t^^^y V A l*¥ ^■iJf. ^«)«- THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 910 u II LISRAKV XiKlTUki/)^ ARABS, SUDANESE NEGRO AND FBMALE SHILLUE SLAVE. THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS THE UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY By ELISEE RECLUS EDITED By a. H. KEANE, B.A. VICE-PRF.SIDENT ANTHROP. INSTITUTE; COR. MEMB. ITALIAN AND WASHINGTON ANTHROP. SOC. PROFESSOR OF HINDUSTANI, UNIVERSITY COL. LONDON; AUIHOR OF "ASIA," ETC. VOL. XI. NORTH-WEST AFRICA ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS LONDON J. S. VIRTUE & CO., Limited, 294, CITY ROAD tONDON ■ rniNTED DY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMIIHD, CITY StL'AD. V. II j^SS & ^ i^i^^ ^'^■^^ ^g 5^^ 1^^ ^ BijO^^^^^^ ^^ ^^r^^fet m£M i^^^^ l^^S*^ M H9nhiJV%\^pF/ AkA Yo^'yiJtT"' lEaffllE HU(7{A>--wu,^SUp^ yw' $«^ ■^stvs^Ti^n^' \'®5'\^^^i^ ^^a ^^^^ S\ m ^^ l^^^P P W^ ^ 1 ►iiip" ^^ ..-i'''^*^^r^ ^4 ^^^ d CONTENTS. cu\r. PAOB I. Tetpolitana .1 Barka, p. 1. Historical Retrospect, p. 3. Physical Featui'es, p. 4. CUmate of Barka, p. 6. Flora and Fauna, p. 7. Inliabitants, p. 9. Topography, p. 13. II- Toe Aujila Oases 23 Topography, p. 25. III. The Kuera Oases 28 Flora and Fauna, p. 31. Inhabitants, p. 31. Topography, p. 32. IV. The Geeat Syktis and Teipolitana Seaboard 3■^ General Survey, p. 34. Physical Features, p. 36. Hydrog-raphie System, p. 42. Coast- lands, p. 43. Climate, p. 44. Flora, p. 46. Fauna, p. 48. Inhabitants, p. 49. The Arabs of Tripolitana, p. 51. The Negroes and Turks, p. 53. The Jews, Maltese, and Eui'opeans, p. 55. Topography, p. 55. Tripoli, p. 63. V. Fezzan 68 Physical Features, p. 69. Lakes and Wadies, p. 71. Oases, p. 73. Climate, p. 74. Flora, p. 75. Fauna, p. 70. Inhabitants, p. 77. Topography, p. 79. VI. GiiadjUies 82 Physical Features, p. 83. Topography, p. 87. VII. Rhat 90 Topography, p. 92. Government and Administration, p. 93. VIII. Tunisia 95 The Atlas Orographic System, p. 96. Ethnical Elements, p. 98. Historic Retrospect, p. 101. Physical Features, p. 102. Hydrographic System, p. 106. The Tuni-sian Sebkhas, p. 112. The Coast and Islands, p. 118. The Syi-tes, p. 121. ainiate, p. 122. Flora, p. 125. Fauna, p. 127. Inhabitants, p. 130. The Berbers and Arabs, p. 130. The Turks, p. 136. The Jews, p. 137. The Europeans, p. 138. Topogr.aphy, p. 139. Stakes, p. 149. Kairwan, p. 156. Tunis, p. 168. Carthage, p. 176. Bizerta, p. 182. Social and Political Condition of Tunis, p. 189. Government, p. 193. IX. Aloeeia 197 Historic Retrospect, p. 197. Physical Features, p. 201. The Coast Ranges, p. 204. The Southern Ranges, p. 206. Rivers, p. 212. 'rhe Shotts ; Artesian Wells, p. 217. CUmate, p. 221. Flora, p. 223. Fauna, p. 226. Inhabitants, p. 227. The Algerian Arabs, p. 234. Tlic Negroes and Jews, p. 236. Topogr.aphy, p. 237. Bona, p. 242. Constantino, p. 245. Philippcville, p. 219. Bougie, p. 252. Kabylia, p. 254. Algiers, ^n ^?>^ IV CONTENTS. p. 208. Mostagancm, p. 283. Oran, p. 280. Tlemoen, p. 290. Batna, p. 296. Biskra, p. 303. Wed-Ri^h, p. 300. Lajjhwat, p. 308. Ghardaya, p. 309. The Mzabites, p. 310. Wargla, p. 31i. The Wed Maya, p. 315. El Golea, p. 316. Social Condition of Algeria, p. 319. Forests; Agriculture, p. 321. The European Settlers, p. 325. Indus- tries ; Trade, p. 327. Roads and Railways, p. 329. Administration, p. 332. The Marabuts, p. 337. The Mohammedan Brotherhoods, p. 339. Education, p. 341. Mabocco The Atlas Highlands, p. 348. The Little Atlas and Bani Ranges, p. 352. The Jebel Aian and Beni Hassan Uplands, p. 353. Rivers, p. 355. Climate, p. 360. Flora, p. 361. Fauna, p. 362. Inhabitants : the Berbers, p. 363. The Arabs, Jews, and Negroes, p. 369. Topography, p. 370. Jaferiu Islands, p. 372. Tetuan, p. 373. Tangier, p. 375. Larash, p. 377. Fez, p. 379. Wezzan, p. 383. Mazagan, p. 388. Marocco, p. 390. Mogador, p. 393. Tarudant, p. 395. TafUelt Oasis, p. 402. The Guir Basin, p. 404. The Figuig Oasis, p. 406. Social Condition of Marocco, p. 407. Army ; Finance ; Administrative Divisions, p. 412. XI. The Sahaea E.xtent ; Population, p. 414. Progress of Discovery, p. 415. Physical Aspect, p. 416 The Dunes, p. 418. The Ergs, p. 419. Climate, p. 421. Eunedi ; Wajanga, p. 423 Tibesti ; Borku, p. 424. Climate ; Flora ; Faima, p. 427. Inhabitants ; the Tibbus, p 420. Topography, p. 433. The Kawar Oasis, p. 434. Bilma, p. 436. Dibbela Agadem; Jebel Ahaggar, p. 437. North Tassili, p. 439. Tlie Igharghar Basin, p. 442 Flora and Faima, p. 444. The Tuareg Berbers, p. 440. The Twat Oases, p. 454. Flora, Fauna, and Inhabitants of Twat, p. 456. Gurura and Timimun Oases, p. 457. Ulad- Raffa ; Tsabit; Tamentit, p. 460. Air and AweUimiden Berbers, p. 463. Topography, p. 466. Adghagh, p. 469. 345 414 XU Western Sahara 171 The Iguidi Dunes, p. 471. Rivers, p. 474. The Atlantic Seaboard, p. 474. Flora, Fauna, and Inhabitants, p. 476. Topograpliy, p. 477. The Adrar Nomads, p. 480. The Marabuts, p. 481. Appendix. Statistical Tables ;..... 483 I^1>EX 497 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. MAPS PEIXTED IX COLOTJES. PAnE 1. Ttrois and Constantine . . . . lOi 2. Algiers and Orau 200 3. Morocco 360 4. Eastern Sahara . 5. Western Sahara . PAGE 424 472 PLATES. Arabs, Sudanese Negro, and Female Shilluk Slave .... Froiilispm The Kasr-el-Jebel CSrque . To face page Tripoli, from the Roadstead . General View of ilurzuk Tunisian Landscape : View taken from the TeUatPass . . . Khumir Man, Women, and Child . Cabes : View taken from the Jara Gardens Nafta and the Shott-el-Jtrid . Sfakes : View taken in the Leonec Street General View of K;iirwan Tunis : Street in the Suk District . Old Ports of Carthage .... General View of El-Kef .... View of Stora Bay Arab Mendicant, Biskra Negress, and El-Kan- tara Woman ..... Kabyle Family Group .... Saharian Landscape : Nomad Encampment General View of Bona .... General View of Coustantine, taken from tl Mansora Route .... 40 64 80 96 132 144 148 152 160 172 176 180 202 228 232 236 242 248 Kabyle Family travelling . To face page 236 Kabyle VUlage ...... 264 General View of Algiers, taken from the Kheir- el-DLu Pier 268 General View of Blida 276 Boghari ViUage and Market .... 282 Oran : View taken from the Marina . . 288 The El-Kantara Gorge 300 Street View in Biskra ..... 304 General View of Lag-hwat .... 308 Beni-Eamasses Quarter, Constantine . 320 General View of Tetuan ..... 372 Tangier : View taken from the East . . 376 Wed-el-Halluf, near Figuig .... 404 General View of Fez 408 The Sahara : View taken from the Sfa Pass, North-west of Biskra . .420 Group of Tibbus 428 Jebel Khanfusa 440 The Egueri Gorge ...... 460 Mouth of the Wed Draa : View taken from the Soa 476 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. no. P.IOE FIG 1. Route of the Chief Explorers in Cyrenaica 4 45. 2. Zawya of Mazu.va, i.v the .\ix}eeia.> Daiika n 46. 3. Tobruk 14 47. 4. Cyrcue 16 48. 0. View fbom the Necbopolis of Cyre-ve 17 49. 6. Benghazi 20 7. Regions South of Barka lying below tht 50. Level of the Mediterranean 24 51. 8. Group of the Aujila Oases 26 9. The IVIJFR.V Oasis .... 30 52. 10. Kufra Oasis 33 53. 11. Routes of the Chief Explorers iu Tripoli - 54. tana 3.5 55. 12. Projec-teJ Riiilwaya across West Africa 37 56. 13. Jebel Ghurian 40 57. 14. Oases and Arable Lands of Tripolitana . 47 58. 15. Inhabitants of Tripolitana 52 59. IC. Jofra Oasis 58 60. 17. The Khoms Coast District, Tripolitana 61 61. 18. TripoU 64 62. 19. Routes of the Chief Explorers in Fezzau . 70 63. 20. Oases of Fezzan .... 73 64. 21. Murzuk 80 65. 