmen for the hands required to till the land. 
Their work is remunerated by a regular pittance, or by personal gifts made to the 
gangers. All systems of payment are nicely graded, from the giatuitous corvee to 
the amount of direct wages freely determined between employer and labourer. 
But so many intermediaries have to receive a share of the profits in the cultivation 
of the khedival domain, so many interests claim compensation for their 
"disinterested" services in the "regeneration of Egypt," that the revenues of 
these otherwise extremely fertile lands are frittered away to little over twenty 
shillings an acre. There is even a yearly deficit if to the current expenses be added 
the interest due on previous debts.* 



Irrigation — The IxTrNT)ATiONS of the Nile. 

To the contrast between the estates of large proprietors and the karajieh holdings 
of small owners corresponds in many places the contrast between the systems of irri- 
gation. In this respect it is necessary carefully to distinguish between the so-called 

* State of the Khedival domain at the date of the cession, October 31, 18 78 : — 

Acres directly cultivated 192,560 

„ leased 134,300 

,, granted to the peasantry 37,670 

„ waste or fallow 82,350 

446,880 



360 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

scji and nili lands. The latter, as indicated by the name itself, comprise aU those 
tracts that would be flooded by the annual inundation but for the retaining dykes, 
as well as those reached through infiltration by the deep waters derived either ivom. 
the main stream or from natural or artificial channels excavated at a slight depth 
below the surface of the ground. The lowest dykes derive their waters at a dejjth 
of about 13 feet below the cidtivatcd lands, and are flushed only during the 
period of the inundations, remaining dry for the rest of the year. During the last 
century the whole of Egypt was watered exclusively by means of basins disposed 
at different elevations along both banks of the river, and receiving their supplies 
through the nili canals, and over three-fourths of the cultivated tracts in Upper 
Eg3'pt are subject to the same method of irrigation. 

The sefi, that is, " summer " canals, all of recent origin, are excavated below 
the mean low-water level from 26 to 30 feet below the surface, so that they are 
reached by the stream even at the very height of the dry season. In Upper Egj'pt 
they are disposed parallel with the river and at a very slight incline, so as to bring 
them at once to the level of the lands to be irrigated. But in Lower Egypt, from 
which the system of ii-rigatiug basins has entirely disappeared, the sefi canals 
remain everywhere at a lower level than the fields, to which the water must be 
raised by means of steam-engines, saldehs, or shadufs. One of these sefi canals is 
the famous Mahmudieh channel, which derives its water from the Nile in order to 
irrigate the tracts skirting the desert as far as the citj' of Alexandria, and which 
serves at the same time as a great navigable highway. But having become partly 
choked by the mud, it is no longer deep enough to admit a regular current, hence 
has to be partly filled by means of steam-engines established at Atfeh, on the 
Rosetta branch of the NUe. The Damietta branch also feeds numerous summer 
canals, thanks to its relatively high elevation above the plains of the delta. 

The sefi system was first introduced under Mohammed Ali, when the cultivation 
of Jumel cotton was begim. By this method are still almost exclusively raised the 
larger and more important crops, such as sesame, sugar, and cotton, which are thus 
watered for three months continuously before the period of the ordinary inundation. 
So it happens that the small holdings have no share in the benefits reserved for the 
large estates irrigated dm-ing the period of low water. The high State functionaries 
and rich money-lenders alone derive any advantage from growing these larger 
industrial crops. Yet they are not the onlj' contributors to the maintenance of 
the works, the cost of which is enormous, owing to the mud constantly accmuu- 
lating in the ditches and gradually filling them up in mauj- places. A single year 
woidd suffice to convert a sefi canal into a simple nili channel but for the numerous 
gangs of fcllahin employed for weeks and months together on the work of 
excavation. The sefi canals taken collectively represent a quantity of deposits 
about half as much again as that of the Suez Canal, and every year the amoimt of 
mud and earth required to be again displaced to keep open the dykes is not less 
than one-third of the original deposits. 



THE FOECED LABOUR OR CORV£e SYSTEM. 861 

The Forced Lauour or Corvee System. 

For these vast works the combined labour of the whole population is needed. 
As the daily labour of the fellah scarcely suffices on the average to displace half a 
cubic yard of earth, or three-quarters at the utmost under favourable conditions, the 
days of labour on these works must be reckoned at tens of millions. In 1872 
Linant de Bellefonds estimated at 450,000 the number of hands employed on an 
average for two months every j'ear in clearing out the sefi canals. Each fellah 
has, moreover, to attend to the nili canals of his commune, as well as to the 
particular canal bringing water to his own fields. On the Mahmudieh Canal alone, 
Mohammed Ali employed 313,000 under the corvee system of labour. 

Nor is this all. The exceptionally high inundations of the Nile might be the 
cause of widespread disaster were the dykes not carefully maintained, and even 
under dangerous circumstances raised to a higher level. In 1874 all the summer 
crops — sugar, cotton, durrah, maize — were threatened with complete destruction, 
and the whole wealth of the laud would have been engulphed, had not the 
entire population, animated by a sense of the common danger, kept up an inces- 
sant struggle with the rising waters. For over a whole month 700,000 men 
laboured to repair and strengthen the embankments, so as constantly to make 
head against the swollen stream. Frequently a third of the population has been 
simultaneously engaged in this struggle with the Nile, and even in normal years 
the Government calls out 160,000 men under the corvee sj'stem, drawn in about 
equal proportions from IJjDper and Lower Egyj)t. 

These constant efforts to adapt the land to thfi fluvial conditions have seldom a 
spontaneous character. Summoned under the corvee, and receiving fi'om the 
authorities nothing but a shovel and a basket, the peasantry present themselves in 
gangs at the works, preceded by their Sheikh-el-Beled, or village headman, aod 
often accompanied by their women and children. Temporary encampments are 
established along the embankments, and the men enter the canal to dredge and 
bring up a little mud, graduallj' heaping it to a height of 30 or 40, and even 
50 feet, over the side of the dyke. The women do the cooking — that is, prepare 
a few cakes of durrah in the fire; the children tumble about in the sand, while the 
armed pickets tramp silently up and down the embankment. It is doubtless natural 
and reasonable that all the inhabitants should take their share in the maintenance 
of the canals. From the mud of the Nile springs all the wealth of Egypt, and in 
this respect the whole population has a common interest. The canals, also, which 
distribute the fertilising waters, and but for whiph the riverain peoples would be 
reduced to starvation, represent an amount of labour far beyond the resources of 
private enterprise. But, on the other hand, it seems only fair that this work, to 
which all hands contribute, should be really carried on in the interest of all. It 
should tend to promote the prosperity not only of a few large domains, but also 
that of the smaller village holdings. It should certainly not weigh as a heavy 
burden exclusively on the labom-ers who are too poor to purchase exemption or 
find substitutes for the onerous task. Nor should the wretched victims of the 



8C2 NOETH-EAST AFEICA. 

corvee, wallowing in the beds of the canals, he allowed to suffer hunger or be deci- 
mated by epidemics, or be made to writhe under the lash of the cruel kurbash. 
The very monuments of Eg}T)t have recorded for six thousand years the sad fate 
of the fellah, bent beneath his load of mud while the overseer stands flourishing the 
scourge above his head. The names may change, but this ancient form of slavery 
still survives. As Amru said to the Caliph Omar, the Egyptian people " seem des- 
tined to toil only for others, without themselves deriving any benefit fi'om their 
labour." 