22. Ghadames District .... 83 66. 23. The Ghadames Oasis . . . . 85 24. General View of Ghadames . 36 67. 2.5. Rhat Ul 68. 20. Ancient form of Mauritania, accoriUug U 69. Bourguignat's Hypothesis 96 27. Tabaeka Islant) — View takem fbom thi: 70. Coast 103 71. 28. Hamada-el-Kessera .... 104 72. 29. The Jebel Zaouwan 105 30. Lakes of Eskel and Bizerta 107 73. 31. Gorges of the Middle Mejerd;i . 108 32. Old Beds of the Lower Mojerda 109 33. The Mejebda at Sluoia, above Mejez-el 74. Bab 111 75. 34. Sill of Cabes 114 76. 3.5. Zone of the Shotts south of East Algorii 77. and Tunis 115 78. 36. Tracks of TravoUcra iu the Shott-el-Jerid 116 79. 37 Lsland of Jerba .... 120 80. 38. Cape Bon and Zombra Island . . 124 81. 39. Native Inhabitants of Tunis . . 134 82. 40. Tunisian Jewess .... . 137 83. 41. Houses at Kasr El-Mudenin . . 140 84. 42. Jebba Island. Castlk near Humt Suk 142 85. 43. Peninsula of Ncfzawa iii; SO. 44 Jfrid ._^ . 147 The AMPnrmEATEE of El-.Jem, viewed FROM THE Ruined Side Mahdiya .... Monastir and Susa . KaiiTvan .... Kasbah of Susa, viewed fboh the Fbench Consulate . : . . Kaiewan : The Mosque of the Swobds Ruins op Sbeitla, the Ancient Suffe tula . Siisji and Enfida Aqueducts of Carthage Tunis La Goletta Carthage . Ancient Ports of Carthage Plain of Ghardimau . Ruins of Utica . Bizerta, viewed from the Kasbah Tabarka . Cobk-Tree of Febnana Railways and Highways of Tunis Gradual Conquest of Algeria . Erosions of the Mountains near Tiaret Junction of the Geodetic Lines between jUgeria and Spain Ancient Glaciers of the Haizer Mountain Gorges of the Wed Agriun View taken in the SnABET-EL-.\KRA Route Cape de Fer Lakes of La Calle Cliffs of the Ighaeohak : View ta&en FROM the North of Temassinin Valley of the Wed Miya, between the Gajraa El-Onkser and the Gara.i T-el-Beida Shott Melgliigh and Projected Inland Sea Artesian Wells of Ziban and the Wed Righ Barr.ige of the Haraiz Rainfall of the Sahara in 1884 Forests of Algeria Tlie Alfa Region Chief Ancient Cities of Algeria Chief Tribes of Algeria Arabs and Berbers of Algeria Arab Type : Aoha op Ti-ourt S>ik-jUiras and its Environs La CaUe .... Petrified Cascade of Hammam-el-Mesk huthin PAGE 153 155 156 1.57 1.58 160 163 164 167 173 175 177 179 181 184 186 187 188 192 199 203 205 207 208 209 211 214 216 217 218 219 220 222 224 225 230 232 233 235 238 239 241 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. vn 87. Bona 243 88. Edugh and Lake Fetzara . . . 244 89. Constantine in 1 330 . . • .246 90. The Natural Arch of C'on-st.intixe . 247 91. Constantine in 1884 . . . .248 92. PliiUppe\Tlle 250 93. JijiH 251 94. Bougie ....... 253 95. Zwan-a and Ait-Iraten Territory . . 257 96. Cliief Ti-ibes of Kabylia . . . .258 97. Kuku audSheUataPass . . . .261 98. Fort National 264 99. Dellys 265 100. Palestro and Gorges of the Lsser . . 266 101. Lower Sebau and Isser Valleys . . 267 102. Algiers in 1830 269 103. Algiers in 1885 270 104. Steeet View in the Old Town, Aloiees 271 105. Milit:uy Lines of Algiers . . . 272 106. Sidi-Ferrush 273 107. Algerian Sahel 274 lOS. Bufarii 275 109. BUda 277 110. Tomb op the Cheistlan Lady 278 HI. Isthmus of Tipaza 279 112. ShersheU 280 113. Tenes 281 114. Gorge.sof theShelif . . . .282 115. Medea 283 116. Miliana, SiUof .-i^reA-ille . . .284 117. Most;iganem 285 118. Arzeu 287 119. Oran 288 120. Plain of the Andalusians . . .289 121. Tlemeen 291 122. Street View ix Tliemcen . . . 292 123. Mouth of tlieTafna . . . .293 124. Nemours ...... 294 125. NEMOtTRS 295 126. The Sheliya and Plain of Medina . . 297 127. LAJtB.ESis : Ruins op the PRirroEiuM . 298 128. Fum Ksantina 299 129. Aueieut Roman Towns in North Aures . 300 130. A NaU Arab Woman . . . .301 131. The Bu-Khail Mountains . . .302 132. Emancipated Neoeess, Biskra . 304 133. Oases of the Northern and Southern Zibans 305 134. The Wed Righ Oasis . . .306 135. Tugurt 307 130. Laghwat . . . . '- . .308 137. Mzab 311 138. General View OF Ghardata . . . 312 139. Mzab and Metlili 313 PIO. PAGE 140. Wargla 315 141. El-Golea 317 142. The Ain-Sefra HigUands . .318 143. Growth of the European Population in Algeria since 1830 .... 320 144. Teniet-el-Haad audits Forests . . 322 145. A Great Algerian Domain . . . 326 146. Thermal Springs 328 147. Growth of the Foreign Trade of Algeria since 1830 329 148. Lines of Steam Navigation between Mauri- tania and the Opposite Coast . . 330 149. Roads and Railways of Algeria . .331 150. An Arab Familt of Tlemcen . . . 334 151. FuUy Pri\'ileged, Mixed, and Native Communes in jVlgeria . . . 336 152. Relative Population of the Algerian Com- munes 337 153. Holy Cities and Chief Religious Associa- tions in Algeria 338 154. Aloxers is 1832 342 155. Tiaret and Tagdemt . . .313 156. Routes of the Chief Explorers in Marocco 346 157. Bled-el-Makhzen and Bled-es-Siba . . 347 158. Crests and Passes of the Atlas South of Marrakesh 349 159. Jebel Tiza: View taken from the Taoheeut Pass 350 160. The Tetuan Highlands . . . .354 161. The Sherat RivEE 356 162. Lower Course of the Sebu . . . 357 163. Arabs and Berbers of Maghreb-el-Aksa . 358 164. A Tangier Arab 364 165. Arab Woman of Tangiee . . . 365 166. Arab Camel-Driter .... 368 167. Ujda, Isly, and the Angad Plain . .371 168. Tetuan 373 169. Ceuta 374 170. Tangier 376 171. El-Araish and Chenimish . . . 378 172. Fez and Neighbourhood .... 379 173. A Gateway in Fez 380 174. Mecnes and Volubilis .... 382 175. MuLAi Tayeb, Sheeif of Wezzan . . 384 170. Rbat and Mouth of the Bu-Reorao — View taken from Sla . . . 386 177. Rbat and Sla 387 178. Mazagan and Azemmur .... 389 179. Marocco — The Cheistian's Gate . . 391 180. Marrakesh 392 181. Mogador and Neighbourhood . . . 394 182. Tarudant 396 183. Ifni and Neighbouring Coast . . .399 184. Wed Zis and Tafilelt Oases . .403 LIST OF ILI.USTEATIOXS. no. r*0B 185. El-Balmriat of the Wed Guir . . 405 180. Fijriiif^ OiifiiH .... . 406 187. A School in Fkz . 409 188. Frontiers of .tVlffuria aiid llarocoo . 410 189. Fez : Gateway op the Kasbaji . 411 190. Tlie Great East Erg . 420 191. Routes of the Cliicf Explorers in the Ea.st*^m Sahara . . 425 192. Northern Tibesti . 426 193. Borku . 431 194. Kawar Oasis .... . 435 195. Routes of the Chief Explorers between Algeria and the Tuareg Territory FIO. TAOR 196. Gjeology of the Sahara south of Al- geria 443 197. TABGtn Ttte 448 198. Tuaeeos ox A JointNET .... 449 199. Is.sawan Valley 454 200. Gurara and "Wed Saura . . . .458 201. Twat and Tidikelt 4G2 202. Air 4G7 203. Routes of the Chief Explorers in the Western Sahara .... 472- 204. Rio de Oro 475 205. Arawan and Mabruk .... 479 439 BY ELISEE RECLUS. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. In Two Vols., One Guinea each. With about 250 Illustrations and 25 Coloured Maps in each volume. UNIFORM WITH "THE UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY.' Vol. I. -the EARTH: A DESCRIPTIVE HISTORY OF THE PHENOMENA OF THE LIFE OF THE GLOBE. Vol. n.-THE OCEAN, ATMOSPHERE, AND LIFE. Times. " We have probably, on the whole, the most complete, detailed, and systematic account of the great facts in physical geography to be found in any single work. . . . The numerous illustrations and maps are very beautiful and all appropriate." AthensBum " A more attractive work on physical geography has rarely been written." Saturday Keview. "Two volumes which ought to be a mine of information to teachers as well as to the general reader. . . . 