Conservatism and Progress. 

There are few other countries where the old usages, adapting themselves with 
difficulty to modern times, contrast more strikingly with the methods introduced by 
Western civilisation. While the ancient method of cultivation remains imchanged, 
and while the peasantry, regulating their work according to the yearly inundations, 
sow and reap always at the same period, make use of the same implements, gather 
the same cereal crops, eat the same bread, modern agricultiu'e draws the water by 
means of steam-engines directly from the river, cultivates the exotic plants of India 
and the New World, employs improved ploughs, reaping, threshing, and sifting 
machines. To manure theii' fields the peasantry still rely on the most precarious 
refuse from their farms and pigeon-houses, while the scientific cultivators import 
from Europe and America chemically analj'sed phosphates and guanos. Railwaj-s 
run close to the old mud hovels ; skilfully constructed iron or steel bridges span the 
canals and the great branches of the Nile, whUe elsewhere the fellah must swim or 
wade through the stream, his tunic gathered like a turban round his head, or else 
crosses over seated on a mat of palm-leaves floated on inflated skins or calabashes, 
or on a string of tufted foliage, which he propels by converting his shirt into a 
sail. And, again, on the very sands and marshes skirting the wilderness, lighthouses 
with electric biu'uers, the " suns of the Christians," as the natives call them, light 
up between the Mediterranean and Red Sea the great navigable highway which, 
even in these days of colossal undertakings, stands out as one of the most stupen- 
dous works of human industrj'. 

But amid all these strange contrasts between the old conservatism and the new 
ideas, the clearest signs of material and intellectual progress are everjT\-here 
conspicuous. " Nothing," remarks the distinguished traveller, Charles Beke, 
" surprised me more in mj' present journey, though I have visited Egypt frequently 
siuce 1840, than the many changes for the better that were observable in the whole 
countr}'. When one has passed the Mareotis Lake, and the barren district west of 
the Rosetta arm of the Nile, the land presents most distinct evidences of higher 
and more extended culture. 

" I was told that in this part of Egypt, where in 1850 only 100,000 acres of 
land were under cultivation, now double that extent is planted. The cotton harvest 
is now just over, and the fields are being ploughed. Once I saw what I have 
never seen before, a camel drawing the plough. Far and wide there waves a green 
sea of cornfields or of rich pastiu-e-land, on which cattle, asses, sheep, and goats 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 863 

are grazing. Trees have been planted, and not onty along the roads ; some places 
have been set so thickly as almost to appear like little forests. The route across the 
delta, on the clear sunny day on which I travelled, was indeed charming, and I 
had often to remind myself that I was really in Egj-pt, so totally changed was the 
picture ; for here and there, also, the tall chimney of some manufactory was to be 
seen rising above the trees or over the villages. Egj'pt ■will soon belong only 
geographically to Africa ; in everythiag else it is becoming European. 

" The condition of the lower classes, also, shows a marked improvement. 
Ophthalmia, perhaps the most painful scourge of Egypt, is now neither so wide- 
spread nor so intense as formerly ; and if the people are not better fed than they 
used to be, they have at least sufficient for their wants. Those inhabiting the 
to'svns are remarkably improved. In Cairo there are not nearly so many barefooted 
people as formerly ; and they are not contented with slippers, but wear European 
boots. The fellahs, or peasants, also are decidedly improved. Their mud huts are 
better built, and especially better roofed ; indeed, here and there peasant houses of 
quite European type are now to be seen. 

" No doubt this rapid jprogress in Egypt has its shadow side. Like the children 
of Israel of old, the people do not work for themselves, but are in heavy bondage 
almost beyond their powers. Yet this development under high pressure is 
undeniably to the advantage of the coimtry. The greatest and most important, 
because most universally active change, is certainly that of the improvement in 
the climate, brought about by the more extended cultivation, and especially by the 
numerous plantations of trees. Egj'pt is in a fair way to overturn its proverbial 
rainlessness. In Alexandria rain now falls even to excess ; and Cairo, of which 
the prophet of all travellers, jMurraj', in his handbook, still maintains that it enjoys 
at most five or six light showers in the course of the year, had to record not fewer 
than twenty-one such in the past year. I mj-self experienced a rainy day there 
quite as wet as any known in England. The consequences of it were that the 
unpaved streets were covered ankle-deep with mud, and all traffic except that in 
carriages was at an end. 

" Naturally the ignorant Arabs ascribe these changes to supernatural agencies, 
and since the j-ear corresponds with that of the ascent of Mohammed Ali to the 
throne, the witchcraft is supposed to emanate from him and his dynasty." 

The Suez Canal. 

The channel between the two seas, after having perhaps existed as a natural 
artery for a short period during quarternary times, is known to have been indirectly 
restored by the Pharaohs of the nineteenth dynasty, over thirty-three centuries ago. 
A tradition recorded bj' Strabo attributes the construction of the canal to Sesostris. 
Herodotus also tells us that Nekos, son of Psammaticus, began near Bubastes a canal 
which skirted the quarries, that is, the hills now known as the Jebel-Mokattam, 
thence trending eastwards to the Red Sea. A hundred and twenty thousand hands 
had already perished on these works of canalisation between the NUe and the coast, 



864 NORTH-EAST ATEICA. 

wlieu their farther progress was arrested by an oracle which declared that they 
were being executed " for the benefit of a barbarian." 

And it was, in fact, a foreigner, King Darius of Persia, who opened the com- 
munication between the Nile and the Gulf of Arsinoe, consequently between the 
Mediterranean and Red Sea, by a well-constructed canal, wide enough, says 
Herodotus, to allow two triremes to pass each other in mid-stream. According to 
Diodorus Siculus, the same king even entertained the idea of cutting a canal from 
sea to sea, between the Gulf of Pelusium and the Red Sea. The works seem to 
have even been begun, for the banks, some 16 feet high, are still to be seen of a 
ditch from 160 to 180 or 200 feet wide, running from Lake Timsah by the Gisr 
towards El-Kantara. But it was feared that the " waters of the Red Sea, standing 
at a higher level than the plains of EgyjDt," would flood all the land, and for this 
reason the works were discontinued. Monuments bearing inscriptions in four 
languages — 'Persian, Medo-Scythian, Assyrian, and Egj-ptian — were erected on the 
banks of the canal near Suez. These inscriptions record the fruitless attempts 
made by Darius to accomplish the work successfully carried out in our daj-s. The 
fear entertained by the Persian monarch — a fear still shared by most engineers 
down to the middle of the nineteenth century — is all the more easily understood 
when it is considered that the mean level of the southern waters does in fact exceed 
that of the ^Mediterranean at Pelusium. At ebb there is scarcely any perceptible 
difference, but at flow the Red Sea is considerably higher, ia exceptional cases 
as much as 90 or 100 inches. In the time of Darius the current setting north- 
wards in consequence of this difference of level would have even been stronger than 
at present, for the channel was narrower. 