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THE UXIYEESAL GEOGEAPHY. NOETH-WEST AFPJCA. CHAPTER I. TEIFOLITA^sA. iJHE porrion of the African continent designated on the maps by the name of Tripolitana is a territory destitute of geographical unity. A vast region over 400,000 square miles in extent, it comprises several distinct countries separated from each other by uninhabited or even uninhabitable solitudes. Here the desert, or at least the steppes leading to it, reach the Mediterranean at the Syrtis Major. The space comprised between Cyrenaica on the east, and the Ghurian highlands near Tripoli, forms a land of imperceptible transition between the coast and Sahara zones, while the whole of Southern Tripolitana already belongs to the desert, properly so called. Here we meet with little but rocky, stony, argillaceous, or sandy tracts, except in some depressions, where a few springs afford sufficient water for man and his date- groves. Hence Tripolitana is regarded as a geographical unit rather through a political fiction than on account of its physical conditions. The whole region comprised under this name is not even politically subject to the Sublime Porte. Thus the Kufra oasis, although usually included amongst the possessions of Turkey, has hitherto maintained its independence, while in several oases lying nearer to the coast the Sultan's authority is purely nominal. Barka. TVest of Egypt and its dependent northern oases stretches the Barka plateau, often called Cyrenaica, from the famous city of Cyrene, built here by the Hellenes. Politically it forms part of the regency of TripoK, and it is consequently, at least in appearance, directly subject to the Turkish Government. But geographically it VOT.. XT. B 2 KOKTH-W^ST AFHICA. is entirely distinct from tlie rest of Tripolitana, and contemporary events have shown how unstable is the present political equilibrium. It may well happen that in the near future the partition of Africa, already begun by the European Powers, may cause both CjTcne and Tripolitana to be transferred from their present Ottoman rulers probably to the Italians. Even now the de facto masters of the land are not those appointed by Stambul. The religious order of the Senusiya, which was first established in Algeria, and whose capital is at Jarabub, in the Faredgha oasis, is the true rulin" power throughout the whole region comprised between the Egyptian frontier and the Gulf of Cabes. Here the Turkish officials are tolerated only on the condition of conforming themselves to the mandates addressed to them by the ao'cnts of the head of the order, and all persons invested with magisterial or municipal offices belong to this commimity. The summons to arms issued by the " Mahdi " of Jarabub would c\cn now be instantly obeyed by a regular ai-my of infantry and cavalry, already organised independently of the Turkish Government. The region of the African seaboard comprised between Egj^t and Tripoli, properly so called, is at present of all Mediterranean lands the least frequented by European traders, and the most thinly peopled coimtry in the basin of the great inland sea. Three hundred thousand persons at most, possibly even not more than two hundred and fifty thousand, are scattered over the space limited eastwards by the Egyptian frontier, westwards by the depression stretching from the Faredgha oasis towards the Great Syrtis, or Gulf of Sidra ; that is, a proportion of less than ten to the square mile. The steamers na\-igating the Mediterranean in all direc- tions seldom call at the ports on the Barka seaboard ; hence this strip of coast, which extends for about 1,200 miles, from Alexandria to Tripoli, maintains scarcely anj' commercial relations with the outer world. But on the other hand, the expansive power of the European nations is every- where followed by inevitable consequences ; nor can there be any doubt that Cyrenaica will again become a flourisliing colony, attracting, as it did some twenty- five centuries ago, industrious settlers from Greece and Italy. The projecting coastline of Barka approaches to within 240 miles of Cape Matapan ; in these waters, forming the zone of separation between the eastern and central Mediter- ranean basins, Africa seems, as it were, to meet Europe half-way, and it would be strange if the throbbing life of Western civilisation failed to make itself ultimately felt in this neighbouring region of the " Dark Continent." Hitherto, however, European influence — which, following the great maritime highways of the globe, has become dominant at the Antipodes themselves— has been almost imperceptible in this Libyan land, which, nevertheless, for a period of over a thousand years, formed an integral part of the Hellenic world, the centre of ancient science and art. During the Roman period, Cyrenaica was still regarded as forming a dependency of Greece, and it even constituted, with the island of Crete, a single administrative province. mSTOBIC EETROSPECT. Historic Eetrospect. On tte Xortli African seaboard the rounded mass of the plateau of Barka corresponds with the region of Tunis, which limits the Gulf of Cabes towards the west, and projects in the Carthaginian headlands in the direction of Sicily. The two territories resemble one another in their geographical position, their cKmate, and products. They also plaved their part in the history of the old world, one through its Hellenic colonies, the other through its Phcenician republic. In comparing Cyrene with Carthage, observers have dwelt on the natural advantages of the former, and have expressed their surprise that it never rose to the same pitch of commercial prosperity as its western rival. It is, however, to be observed that for the purposes of international trade Carthage really occupied a position far superior to that of the maritime cities of CjTenaica. Forming no part of the Greek world, it did not reach the same standard of general culture ; and although not lacking great thinkers, it never exercised the same influence in the development of the arts and sciences. But on the other hand, Carthage played a far more considerable part in the commercial world. Being hemmed in on all sides by the wilderness, the plateau of Cyrene drew from the interior a very limited quantity of supplies, imported by the diflicult and tedious route of the oases ; hence its natural trading relations were rather with the Hellenic islands and peninsulas facing it on the opposite side of the Mediterranean. But the more favourably situated city of Carthage necessarily became the chief outlet of a vast and populous region stretching far into the interior of the continent. Almost within sight of Sicily, and standing on the great Mediterranean strait, where converge the main water highways from Greece and Spain, it commanded the central position of the whole maritime basin. Over the Greek cities it enjoyed the further advantage of being situated nearer to the ■ Columns of Hercules," and its vessels were the first to plough the waters of the boundless ocean. "Wasted by the Arabs, especially during their second invasion in the middle of the eleventh century, the inhabitants of Barka lost their trade and culture ; the land lapsed into barbarism, its mined cities and its buiial-places became the haunts of wild beasts. The myth of Hercules and Antfeus personifies the struggles of the Greek settlers against the natives of Cyrenaica, the Libyan giant drawing fresh strength from the ground each time he touched his mother. Earth. But, not- withstanding the fable, which records the victory of Hercules, it was Antceus who triumphed in the end. However, the type of the ancient Berber