But the old canal derived from the Nile gradually sUted up, and the ditch cut 
across the isthmus became choked with sand and mud. Nevertheless the memory 
of the work accomplished did not perish, and more than one Egyptian ruler 
continued to regard the project of imiting the two seas as an enterprise glorious 
beyond all others. Ptolemy II. is said to have restored the canal, and, arguing 
from certain somewhat obscure passages in Strabo and Diodorus^ some writers have 
even asserted that the cutting was effected directly from gulf to gulf. Skilfully 
constructed sluices gave access to vessels without flooding the surrounding low-lj-ing 
tracts. However, the traffic between the two marine basins was doubtless insufficient 
to pay for the maintenance of the banks and sluices, and it has been supposed that 
in the reign of Cleopatra the navigable highway must already have been again 
closed. At least, according to Plutarch, the Egjqjtian queen endeavoured to have 
her ships transported overland to the Red Sea, in order to escape, with all her 
treasures, from Octavius after the battle of Actium. Nevertheless it is quite 
possible that the canal may even then still have existed, if not permanentl)' at least 
during the Nilotic inimdations. The time when she wanted to escape happened to 
coincide with the period of low-water, when the canal would have been dry. 

After the Ptolemies the Roman conquerors took up the dream of uniting the 
two seas. Trajan, who tried his hand at so manj' great enterprises, set to work 
also oi; tliis project, and imder the reign of Hadrian boats were navigating the 



THE SUEZ CANAj.. 



365 



so-called " Eiver of Trajan," excavated, like the older river of Nekos, between the 
Nile, the Timsah, and the Bitter Lakes, across the desert zone skirting the arable 
lands. As Letronue has observed, the exploitation of the great porphyry quarries 
at iloiint Claudian woxdd have been unintelligible, unless some waterway existed 
between the sea and the river for forwarding the huge monoliths extracted from 
the mountain. They coidd not certainly have been transported to the Nile Valley 
over the iatervening hills and rocks of the Arabian range. 

Like most of the works executed by the Eomans, Trajan's Canal was made to 
last, and ia fact it was maintained for centuries. Maki-izi teRs us that in the early 
period of Islam it was still accessible to vessels. After seizing Egypt, Amru had 
little more to do than clear out the channel and restore the sluices. But he appears 
to have harboured even more ambitious views, intending to open a canal directly 



Fig. 107. — Trajan's Canal. 

Scale 1 : 1,300,000. 














32°ao- 



C.Fs.-r 



. 30 Miles. 



from the Red Sea to Farama on the shores of the Gulf of Pelusium, possibly by 
utilising the cuttings previously made by Darius and the Ptolemies. But Omar 
fearing, as is said, lest the Greeks might take advantage of this highway to attack 
the pilgrims journeying to Mecca, refused to sanction the work. Nor did the 
canal restored by Amru last very long, having been closed a hundred and thirty- 
three years afterwards by order of the Caliph Abu Jafar-el-iTalisur, to prevent some 
rebel from receiving his supplies. 

During the interval of nearly eleven centuries from that epoch to modern times, 
the slow work of nature gradually effaced the work of man. Houses, sluices, dams 
disappeared ; the dykes became choked by alluvial deposits and sands, while 
marshy depressions took the places of the embankments. The coast-line has been 
modified round the gulfs and lagoons ; but numerous vestiges nevertheless still 



866 



NOKTH-EAST AFEICA. 



siirvive of the former Egyptian, Roman, and Arab works. In some places, 
and notably near Suez, the dykes, built with such hard stone that the Arabs 
take them for natural rocks, rise here and there some 18 or 20 feet above the plains. 



Fig. 108.— Suez in the year ISOO. 
Scale 1 : 350,000. 



WSIM;iS8ftfflMS5:^ 




27°55' 



E - of Green 



P7°;,7- 



C. Perron 



Sands exposed at low water. 

I C Miles. 



It is probable that to a barrage, the remains of which are still visible, the ground- 
sill of Gisr owes its Arabic name of " dyke." 

While the mud and sands were obliterating the monuments of the Pharaohs, 
Ptolemies, Trajan, and Amru, the Sultans of Constantinople, after the reduction of 
Egypt, frequently entertained the idea of renewing the works of their predecessors. 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 867 

But the project did not take definite shape till the time of the French expedition. 
"With the expedition came a nimiber of distinguished naturalists, eager to accom- 
plish great things, and one of the greatest to them seemed the idea of reuniting 
the two seas. Lcpere and other savants forthwith set to work to survey the surface 
of the isthmus, and accurately determine the conditions under which the enterprise 
might be successfully vmdertaken. 

Unfortunately the results of this exploration were vitiated by a fatal error. 
Lepere fancied he had found the level of the Eed Sea nearly 33 feet higher than 
that of the Mediterranean. Under the influence of this serious miscalculation he 
allowed himself to be influenced by the illusion of the ancients, who feared the 
low-lying tracts on the Mediterranean coast would be engulfed by the waters of the 
Red Sea were the project carried out. He accordingly gave up the idea of cutting 
a direct maritime canal, although recognising how greatly the trade of the world 
would be benefited by connecting the two basins by a deep channel not subject to 
the alternative rise and fall of the Nile waters. Falling back on the scheme of 
the Pharaohs, he proposed to construct a canal, from 14 to 16 feet deep, running 
from Cairo to Suez, in four- sections at foui' d liferent levels, two filled with the 
sweet water of the Nile, two with the saline water of the Red Sea. This canal was 
further to be completed by a navigable highway flowing from the head of the delta 
to the port of Alexandria. Being accessible only to river craft, the canal projected 
by Lepere could have been used for inter-oceanic traffic only during the periodical 
inundations of the Nile. 

Tlie French occupation of Egj^t was too short for the work to be undertaken. 
But the idea of separating Asia and Africa by a new Bosphorus was destined 
never again to be laid aside. It even became the dogma of a new religion, the 
Saint-Simonians having introduced it into their " articles of faith." Their jour- 
nals were already discussing the question in the year 1825, and when several 
members of the sect had to leave France, the study of the Suez Canal was one of 
the chief reasons that induced them to turn towards the East. Later on, when the 
Saint-Simonian religion had ceased to exist, but when most of its former adherents 
had become men of influence in the commercial world, the scheme found its most 
zealous champions amongst them. 