population does not seem stiU to prevail. Diversely modified by crossings with Greeks, Xegroes, and Tui-ks, the Libyan stock has been further replaced, or almost entirely trans- formed, by Arab intermixture. Future immigration vdU give the political ascen- dancy to the Europeans ; but *'the local element will doubtless always remain the most numerous here, as elsewhere throughout Xorth Africa. The pending annexation of Cyrenaica to the cidtured world has already been sufficiently prepared by the researches of modern explorers. At the beginning of 4 NORTU-'\\'EST APEICA. the eighteenth century the French traveller, Lemairc, was already studying the ruins of the old Greek cities. Sections of the seaboard were surveyed b}' Paul Lucas, Shaw, Bruce, Granger, while in 1811 and 1817, the Italians CervelH and Delia Cella penetrated into the interior, and for the first time recorded S3'stematic observations on the soil, clunate, jjroducts, and antiquities of the country. Then came the brothers Beechey, who occupied themselves chiefly with the maritime districts, and the artist Pacho, whose attention was directed mainly to the ruined cities of the plateaux. Cyreuaica was also traversed by Dehqjorte, De Bourville, Barth, Hamilton, De Beurmaun, Gerhard Pohlfs, Murdoch Smith, and Porcher, and of late years it has been successively visited by a great many travellers. Fig-. 1. — Route op the Chief E.\plokees in Cyeenaica. Scale 1 ; 3,500,000. I Sou mfi Z/. Z, A D S J. R A. B I L . ol Ureenwicn Depths. to 320 Feet, 1. Delln CcUa, DC 2. Bcecbev, Bch. a. Pacho, P. Pez.int, P. Biuth, Ba. Hamlltou, Ha. 1,600 to 3,200 Feet. I 7. Beurmann, B. 8- Rohlft, E. I 9. Sleeker, S. CO Miles. 10. Freund, F. 11. Camperio, C. 12. Haimann, H. astronomers, geographers and naturalists, nearly all of whom were sent by the Italian Society of Commercial E.xploration in Africa. The chief objects of "these c.,iitinuous visits is to prepare the way for the political occupation of the country by the kingdom of Italy- Physical Fe.4.tures of B.\rk.\. Between Egypt and the territory of Barka there are no natural frontiers. The hills and plateaux, skirting the north side of the Siwah oasis, arc continued westwards, ri.siug gradually into terraced uplands, which, beyond the Gulf of Soloflm, or Mellah, accpiiie the dignily and title of jebcl (mountains). Here is the PHYSICAL FEATUEES OF BAEEA. 5 starting-point of the line of demarcation officially laid down between Egypt and TripoUtana. The headland commanding the Gulf of Soloum was ever regarded by Sallust, Pomijonius Mela, and other ancient authors as the angular limit between Afi'ica and Asia, Egypt being considered by them as belonging to the eastern continent. At this point the highest summits of the plateau exceed 1,000 feet, and the coast route has to sxu-mount a projecting ridge by means of a graded track, whence the promontory, as far as the Eas-el-Melah, took its Greek name of Kata- bathnios ilegas, or "Great Descent." At present the Egyptian Ai-abs give it the title of Akabet-el-Kebir, or " Great Ascent," and to El-Edrisi it was known as the Akabah-el-Soloum, or " Graded Ascent," whence the present name of the neigh- bouring gulf. It is easy to understand how seafarers and caravan traders at all times looked uj)on these abrupt decli^"ities, and the deep indentation formed by the Gidf of Soloum, as a natxu-al limit, although farther inland the plateau is continued on either side without any great differences of level. From the Gulf of Soloum to the great bend, whose western extremity is occupied by Benghazi, the seaboard is divided into two nearly equal sections by the so-called Gulf of Bomba, which is limited westwards by the Ras-et-Tin, or " Fig-tree Cape." East of this deep inlet, already marked out as the site of a future naval station analogous to that of Spezia, the coast district coincides with the ancient Marmarica, or ilarmaridis ; to the west is developed in a graceful curve the shore-line of Cyrenaica, properly so called. The two territories are clearly separated by the bed of the "Wady Temmim, which, however, is dry for several months in the year. Some 60 miles long, it is the only torrent in Barka which is anything more than a mere ravine, flushed only for a few hours after each rainfall. On either side of this intermediate depression, the heights present different natm-al features. The Miocene plateau of Marmarica has an average elevation less than half that of Cyrenaica, and its depressions, nearly all parallel ■with the shore, are mere folds in the rocky sui-face rather than true valleys. In the west, on the contrary, the hills of Cyrenaica constitute a veritable highland, the so-called Jebel Akhdar, or "Green Moimtains," some of whose crests exceed 3,300 feet in altitude. This term, however, is more specially restricted to the western group of uplands, which, notwithstanding their rounded outlines, bear a closer resemblance to the Apennines than any other African district. The same trees overshadow the same undergrowth ; a mean temperature differing little from that of Ital\- prevails over hill and dale ; the breeze wafted over the thickets is charged with the same perfumes : the same blue waters sparkle at the foot of the escarpments. Travelling across the land of Barka, visitors from Italy fancy themselves still sur- rounded by the scenery of their native homes. The Greeks also had converted this region into an African HeUas. In their enthusiasm here they placed the fii-st of those " Gardens of the Hesperides " which their daring navigators, pushlag still westwards, had scattered, so to say, from Cyrenaica to the utmost verge of the mainland. The Arabs in their turn bore testimony to their admiration for its natural beauties, by the title of " Green Mountains," which they gave to the Barka highlands. "Whether they arrived from g KOETH-WEST AFBICA. the south-east or west, they had still to traverse bare aud waterless solitudes. Hence, the sudden contrast naturally caused them to regard as earthly Edens the green slopes and inirling brooks of these pleasant uplands. The plateau of Cyrcnaica is largely indebted for its inviting aspect to the graceful outUnes of its hills, which develop their highest summits in the very neighbourhood of the seaboard. The coastlands, in some places presenting the pink tint of the corals which form about a third of the whole mass, are skirted by tracts sloping gently to the foot of the vertical cliffs, or abrupt rocky walls broken by narrow gorges, through which ^^•ind the paths obliquely scaling their steep sides. Above this limestone pedestal tower the crests of the Jebel Akhdar, beyond which the traveller finds himself already on the verge of the desert. Here the beds of dry wadies open southwards ; to the wooded hills succeed the serirs, vast stony wastes, or extensive plains clothed with a scant vegetation of alfa and other grasses. The colour of the soil changes with its relief. The Barka highlands are covered with a reddish humus, whence the designation of Barka-el-Hanu-a, or "Barka the red," applied by the Arabs to this region. But southwards the fertile red clays of upper Cyrenaica gradually merge in the grey and white tints of the sands and bare rocks characteristic of Barka-el-Bekla, or " Barka the white." Still farther south, where the arid soil no longer supports the scantiest vegetation, the desert wastes bear no geographical name. Here nothing meets the ej^e except the shifting dune, rock, or hard clay wearily traversed by caravans, whose track is marked only by wells of brackish water, occurring at long intervals. Climate of Bakka. The northern section of Barka, beyond the serirs and dunes of the " white " region, enjoys an Italian climate. At sea-level the normal annual temperature ranges from 70° to 73"^ F., according to the latitude — an isothermal mean several degrees above that of Southern Italy. But on the ujjlands, exposed to cooler marine breezes, the temperature falls to the level of that of Sicily and Naples. On the plateaux of Cyrene, 1,600 feet high, the heat during the day varies from 54° F. in winter to 84° in smnmer.