At last public opinion became so clamorous, that it was found necessary to 
undertake a fresh survej^ in order to verify or set aside that of Lepere, which 
Laplace and Fourier, besides many other savants, had always regarded as erroneous. 
In 1S47 a European society was instituted, and imder the direction of the engi- 
neers Linant, Talabot, and Bourdaloue, accurate levellings were taken across the 
isthmus, from Suez to Pelusium. Henceforth it was once for all placed bej-ond 
doubt that, apart from the inequalities caused by the higher tides in the Gulf of 
Suez, the surface of the two seas presented but slight discrepancies of level. The 
operations of the Bourdaloue survey were again checked in the years 1853, 1855, 
and 1856, the results being each time almost identical.* 

* Mediterranean at Tineh, on the Gulf of Pelusium : — Lot?- water, 0-0 metres ; high water, 0'38 
metres. Eed Sea at Suez : — Low water, 0-7414 metres ; high water, 20886 metres. 



868 



XORTH-EAST AFEICA. 



After the settlement of this important point in physical geography, nothing 
more apparently remained to be done before proceeding to construct a direct canal 
across the isthmus. But the first project, presented by M. Paulin Talabot, one of 
the engineers engaged on the survey, proposed the construction of a canal from 
Suez through Cairo to Alexandria. This scheme, Avhich has been recently again 
adopted by some English engineers in opposition to the present imdertaking,* 
involved the construction of locks and sluices, in order on both sides to reach the 
level of the Nile above the head of the delta. It would have also been necessary 
to provide for a system of flood-gates, to resist and regulate the fluvial inundations, 
besides a tow-bridge across the Nile between the two sections of the canal, in order 



Fig. 109.— Proposed Freshwater Canal from Svez to Alexandria. 
Scale 1 : 2,500,000. 




50°so 



60 Wiles. 



to tow the vessels from one side to the other. As a highway of na\'igation, the 
inferiority of this canal, winding through Lower Egyjit, compared with that across 
the isthmus, dispensing with sluices and nearly three times shorter, is self-evident. 
But the primary object of this canal, which would have been 240 miles long, was 
the irrigation of the delta rather than traffic. The interests of navijration and 
irrigation however being diiferent, and even antagonistic, seeing that shipping 
requires a low level, while cultivators naturally seek to raise the bed of their 
artificial streams as high as possible, it would be a mistake to construct a canal 

* John Fowkr and Benjamin Baker, " A Sweet-water Ship-canal through Egypt," Nineteenth 
Cmtiinj, No. 71, January, 1883. 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 869 

for this twofold purpose. Should the riverain tracts of the delta ever be enclosed 
by a circular artery, this caual will probably be utilised exclusively for irrigation 
and the local traffic. 

The firman granting a concession to pierce the isthmus directly from sea to sea, 
was at last signed in the year 1854. "Wlide signing this document, the Sultan 
was himself incredulous as to the possibility of executing the work, and even 
among the engineers engaged on the vast undertaking, many were wanting in the 
confidence required to stimulate their efforts. But Ferdinand de Lesseps, in 
whose favour the firman had been signed, was a man of strong faith and tenacious 
will. He was discouraged neither by financial difiiculties, nor by faint-hearted 
friends, nor j'et by the secret or avowed opposition of adversaries. Amongst 
these adversaries was the British Government, fearing the opening of a direct 
route to India, of which it was not sure of always holding the key. Yet it was 
compelled in its tm-n to acknowledge itself vanquished, and on November 17th, 
1869, a whole fleet of steamers followed in gay procession, bearers of the Khedive's 
invited guests from Port Said to Lake Timsah. 

Fifteen years had sufficed to complete this colossal undertaking. But to bring 
it to a successful issue, new engineering methods and new mechanical contrivances 
had to be devised. A sum of nearly £19,000,000, nearly half subscribed in 
France, had been expended, apart from the numerous substantial services con- 
tributed by the Egyptian Government, such as concessions of land, the erection 
of lighthouses, harbour dredgings, pecuniary advances without interest, gangs of 
labourers under the corvee system, representing at least a capital of some 
£4,000,000. The number of natives engaged on the works averaged about twenty 
thousand. 

This great highway, a veritable marine strait, which is visited by sharks and 
cetaceans, and where are now intermingled the various flora and fauna of the 
Mediterranean and Red Sea, presents dimensions which at the time seemed 
prodigious, but which are already acknowledged to be inadequate. The canal, 
which is 98 miles long from sea to sea, and from 200 to 330 feet wide between the 
banks, has a depth nowhere less than 26 feet, and in some places nearly 28 feet. 
Dredges are constantly engaged, clearing out the sand and mud, which the wash 
of passing steamers causes to accumulate on the bottom. Without including these 
subsequent dredgings, which amount to about 21,000,000 cubic feet yearly, the 
excavations represent a mass estimated at 2,910 millions of cubic feet, equal to a 
pyramid 1,100 yards square and 830 feet high. 

From a mere lagoon, Lake Timsah, that is, of the " Crocodiles," from which, 
however, these animals had long disappeared, has been transformed to an iidand 
sea. The basin of the Bitter Lakes has also received from the Bed Sea a volume 
estimated at seventy billions of cubic feet ; the vast salt-beds formerly occupying 
this depression are being gradually dissolved under the influence of the cui-rents 
setting alternately north and south. The canal presents a superb spectacle, 
especially at El-Gisr, between the two lines of dunes rising on either side some 50 
feet above the sui-face. And it is difficult to suppress the feeling of wonder 

VOL. X. B B 



370 



NORTH-EAST jU^EICA. 



produced by the scene as viewed from the Port Said lighthouse, commanding as it 
does a panoramic prospect of the city rising ahove the sands, the "vast harbour 
with its wet-docks and side basins crowded with shipping, the white piers disap- 
pearing in the distance amid the blue waters of the Mediterranean, and in the 
interior those huge steamers, like floating palaces, gliding away between the 
surrounding sand dunes as if propelled by some magic force across the isthmus. 

The traffic of the Suez Canal has developed more rapidly than its constructors 
expected. Without the aid of tugs, sailing vessels are imablc to navigate the 
lied Sea in either direction, either against the northern winds or against those 
from the south blowing directly into the gulf. But for the Indian traffic sails 
have been superseded by steam ; ships of a special build have even been constructed 



Fi^. 110.— Lake Timsah. 
Scale 1 : 1,000,000. 



Moukfar 







"^■. ^■■'7:;':'^''«*^«»;i»^'^■'yfes!S^■■V.;^^^^^v.•'.• 



50 
54' 



5cr 

50' 



5S-10' 



E..". of Greenwich 



3 Miles. 



for this inter-oceanic service through the canal and the Red Sea, and the mean 
tonnage continues to increase from year to year. During the year 1883, a solitarv 
sailing vessel passed from sea to sea, whereas on an average ten steamers every day 
availed themselves of this route. 

Hence the necessity for enlarging this navigable highway has alread}^ arisen. 
Certain sharp turnings will also have to be got rid of, as has already been done 
at El-Gisr, and several other improvements will have to be made, such as the 
deepening of the channel, the completion of the stone facing to the embankments 
where the shifting sands are too easily eroded by the wash, the construction of 
ports in the riverain lakes, and especially a general widening of the whole canal in 
order to bo able to dispense with the sidings, or "shunting stations," which now 



THE SUEZ CAJIAL. 



371 



occur at intervals of 6 or 8 miles along the route. The original projectors had 
anticipated a yearly traffic of six niilHon tons; but provision must now be made for 
a double and even fourfold movement at no distant date. It is projjosed to treble 
the width of the present channel, so that steamers may pass each other without 
slacking speed, and also to prevent the whole traffic fi'om being blocked by the 
grounding of a single vessel, as so frequently hajjpens at present. 

England, which formerly opposed the opening of the canal, is the very power 
now most urgent in calling for its enlargement. But the results afford a ready 
explanation of this change of attitude. The canal has in fact become an almost 
exclusively British highway, and an eighth part of the whole trade of Great 
Britain, representing a value of over £80,000,000, passes through the Isthmus of 



Pig. 111. — Great Ixteiixatioxal Routes of the Old 'WoaLD. 

EcJe 1 ; 170,000,000- 




40" 



C Perron 



■ 3,000 ililes. 



Suez. The British Government has also become one of the chief shareholders, and 
since the occupation of Egypt it practically controls this route, which it may open 
or close at pleasure, as was seen before the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, when all traffic 
was for a short time suspended, in spite of the conventions guaranteeing the 
neutrality of the passage between the two seas. Thus Great Britain, which feared 
lest the marine route to India might fall into the hands of her rivals, has succeeded 
in securing its possession at least for the present. At the same time, according to 
the terms of the international convention concluded in 1885, the canal is hence- 
forth declared an open highway under the joint guarantee of the European 
powers. It is thus absoluteh' free to the ships of all nations, and in time of war 
eyen to those of belligerents; which, however, cannot remain in the canal for a 

B B 2 



372 NOETH-EAST AFRICA. 

period of more than three days, nor during their stay commit any acts of 
hostility against the vessels of their antagonists. 

The terms of this important international agreement are briefly resumed in the 
subjoined series of articles, adopted after much discussion by the Suez Canal Com- 
mission : — 

"Article 1. The Canal shall remain open both in time of peace and war to 
merchant and war ships without distinction of :2ags. The contracting parties 
imdertake to place no obstacle in the way of free passage through the Canal either 
in time of peace or war, nor to blockade the Canal, nor to subject it to any other 
measure of war. Article 2. As a Sweetwater canal is recognised to be indispens- 
able for a maritime canal, cognizance is taken of the Khedive's obligations to the 
Suez Canal Company in that respect, and the Powers are pledged not to compromise 
in any way the safety of the sweetwater canal. Article 3. All parties agree not 
to damage the material for building and repairing purposes. Article 4. It is 
agreed that no fortifications shall be erected on such points as could command or 
threaten the Canal and serve as the basis for offensive operations, nor shall anj' such 
point be occupied by troops. The maritime entrances to the Canal, as also the 
territorial waters, shall be excluded from all military operations. Article 5. 
Although in time of war the Canal will be open to the passage of the belligerent 
fleets, no acts of hostilities and no measure preparatory to the same shall be carried 
out in the Canal or in the territorial waters of Egypt, even should Turkey be one 
of the belligerents. No troops, provisions, ammunition, nor war material shall be 
landed there. The passage of ships must be as rapid as possible, and the stop- 
page at Port Said or Suez must not exceed twenty-four hours. There must be an 
interval of twenty-four houi-s between the departui-e of ships belonging to nations 
at war. Articles 6 and 7 refer to captured vessels, which will be treated as belonging 
to belligerents. For all damage to the Canal or to the material belonging to it, 
the Power whose ship has caused the damage will be held responsible, though the 
right of appeal is reserved. Article 8. No Power will be entitled to have more 
than one war ship at a time in the Canal, and more than two at Port Said and Suez. 
Article 9 provides for the rights of the Sultan and of the Khedive. The measui'es 
required for the defence of Egypt in case of need must not affect the safety of the 
Canal. Article 10. A Commission composed of representatives of the signatory 
Powers at London, on March 17, 1885, to whom shall be added an Egyptian 
delegate with a consultative voice, will sit under the presidency of a special Turkish 
delegate, and make arrangements with the Suez Canal Company for the enforce- 
ment of the present regulations for the Canal navigation and police. The said 
Commission shall, within the limits of its attributions, see to the execution of the 
present treaty and submit to the Powers proposals for securing its observance. It 
is understood that the Commission shall not infringe the Sultan's rights. Article 11 
prescribes that Egy-pt shall within the limits of its rights take measures to ensure 
respect for the treaty, and ia case of need shall appeal to Tui-ke}- and to the 
signatory Powers. Article 12 stipulates that none of the signatory Powers shall 
seek territorial or commercial advantages or privileges of any kind in connection 



TOPOGEArHY— MAHATTA— rillLiE. 873 

with the Canal. Article 13 provides for the Sultan's rights, and, finally, the con- 
cluding article is to the effect that the Powers will conniumicate the treaty to those 
States which have not signed it, and will invite them to endorse it." 



Topography. 

"V^'hile new to'mis are springing up in Egypt, the ancient cities are crumbling 
to dust. Most of the larger centres of population stand at some distance from the 
ruins marking the sites of former capitals. But these ruins, far more interesting 
than most of the modern towns, still relate the history of Egyptian culture. In 
many places the hovels of the fellahin, small cubical blocks of brick or mud covered 
with a reed roof or a terrace of beaten earth, are almost lost in the shade of mio-hty 
gateways and peristyles of temples. Since the scientific exploration of Egypt has 
been actively begun, fine monuments have been rescued from the sands in which 
they had long been buried ; but many others have disappeared for ever. The salt- 
petre with which the sands and alluvial dusts are impregnated gradually corrodes 
the hardest stones of these buildings ; treasure-seekers demolish their walls ; while 
still greater destruction is caused bj' the peasantry, who make the scbak/i, an 
excellent composition, by mixing the dust of the ruins with earth. The limekilns 
have consumed laj-er after layer of the temples built with limestone, so that the 
monuments of sandstone, which can scarcelj'be utilised for modern structures, have 
suffered least from these destructive processes. 

The Egyptian villages bear the most diverse names, according to the origin of 
their inhabitants, or the tenure of the soil. Thus occur such names as N^ahich, Kafr, 
Ezhcli, JViig, Ahadich, Menshaf, and Nazkh, this last term, which means "settlement " 
or " colony," being applied to villages built by Arab nomads who have become culti- 
vators. The villages also frequently shift their sites, owing to the inundations, or 
the o^jening of some fresh canal. In the same way their names often become 
changed, according to the social status of the proprietors by whom thej^ are pur- 
chased. Yet in these villages are still to be read the records of ancient Egvpt. 
The country has been compared to a palimpsest or mediaeval parchment, on which 
the Bible has been written above Herodotus, and the Koran above the Bible. In 
the towns the Koran is the most legible, while in the rural districts Herodotus 
reappears.* 

Mahatta — Phii..^. 