* At night the temperature, although considerably lowered by the effects of radiation in a cloudless sky, seldom falls to the freezing- point. Altogether, for its soft and equable climate, Cyrenaica stands almost unrivalled. Here the traveller rarely suffers from the extremes either of heat or cold. He may also easily change from one zone to another, for the plains, plateaux, and highlands are all alike clothed with that rich red humus on which flourish all the cultivated plants of temperate regions. As long ago pointed out by Herodotus, " the territory of Cyrene has tlii'ee admirable seasons. The coastlands aboimd in fruits which first arrive at maturity. Then follow the harvest and the vintage, and the crops are scarcely garnered when the fruits on the hills are ripe enough to be gathered. • Hamilton, "Wanderings in North Africa." FLOBA AND FAUNA OF BARKA. 7 Then those of the cuhninating region reach maturity, so that the first harvest is consumed when the last arriyes. Thus for eight mouths the Cyreneans are always harvesting." * " Red " Barka belongs to the llediterranean zone of winter rains, although it is also frequently refreshed with autumn showers. Its abnost insular position exposes Cyrenaica to all the moisture-bearing winds, except those from the south and south-east; and the humidity being arrested by' the lofty heights, often descends in copious rains. At times the torrents rushing through the mountain gorges down to the coast towns have converted into mud and swept away the hovels, and undermined the more substantial dwellings. Still the yearly rainfall is less than in most European countries, ranging, according to Fischer, from 14 to 20 inches, or from half to two-thirds that of France. From Alexandria to Gyrene it increases gradually westwards. Much, however, of the rain water disappears at once in the fissures of the limestone ground, and is thus lost for the higher lands. But lower down it reappears on the plains, welling up in copious springs at the foot of the cliffs. In many places, and esjjecially in the vicinity of Benghazi, west of the Jebel Akhdar, the subterranean waters would reach the coast through hidden channels, if the ancients had not contrived to arrest their course and bring them to the surface. In siiite of the rains which fall on Uie uplands, Cyrenaica has not a single permanent stream, while " "White " Barka, the region of sands and bare rocks, has nothing but its waterless wadics, and at long intervals a few wells from which oozes a brackish fluid. Flora and Fauna of Barka. The vegetation, being regulated by the quantity of rain water, either received directly from the clouds or filtered through ground in flowing streams, naturally increases in exuberance in the direction from east to west. A careful exploration of the district about the port of Tobruk, in Marmarica, yielded to Schweinfurth not more than two hundred and twenty plants, whereas Ascherson has enumerated as many as four hundred and ninety-three for Western Cj-renaica. The upland region of the plateau, where the rain escapes rapidly through the surface fissures, offers little bcj'ond grej'ish species, whose scanty foliage is parched by the summer suns. Here and there the monotony of the barren wastes is broken by a stunted acacia or a soUtary turpentine-tree. But on all the slopes and in all the depres- sions, where the rain water is retained for any length of time, the laurel, elder, myrtle, mastic, eglantine, and other southern shrubs cluster round the evergreen oak and tall cypress, of freer growth than those of Italy, and rising at times to a height of over 160 feet. k These dense thickets of treee. and shrubs, which never lose their verdure, explain the designation of Jebel Akhdar, the " Green Hills," appUed by the Arabs to the highest uplands of Barka. The forest trees no longer supply much more than fuel * Book iv., p. 199. 8 NOETH-'W'EST AFRICA. ami timber for the coast towns. But in former times the thuj-as of Cj'renaica were used to make those costlj' "tiger" and "iianther" grained tables, which were so highly prized by the Eomans, and the exquisitely perfumed wood of which was supposed to have been employed by Circe in her incantations. The slopes facing seawards are clothed with forests of the wild olive, whose branches are shaken for the berry, greedily eaten by sheep and goat. The carob, when allowed to grow in the open, throws oif such a mass of young sprouts that whole families of Bedouins take up their residence during the summer months beneath this vast canopy of verdure, sheltering them from all eyes. Like the strc ams of Greece, the wadies of Barka are fringed with oleander plants ; dwarf 2Mlms grow in clusters along the sea-coast ; fruit-trees of the Italian zone, dominated here and there by the tall stems and branches of the date-palm, flourish in the well-watered gardens now usually surroimded with hedges of the " Barbary fig," an immigrant from the New "World, which has already become so common in the Mediterranean flora. Some of the fertile valleys opening seawards are stocked with as many sjiecics of plants as the ancient " Garden of the Hesperides " itself, described in the Pcrijj/ous of Scylax. This marvellous laud was situated according to Plinj' near Berenice ; but Scylax states expressly that it was not far from the Bas-Sem, the Phycus of the ancients, that is, the northernmost headland of Cyrenaica. According to the description of the Greek writer, it occupied a natural gorge or an ancient quarrj-, like the latomice of Syracuse. The brothers Beechey believed they had discovered its site amid the now flooded precij)ices to the east of Benghazi, but none of these present the dimensions of the garden as described by Scylax. Some idea of its exquisite beauty may be had by visiting the chasms now filled with verdure which open abruptly in the stony jDlateau near Syracuse. Orange, citron, medlar, peach trees, all struggling upwards towards the blue vault of heaven, rise to heights of from 50 to 60 or 70 feet. The stems of the trees are enclosed by leafy shrubs, their branches entwined by wreaths of creepers, the paths stre-mi with flowers and fruits, the foliage alive with song of birds. Above this elysium of fragrant and flowering plants rise the grey rocks, here and there clothed with ivy, their every crest crowned with verdure. The silphinm, or laserpitiiim, at one time one of the main resources of Cyrenaica, and whose very name had passed into a proverb implying the most precious of treasures, is now found only in the wild state on the cliff, if indeed it is the same plant. The old writers tell us that it had already disappeared in their time, and amongst the modern observers, Schroff, Oersted, Ascherson and others, have expressed the opinion that the plant so highly valued by the Greeks and Romans for its curative virtues, was a species of asafostida. Nevertheless most naturalists accept the hypothesis of Delia Cella, the first explorer of the country, who supposes that the silphium was the drkis or adrias of the natives— that is, the t/uipski {/m-rjanica of botanists. The Cyrenian coins represent this umbellifer with sufficient accuracy, although its form is somewhat enlarged and its fruit of some- wliat too cardiform a shape. Like the hardened sap of the silphium, which IXKABITANTS OF BAEKA. 9 fetched its weight in silver, and which was preserved in the State treasiiry, the liquid extracted from the present adrias is regarded by the natives as a panacea, and is employed especially in the treatment of wounds intlicted by animals. In Europe the researches of neinzmann have also proved that this plant should be accepted in the modern pharmacopoea, on account of its purifying properties. No apparent difference can be discovered between the Algerian and Cyrenian thapsia garganica ; yet some difference there must be, seeing that the Algerian species has scarcelj' any curative virtues. On the other hand, camels may browse on it ^-ithout danger, although the di-ias of Barka is fatal to them, as was formerly the silphium.* At present the land of Barka contributes but little to the general increase of wealth in the world. It no longer exports either medicinal drugs, the essence of roses, or the white truffles for which it was formerly reno^vned. "Wheat, barley, cucumbers, tobacco, a few vegetables form, with the garden fnuts, the only products of the local agriculture. The wild bee gathers an exquisite honey from the flowering plants. Tillage is in a rudimentary state ; nor do the wonderful crops of wheat mentioned by the ancients as pelding a hundi-ed and even three hundred- fold, appear to have been witnessed in modern times. Occasionally want even prevails, and as a rule about every fifth year is unproductive. The slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are best adapted for the cidtivation of the oUve, and the oil supplied by the few olive-groves farmed by the Italians is of excellent quality. However rich in vegetation, the " Green Mountains " are extremely poor in animal species. The only ^vild beasts here seen arc the hya:na and jackal. But the thickets of the depressions arc infested by the wild boar, while the gazeUe, hare, and rabbit, abound on the plateau. Reptiles, birds, insects, belong almost exclusively to the same species as those of Mauritania. The budding vegetation is occasionally devoured by the locust, and the wild bee deposits its burden of honey in the fissures of the rocks. Southwards this scanty fauna gradually diminishes, until it disappears altogether beyond the zone of oases. After crossing the Wady Fareg, the traveller discovers that he is no longer accompanied even by the flea. He no longer ci-ushes a shell imdcr foot, or perceives a single bird on the wing. In the villages and encampments of Barka the domestic animals differ in no respect fi-om those of Maui-itania. There as here they are still the ass and mule, sheep, goats, and horned cattle. The horses no longer belong to that superb race described by Pindar, when singing of Cyi-enaica famed for its "fine steeds." But if small, heavy, and ungainly, they are at least sure-footed and endure hardships well. IXHABITAXTS OF BaRKA. The land of Barka is peoplecC exclusively by Arabs of more or less mixed stock, who, however, claim to be of pure descent, and who speak the language of the Prophet according to the Egj-ptian standard, slightly affected by Maugrabian • MamoU, "Espldratore," vol. v., ISSl. VOL. XI. C 10 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. elements. No feature in their physical appearance seems to betray any trace of llellonic or Roman blood, while the Berber type here so closely resembles that of the Arabs, that it would be difficult to distinguish the races in so mixed a popula- tion. In Derna, Benghazi, and other towns subject to the influences of external commerce, the usages differ little from those of the Egyptian Arabs, and the women do not appear unveiled in public. Here, also, the inhabitants are grouped, not according to their tribes, but according to their trades and pursuits. But in the rural districts distinct territories are occupied by the aikts, a term collectively applied to all the tribes of Cyrenaica. The Aulad-Ali of the Egyptian Libya are encroaching from the west on the Barka highlands, where they already possess extensive graziug-groimds. Here they are replacing the Marmaridoc, who gave their name to the country under the Ptolemies, and who subsequently followed the general movement of migration and conquest in the direction from east to west. The Zwiyas lead a wandering life in the section of the plateau in the vicinity of Derna, whence they descend southwards as far as "WTiite Barka, south of Ben- ghazi. The more numerous Abeidats, jointly with the Berasa, the Hassa and Dorsa, occupy the districts of the Jebel Akhdar, lying east and west of the ruins of Cyrene. The Eshtch dwell in the western part of the range above Benghazi, while immediately north and south of them are the camping- grounds of the Bragtas and other clans of the Awaghirs, the most powerful of all the Barka tribes. This ailet is said to be able to muster in war time altogether 10,000 infantry and 1,000 horsemen. The Ilarabi, Mogharba, and other less important tribes occupy the lower terrace lands comprised between the Barka highlands and the desert. All these Libyan Arabs are fond of painting the breast, arms, and face with antimony. The women, who never go veiled, always dye the lower lip black, and encircle the eyes with the same extract of ko/iciil. Both sexes wear the /lau/i, a kind of toga, to which Europeans give the name of harakan. During youth the daughters of Cyrenaica are comely, but proportionately much smaller than the men. The national diet is a species of " barley-brec," known as basiiia. It was amongst the Arabs of Merj, the ancient Barke, that the " bubonic pestilence " broke out in the year 1874, and Cyrenaica is said, with the West Persian highlands and those of Assir, in Arabia, to be one of the three regions where this disorder is endemic. Since the middle of the present century, thanks especially to the establishment of the order of the Senusiya in this part of Tripolitana, the Arabs of Barka have certainly made some progress in material culture and moral cohesion. Manners have undergone a great change, and certain questionable laws of hospitality described by all travellers from Herodotus to Barth are no longer practised. On the other hand, the natives have become less kindly and cheerful, more sullen and surlj' to strangers. In the year 181.3, the Algerian Sheikh Seuusi el-Mejahiri, being compelled to INHABITANTS OF BAEKA. 11 quit Mecca, v.liere he had made some powerful enemies by his mode of life and his rigid principles, sought a temporary refuge in Benghazi. Then he founded at Fig-. 