Classical Egypt begins at the First Cataract, at the spot where the Nile craft 
from Nubia still land their cargoes of gums, ivory, and ebonj-, in the shade of the 
palms and s}'camores fringing the Mahatta beach. At Mahatta, which stands on 
the right bank, the river is still smooth as a lake ; but towards the north we already 
perceive the black reefs, amid which wind the foaming currents of the rapids. But 
before plunging into this labyrinth of falls, the sluggish waters wash the shores of 
a cluster of verdant isles, one of which is the famous JPhilce, the I/ak of the 
* Lucj' Duff Gordon, '• Letters from Egypt." 



374 NOETH-E.S^T AI-RICA. 

Egyptians, the holy islaud, whither was transferred the tomh of Osiris from Abj-dos. 
(Jf all solemn oaths the most solemn was that sworn by the " Osiris who dwells at 
Phikr." It is a small island, less than half a mile In circmuference ; but its out- 
lines describe a charming oval, and there is no more graceful monument in all the 
land than the kiosk on the east bank, whose festooned columns and floral capitals 
rival the elegant forms of the shapely palm-stems overshadowing them. This 
Egyptian edifice, dating from the time of Tiberius, is one of those that have been 
most frequently reproduced by the pictorial art. It bears neither reliefs nor 
inscriptions ; but it recalls the outlines of the Erechtheon at Athens, and it occupies 
a lovely site. 

The other monuments on the island, temples of Isis reconstructed after the 
conquest of Egypt by Alexander, are more remarkable for their inscriptions than 
for their architecture. Perfectly preserved paintings are still visible on their 
columns. Phila; has become famous in the history of archaeological studies through 
its two bilingual inscriptions, one of which, a copy of the celebrated " Rosetta 
Stone," commemorates in hieroglj^jhic and demotic characters the triumph and 
greatness of Ptolemy V., named the " Immortal." At Philae also was foimd the 
obelisk on which Champollion, after having already discovered the secret of the 
sacred writings, deciphered the name of Cleopatra. This j^rccious monument, 
carried off by Banks and Belzoni, now forms jjart of a private collection in England.* 
Another inscription at Philas, dated the eighteenth ventose of the year seven, records 
the passage of the first division of the French army under the command of Desaix 
in pursuit of the Mameluks, beyond the Cataracts. At one time a tunnel passed 
under the narrow channel separating the island of Philae from that of Biggeh, 
which was formerly also a holy land. 

AssuAN — Abu. 

The valley through which flowed the Nile waters when they stood at a higher 
level than at present, now forms the main route of caravans skirting the Cataracts 
and transporting merchandise overland between Mahatta and Assuan. Here the 
Khedive Ismail constructed a railway nine miles long, for military purposes, and 
this line was extended by the English far into Nubia during the campaigns of 1884 
and 1885. The importance attached for at least the last forty-seven centuries to 
this commercial highway is evident from the inscriptions in various languages 
engraved on its rocky walls. Its strategic value was also fully recognised, as 
appears from the remains of a rampart constructed to defend Syene from the attacks 
of the Blemmj-es. The town lies below the Cataracts, on the right bank of the 
river, where its houses arc disposed in amphitheatral form on the slopes of the 
rocks. The creek of Assuan is crowded with river craft, although less numerous 
tlian at Mahatta, and the ShellaU, or "Men of the Cataract," swarm on the beach 
every time a dahabiyeh weighs anchor in the direction of the rapids. The bazaar 
is well stocked with arms and ornaments, ostrich feathers, skins of wild beasts, ivory, 
* Amelia Edwards, "A Thousand Miles up the Nile." 



ASSUAN— .UiU. 



375 



wood, precious dnigs, aiul other wares brought down from Nubiit and the Upper 
Nile. The neighbouring date groves also supply abundant cargoes for the boats 
proceeding to Cairo and the delta. 

Under its Ai-abic form of As-Suan, the old Egyptian name of Sudn lias survived 
for nearly five thousand years, and midcr its Greek form of Syene had already be- 
come famous in classical times. To geologists it recalls the granite and " syenite" 
quarries, which have been excavated to the south of the city for a space of nearly 



Fig. 112. — ASSUAN AND THE FlKST CATARACT BEFORE THE OPENING OF THE RaiLW.W. 

Scale 1 : 250,000. 







"i^ ^'«^**^. 






^%, 






fe-.. }p--..*?ll 







i^ 



^i/n; ^:Z 



.>--^<' 



EH,|" 



,\'V . A^^^^'v. 



^2 45 



' L of ureenw ch 



-1- 



24' 



-^^'^y 



C Per roo 



6 Miles. 



four miles. Here is still to be seen an obeIi.sk 120 feet long, not yet entirely 
detached from the rock. Astronomers also are reminded by this name of the 
experiments here carried out by Eratosthenes, over twenty-one centuries ago. 
Assuming that Syene stood exactly on the line of the tropic of Cancer, which, how- 
ever, is not strictly correct,* and finding that at Alexandria the shadow of the 
gnomon stood at a fiftieth on the day of the smnmer solstice, from these data 
Eratosthenes deduced the degree of the earth's curvature, and consequently so far 

* Latitude of Aasuan, 24° 5' 23". 



376 NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 

determined the dimensions of the planet. He did not take the direct measurement 
of the distance between Syene and Alexandria. But the Egyptian people, who 
knew so well how to turn their edifices towards the rising sun, must have also 
known not only the distance, but also the exact joosition of these places. Hence the 
common estimate accepted by the Greek astronomer must have come very close 
to the truth. If the measurement of the meridian made by him was in Egyptian 
feet, as is probable, his calculation was -wrong by scarcely a sixty-fifth. The real 
length of the arc of the meridian, between Alexandria and the parallel of Syene, is 
exactly 787,760 metres, while the measurement of Eratosthenes gave 810,000 
metres.* 

Elephantine Island, which faces Assuan on the other side of a channel 500 feet 
wide, was also the site of a famous city. Here stood Abu, the " City of the 
Elephant," which afterwards, during the Greek and Roman periods, appears to have 
been the great emporium for the ivory brought down from the Upper Nile. But 
scarcely any of its ancient monuments have survived to the present day. Its 
temples were demolished in 1822, to supply building materials, and little is now to 
be seen except a Nilometer restored in 1870, and some heaps of ancient pottery on 
which the custom-house officers of the Roman epoch used to scratch their receipts. 
On the ruins now stand two villages of Barabra Nubians. But Elephantine, the 
"Verdant" Isle of the Arabs, still possesses its magnificent date groves, whose 
brilliant foliage presents a striking contrast to the black rocks commanding the 
issue of the cataract. 