2. — Zawta op ILlzo-a, in the Axgertan Dahkx. el-Beida, west of CjTene, a first zatrya, at once a monastery, mosque, school, hospital, miKtarv stronghold, and centre of culture. Other fugitives, mostly Algerians, Uke 12 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. the " saint," who .summoned them to follow the " way of salvation," flocked to his standard and were well received. New monasteries were established in other parts of the country, and their inmates soon exchanged the character of guests for that of masters. They soon became so powerful that already in 1851 the traveller llamiltou hud to defend himself against their fanatical followers. At present the most important person in the province of Barka, and even in Benghazi, where the flags of the European consuls are hoisted, is not the mutessarif, appointed by the Sultan, but the wakil, or agent of the Sheikh of the Scnusiya, to whom the Govern- ment has even granted the right of exercising justice. In the district over 25,000 cavalry and infantry arc at his disposition, over and above the Khiran, or brethren and their retainers, who reside in the twenty zawyas scattered over Cyreuaica. Everywhere arc met slaves and animals branded with the name of Allah, the mark of the brotherhood. Yet the Sheikh himself no longer resides in the couutrj-. In 1855 he prudently withdrew beyond the range of European influence to the Faredgha oasis, which, although ofiicially belonging to Egypt, lies on a borderland surrounded by solitudes, where neither sultan nor khedive exercises any authority. Here he first took up his abode in a necropolis excavated in the live rock. But in his capital, Jarabub, he is now master of convents, barracks, arsenals, depots and other extensive struc- tures, which are mirrored in the brackish waters of Lake Faredgha. Here is the centre of the religious empire, which stretches on the one hand as far as Senegal, on the other to Mesopotamia, comprising not less than 1,500,000 subjects, all " in the hands of their Sheikh, as the body is in the hands of those who lay out the dead." The sou of the founder, who succeeded him in 1859, has become the undisputed head of the sect, blindly obeyed by all the Khwans of the Moslem world, who see in him the Mahdi, the " guide," or rather the " well guided," destined to restore the ijowcr of Islam. Doubtless the Senusiya aspire outwardly to no special jjolitical aun ; their ideal is to confederate all the orthodox religious orders in a single theocratic body, independent of all secular authority. They discountenance violence, and recommend to their oppressed brethren, not revolt, but vohmtary banishment from the districts subject to Christian sway, and withdrawal to the independent zawj'as. But while ostensibly condemning political agitation, the Senusij'a none tlie less aim at absolute independence, and their compact organisation has rendered them far more formidable enemies than many restless tribes always ready to revolt. The Mussulman solidarity has brought them more conqiiests than they could have hoped to achieve by ,arms. Thus they have already secured AYadai by ransoming a gang of slaves en route for Eg^-pt, and sending them back to their homes as missionaries of the holy cause. At present the Sultan of Wadai is a mere lieutenant of the ilahdi of Jarabub, and all his subjects are affiliated to the order. But it is probable that evil days are in store for these zealous Panislamists, and tliat their troubles will begin as soon as European influences make themselves directly felt by the open or disguised occupation of the land of Barka. The official sway of the Turk and secret authority of the Scnusiya run the risk of a joint TOPOGEAPHT OF BAEK^l. 13 collapse. During recent years tie faitliful adherents of the order, and especially the citizens of Benghazi, are said to have relaxed considerably in the rigonr of their religions professions. It is no rare sight to behold members of the confrater- nity openly violating the observances of the law by smoking tobacco and wearing silken garments embroidered in gold and silver. Topography of Barka. The attention of the European Powers is directed especially to the local seaports, which could be defended by no native force, and the possession of which would enable them to command all the routes leading to the interior. In the eastern dis- trict of JIarmarica the port of Marsa Tobnih, known also as Tabarha, seems to present the greatest advantage as a convenient naval station and arsenal. At this point a peninsidar mass running parallel with the coast in the general direction from north- west to soiith-cast, termuiates at its eastern extremity in two sharp headlands, and at the other end is connected with the mainland by a low isthmus. An inlet some two miles long is limited northwards by this peninsula, and southwards by the cliffs and escarpments of a plateau furrowed by ravines, in which are occasionally .seen the foaming waters of cascades some 500 feet high. Vessels drawing over 33 feet can ride in perfect security in this spacious natural haven, sheltered from all winds except those from the east and south-east. A breakwater constructed at the entrance of the bay might arrest the swell from the east, and thus convert the port of Tobruk into one of the best and at the same time one of the largest harbours of refuge in the Mediterranean basin. The ruins either of Antipyrgos or some other Greek citj' at the neck of the peninsula, and those of a Saracenic castle on the north side of the port, show that this convenient harbour was never lost sight of, although the surrounding regions are almost desert wastes. In former times Tobruk was probably the station where pilgrims landed en route for the shrine of Jupiter Amnion in the Siwah oasis. It was also a port of call for vessels plying between Rome and Alexandria. At present it serves as the outport for cattle supplied by the neighbouring pastoral tribes to the markets of Alexandria, and especially of Jarabub and the other zawyas of the Senilsi Khwans. Eound the bay of Tobruk Schweinfurth has detected signs of local upheaval. At a height of 160 feet and a distance of nearly half a mile from the beach, he noticed the shells of the surrounding waters still preserving their natural colour. At some points farther west, near CjTene and Benghazi, Hamilton thought he observed traces of the opposite phenomenon of subsidence. The Gulf of Bombfi, more frequented than the Bay of Tobruk by the small local coasters, enjoys the advantage of being situated immediately east of Cyrenaica proper, in the vicinity of a feri'ilo and relatively well-peopled district. But it is much niore exposed than Tobruk, and less accessible to large vessels, which are obKged to cast anchor a long way from the coast ; small craft, however, find safe anchorage behind the islets at the entrance of the bav. 14 NOETII-T\Ti:ST APEICA. The so-called " port of Mene/aiis " lies to the north of the roadstead. But it comprises merely a small group of huts, and all the old Hellenic towns of the district have disappeared, almost without leaving a vestige hy which to determine their suites. The establishment of a European colony, often proposed in the Italian jjress, would be greatly imperilled by the malaria prevalent on the coast, where the Wady Temim loses its waters in stagnant pools. In this district tho marine iu- Pig. 3. — TOBKUK. Scale 1 : 85,000. 23°58' L ^ of" breen vvi ch 84° 4'. Depths. to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. — — — 3,300 Yards. shore current, which sets from west to east, when not obstructed by tho ^inds, has a mean velocity of nearlj' two miles an hour. To reach Denia, the ancient Baniis, the first town on the east coast of Barka, the traveller must skirt the north foot of the red escarpments of the Eas-et-Tin, and follow the north-west coast for a distance of 30 miles. This place, which was re-occupied in the sixteenth century by ^Vudalusian Moors, comprises a group of five ^•ilIages, or distinct quarters, divided into two sections by the bed of a torrent. I'lvcry house is here surrounded by a trellised vine, or overshadowed by a date- CYEEXE. 