Ombos — Edfu. 

The site of the ancient city of Omhox is now indicated only by the hamlet of 
Kom-Omho, situated on the west bank, and by the ruins of two temples dedicated 
to two rival dieties, Horus, god of light, and Sebek, the genius of darkness. But 
the stream is continually eating away this bank, with its sanctuaries and the sand 
encumbering them. The defile of Silsilch, or the " chain," below Xom-Ombo, 
would be the most convenient point for constructing a barrage to raise the level 
of the river and divert a portion of the current to the irrigation canals. According 
to the proposed plan, the main channel would skirt the foot of the Libyan range, 
watering all the now barren tracts which stretch west of the Bahr-Yusef. But, as 
elsewhere pointed out, there are many serious objections to this scheme, which, if 
carried out, would probably have the effect of throwing out of cultivation some 
extensive districts along both banks of the Nile. 

The Silsileh defile, formed of sandstone rocks, is one of the most remarkable 
places in Egypt. On the east side the cliffs have been cut by the ancient quarry- 
men into avenues and cirques, affording an opportunity of admiring the rare skill 
with which they made choice of the finest-grained stone and the care with which 
they extracted it. In this respect the Silsileh quarries might still serve as models 
for our modern contractors. It might almost seem, remarks Mariette, as if the 
* Fayc, "Journal Officiel de la Eepublique Fran^aise," April 29, 1881. 



THE EGYPTIAN SOUDAN, 

• 1 -— r 




LONDON. J 3. VIRTUE fe C " LIS'ITED 



OMBOS— EDFT. S77 

whole mountain had been disposed in regidar blocks, just as the skilful joiner cuts 
into planks the stem of some valuable tree. 

On the west side the cM's have been less encroached upon ; but they are 
richer in sciilptures and inscriptions. Amongst the bas-reliefs of a rock temple 
is an image of the goddess Isis suckling Horus — one of the noblest and most 
charming pictures left us by ancient Egyjitian art.* 

Two colossal pylons annoimce to the traveller from afar the approach to the 
city of Edfii, the Teh of the ancients, the Apollinopolis Magna of the Greeks and 
Romans. Of aU the temples of Egypt that of Edfu has been the best preserved 
in all its parts, and although dating only from the epoch of the Ptolemies, it 
presents a purity of lines and a harmony of proportions justifying a comparison 
with the monuments of the most flourishing periods of Egyptian art ; nowhere 
else had the traditions of the native builders been better preserved. This marvel- 
lous structure has been protected from the ravages of time chiefly through the 
sands of the desert. After removing the ninety-two hovels scattered over the 
mound and sweeping away the heaps of accumulated sand, Mariette found the 
edifice in almost as perfect a state as on the day of its dedication. Nothing is 
missing, except perhaps a few stones of the gateways and roof ; even the outer 
enclosure, which concealed the temple from profane eyes, has been preserved 
intact. From the entrance of the court we see the perspective of colonnades and 
chambers stretching for a distance of nearly 430 feet, and throughout this vast 
space there is not a single recess whose ornaments and inscriptions, all in a state 
of perfect repair, do not clearly explain its purpose. Each chamber bears a 
separate name ; thus one is the " house of books " or library, and the catalogue of 
the contents is here engraved on the walls. 

The whole structure is itself a vast library, containing not only prayers and 
acts of thanksgiving in honour of the holy trinity, Ilarhut, Hathor, and Har- 
pokhrot, but also religious scenes of every description, astronomic tables, histories 
of campaigns, representations of sieges and battles. The temple thus presents 
an encyclopaedia of Egyptian records and mji:holcgy. But the chief interest of 
the Edfu monument lies in its seven-and-twenty geographical lists of Egypt and 
Nubia, enumerating all the provinces, with their products, their cities, and tutelar 
divinities. Thanks mainly to these nomenclatures, supplemented by fifteen other 
more or less complete lists fotmd on various monuments along the banks of the 
2sile, Brugsch has been able to restore the ancient geography of Egypt. t From 
one of the pylons, which commands the entrance to the temple from a height of 
125 feet, a prospect is afforded of the present town laid out like a chess-board in 
little cubic blocks of yellow earth, with the cupola and minaret rising in the 
centre — modest buildings at best compared with the great temple of the Eg^-ptian 
gods. 

" It may be asserted without any exaggeration that if the priests of Edfu could 
rise from their graves with all their sacred paraphernalia, once more to do honour 
to the supplanted gods of the Xde YaUey, they would here find every chamber, 

• Mariette, " Itine:aire de la Haute-Egypte." t " Geographie dea alten .Sgypten." 



378 NORTH-EAST AFEICA. 

every crypt, uud every step just as they left it 1,600 years ago. Without replac- 
ing a single stone, the votaries of the divinity might march in solemn procession 
and in the prescribed route throughout the sacred precincts which have so long 
been desecrated; and should they have forgotten, during their long sleep, the 
purpose and use of each chamber, the inscriptions, marvellously well-preserved, 
would inform all who could read the hieroglyphics of the object to which each 
hall and cabinet was devoted. As regards preservation, Edfu is superior even to 
Denderah, for there the outer portions of the temple have disappeared, all but one 
propylon, and here no part has suffered any considerable injury. 

" The sanctuary of Edfu was dedicated to the great god Horus, who overthrew 
the evil principle Seth, or Typhon, for his father's sake ; and the town to which it 
belonged was therefore called by the ancient Egj'ptians Hut, after the winged sun- 
disc, or the city of the throne of Horus, or the city of the raising of Horus (to the 
throne of his father Osiris), or sometimes the city of the piercing (tchu*\ of 
Typhon, in the form of a river-horse. The Greeks compared Horus to their 
Apollo, the god of light or the sun, and called the city of Horus ApoUinopolis. 

" The sanctuary seems to have been founded at a very early date. Indeed Ptah, 
the oldest of the gods, is said to have built it for Ra. Kings of the twelfth 
dynasty, as well as Thothmes III., took part in the services carried on in it. The 
venerable structure was stiU intact at the time of the Persian dominion ; but under 
the first Ptolemies it had become necessary to erect a new temple on the old site. 

" Euergetes I., the third of the Lagide kings, began the building in accordance 
with the plans of the best Egyptian architects. It is a mighty structure, which 
was not finished till one hundred and eighty years later under Ptolemy Dionysius, 
or Auletes, the father of Cleopatra, in the year 57 b.c. Huge pylons stood at the 
entrance facing those worshijjpers who approached the sanctuary, decorated with 
the likeness of the Pharaoh as victor over his enemies. The visitor entering the 
bronze portals foimd himself in a vast peristyle surrounded on three sides by 
colonnades, and at the upper end of it rose a tall hypostyle, into which no glimpse 
was possible, since the walls connected the piUars which closed in the peristyle in 
front. 

"The actual temple-building is closely allied to that of Denderah as to the 
arrangement and decoration of the chambers. After passing through the hypostyle 
or great forecourt, of which the roof is supported by eighteen columns, we come 
to a 'prosckos' with twelve columns, which is called the great banqueting-hall. 
Thence we proceed through the hall of sacrifice and the central hall of the ' repose 
of the gods,' and reach the sanctuary and grand throne, which consists of a huge 
block of porphyry brought to Edfu during the Persian dominion by the native 
Egyptian king, Nectanebos I., who ruled in opposition to the Persian invaders. 

" The inscriptions in the laboratory and the little librarj' are of the greatest 

scientific interest. The library was full of pajjyrus and leather rolls, and it 

adjoined the front wall of the hypostyle lying to the right of it. As at Denderah 

the roof was reached by a straight stair, and by a spiral flight of steps, and here 

* "Tobu," meaning "piercing," is the Coptic " Atbo," whence the Arabic "Edfu." 



ESNEH— THEBES— LUXOR— KAENAK. 379 

also not tlie smallest spot is bare of inscriptions and pictures, including the 
' calendar of festivals,' and others that have essentially contributed to oui- know- 
ledge of ancient Egyptian geography." * 



ESXEH. 

Below Edf u a gorge opens eastwards, through which formerly descended the 
Herusha marauders, ancestors of the present Ababdeh tribe. Against their incur- 
sions ramparts had been constructed across the gorge, the entrance of which was 
commanded by a fort. The village of El-Kah now occupies the site of this strong- 
hold, which was the Nckhab of the ancient Egj-ptians, and the Eilethia of the 
Greeks. Amongst the numerous sepulchral caves excavated in the neighbouring 
rocks, one has been discovered in which are represented the victories of Ahmes, or 
Amosis, over the Shepherd Kings and the Ethiopian tribes. 

Lower down, the valley of the Xile broadens out as it approaches the modern 
Esneh, whose fields and gardens occupy a considerable space on the left bank of 
the stream. The Latojwlis of the Greeks, Esneh still preserves its ancient name 
of Siu. Capital of a province and an industrial centre, producing blue cottons, 
shawls, and various kinds of pottery, it ranks as one of the chief trading places in 
Upper Egyjjt. A portion of the surrounding plain is covered with sugar-cane 
plantations ; a few dum-pabns are also still seen, but farther down the vegetation 
along the river banks is almost entirely restricted to date-trees. 

The population of Esneh is of a very mixed character, comprising besides 
Coptic Christians and ilussulman fellahin, Nubians, various tribes of Bejas, and 
others from the oases. It was to Esneh that the Almeh of Cairo had been banished 
by Mohammed Ali, and here they are still more numerous than elsewhere. The 
ancient temple of Sni, dedicated to Xneph, " Soul of the World," was partially 
freed in 1842 from the heaps of sand and refuse encumbering it ; but it still 
resembles a shrine in one of the Roman catacombs rather than an edifice erected 
above ground. The style of its architectiire is much inferior to that of Edfu. 

Thebes — Luxor — Karnak. 

After describing a great bend below Esneh, and passing the pleasant village 
and sugar plantations of Erment, the Nile emerges on the plain where are seen 
scattered over both banks the still perfect or ruined monimients of mighty Thebes — 
a world of palaces, of colonnades, temples, and underground buildings. Nowhere 
else is such a splendid display of religious edifices presented to the view. Yet but 
a very small portion of Thebes of the " hundred gates " has been preserved. The 
four chief groups of ruins still standing enclose a space of not more than five square 
miles. But ia the days when No, the " City," ia a pre-eminent sense, better known 
under the name of Pa--:Vmen, or " Abode of Amnion," was the centre of Egj-ptian 
trade and power, it stretched much farther north along the plains skirting the 
* G. Ebers, "Egypt, DcscriptiTe, Historical, and Picturesque," ii., p. 326. 



380 



NORTH-EAST AFRICA. 



riclit bauk of the Nile. During the inundations the group.s of monuments here 
still rise like islets in the midst of the waters. 

Luxor (Luqsor, Al-Aksorein) or " The Two Palace.s," the largest village erected 
on the site of the ancient city, merelj- occupies an artificial mound or heap of 
crumblino- ruins. But in this mound is partly buried a fine temple, which is at 
present being excavated. Before the monument stood two obelisks bearing 
inscriptions in honour of Ramses II. But of these one only sur^'ives, the other 
now occupying the centre of the Place de la Concorde, in Paris. Round the 
temple nothing is visible except shapeless masses of refuse and cultivated ground, 



Fig. 113.— Erixs of Thebes. 
Scale 1 : 7S,000. 










^,VW 



i »■ ■'f j^,. 









hJ.^'^ 



Dfenol Mf<rn»U 






4' 






;/ 



Na£a Abou'HamDuSr 



T- 







32° 37- 



L, - of oreen/ 



32° *0' 



C Perron 



2,200 Yards 



but towards the north-east stretches an avenue 2,200 yards long lined with 
pedestals, some still supporting fragments of sphinxes with the body of a lion and 
head of a woman, and holding in their fore-paws the effigy of Amenhotep III. 
This avenue is succeeded by an alley of sphinxes with rams' heads, leading 
directly to the monuments of Kaniak — pylons, sculptured walls, naves, colonnades, 
obelisks, sjjhinxes, and statues. 

Further explorations by Professor Maspero in the year 1885 have resulted in 
some important fresh discoveries. The great roofed sanctuary of Amenhotep III. 
is now completely cleared ; the columns of the central colonnade are visible for 
over two-thirds of their height, and the original jDavement of this part of the 



THEBES— LTJXOE—KAENAK 881 

edifice has been laid bare. At the northern end, that is to say, in the first great 
courtj'ard approached through the double pylons, a partial clearance has also 
been effected, revealing the existence of a small portico and several colossi, some 
prostrate, some still erect on their pedestals. The jjortico dates from Ramses II., 
and it now appears that the temple, when first constructed, was not separated as 
it now is from the Nile by an extensive space of rising ground ; but that all the 
southern end of the building behind the sanctuar}', and part of the western side, 
rose, as it were, direct from the water's edge, like the western gallery at Phila;. 
Some remains of a great quay, inscribed with the names and titles of Amen- 
holep III., have also been brought to light. M. Maspero is able now to assert 
that Luxor, freed from the modern excrescences by which it has hitherto been 
disfigured, is for grandeur of design and beauty of proportions almost equal to 
Karnak. The sculptures with which the chambers and columns are decorated are 
of the finest and most delicate execution ; while some of the wall subjects would 
not suffer in the comparison if placed side by side with the choicest bas-reliefs of 
Abydos.* 

For a period of three thousand years, from the twelfth dynasty to the last of 
the Ptolemies, temple after tempde was erected at Karnak. Everywhere the eye 
lights on miracles of workmanship ; but the glory of this architectural museum is 
the chamber of colonnades, or " hypostyle," constructed in the reign of Seti I. It 
is the largest work of the kind in Egypt,