15 palm, beneath which the family gathers after the day's work. Of all the gardens of Cyrenaica those of Dcrua best deserve the old name of the " Hesperidet." Watered by two streams flowing from the neighbouring hills and ramifying in a thousand channels, the dense foliage of their verdant groves presents a striking contrast to the grey and bare rocks of the ravine. They yield figs, grapes, dates, oranges, citrons, and choice bananas, which with the wool, corn, wax, and honey brought from the interior, the sponges fished up in the neighbouring shallows, and some woven goods of local manufacture, contribute to maintain a small export trade. The olive groves, which date from Eoman times, no longer yield any products, and should be replaced by fresh pilantatious. The merchants of Derna keep up some relations with Benghazi, Malta, Canea, Alexandria, employing vessels of small tonnage, which cast anchor at some distance from the to^Ti in a roadstead exposed to all winds except those from the west and south. Diu-ing the rough weather in winter, they seek shelter in the Gulf of Bomba. In 1815, when the United States sent an expedition against the corsairs of Tripoli, a detachment of marines seized Derna, and erected a battery to the west of the town, the remains of which are still visible. The Americans also began to construct a harbour at the mouth of the ravine ; but their stay was too short to complete these works, and since then no further improvements have been attempted. The place has even fallen into decay, and in 1821 the plague is said to have reduced the population from 7,000 to 500. A large portion of Derna was at that time abandoned, and since the beginning of the century it has lost fully one- third of its inhabitants. "\^^est of Derna the first harbour occurring along the coast still preserves, under a slightly modified form, the name of " Port Saviour," given to it by some Greek authors. This is the Marsa Siisa, or Ajw/loiiia, of the Ptolemies. Thanks to its small harbour well sheltered behind a chain of islets and reefs, Susa at one time enjoyed considerable importance, as is attested by the remains of monuments stni visible within the circuit of the old walls, and beyond them on a narrow chain of rocks running eastward. But the port has mostly disappeared, probably through the effects of a local subsidence, by which the coastHne has been considerably modi- fied. Some old tombs and quarries are now found below the level of the ilediter- ranean, like the so-called " baths of Cleopatra " at Alexandria. Cyhexe. Apollonia, however, never enjoyed an independent existence, having been merely the marine quarter of the far more famous C't/reiic, which stood about 10 nules to the south-west, on the verge of the plateau, whence a view was commanded of the plains stretching away to the coast. It is easy to understand why the Dorians of Thera, who founded Cyrene " of the Golden Throne " over twenty-five centuries ago, abandoned their first settlements on the coast and selected this more elevated inland position, although they had at that time nothing to fear from the incursions of pirates. From this commanding point they were better able to over- IG NOKTH-WEST AFRICA. awe the populations of the uplands on whom they depended for their supplies ; here also they found a fertile soil, abundance of timber, and especially a copious fountain, whence the city itself took its name, and which, like the jnorine station, was consecrated to Apollo. In the eyes of the natives the chief glory of the ruined city is still this peren- nial source welling up at the foot of the cliffs. Hence Krcnnah, the little-used Arabic form of Cyrene, has been replaced by the expression Ain-cUi-Shchad, the "eternal spring," which has also been applied to the surroxmding district. Never- theless the quantity of water has diminished not only since ancient times, but even since the beginning of the century, as is sufficiently evident from the marks left Fig. i. — Cteene. Scale 1 : 25,000. i ' 1"^^ ^ ■*9 '■/-, V 'l?^^^ W)f w &l°4e 30 E . ©"f Greenwich 21° 49 30" 1,100 Y.ara6. on the rock above the present level of the stream. The cliff whence it flows to the surrounding thickets had been carved into the shape of a ^\•all, on the white surface of which are still visible the traces of the roof of a temple, which sheltered the stream at its outlet in the mountain. The gallery whence it escai)es has been artificially excavated for a distance of about 440 yards ; but Europeans were long prevented from entering it by the natives, who pretended that it led to a wheel set with knives continually revolving, and guarding the approach to a treasure. Besides the great fountain associated with the myth of Cyre, daughter of the king of the Lapitha\ Cyrene pos.sessed other springs, such as that by the Arabs now called Bu-Gadir, or " Father of Verdure," which flows through a wooded dale CYEENE. 17 to the north-west. On the plateau the colonists also excavated a cistern, one of the i^ largest and best constructed that have survived from ancient times. On a still 18 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. more elevated terrace south-east of the ruins stands another cistern, that of Safsaf, whicli has the form of a canal about -300 yards long. Throughout its entire length it is faced with enormous .slabs measuring nearly 20 feet. Cyrene, whose name h;is been applied to tlic whole region, preserves a few remains of the monuments erected during its flourishing period, when it held the Libvans in check, presented a bold front to Egj-pt, and diffused Greek culture far and wide throughout the African Continent. Aristotle wrote a history of Cyrene, which has since been lost, and amongst its famous citizens were such men as the philosopher Aristippus, the poet Callimachus, and the astronomer Eratosthenes. Since the time of Pacho, the first European traveller who visited the place in the present century, the ruins have become less distinct, and many sculptures have been carried off. But the sites may stiU be recognised of temples, theatres, the stadimn, colonnades, and the walls enclosing a portion of the plateau, with a circumference of about G miles. Towards the plain the ground occupied by these remains terminates in escarpments, separated by abrupt and deep ravines. In many places the rock had been levelled and the intermediate fissures filled in to secure more convenient foundations for the public buildings. The plateau is traversed by routes still furrowed by the ruts of chariots. But ^^•hat most surjjriscs the traveller is the vast city of the dead, which encircles that of the living on the west, east, and south, for a distance of several miles. Cyrene would appear to have been, above all, a vast necropolis, in this rcsjject rivalling all other Hellenic towns. The neighbourhood and subsequent sway of the Egyptians had evidently influenced the Greek settlers, who instead of burning the dead, buried them in caves and tombs. In certain ravines the yawning mouths of these sepulchral caverns are seen in thousands, and here and there the traces may still be distinguished of their polychrome decorations. Most of the tombs rest on crypts cut in the limestone cliff, which being of a porous nature, was easily worked, and thus converted into a vast underground citj'. A monastery of the Senusiya brotherhood has even been established in one of the great mausoleums of Krennah. At the foot of the spurs jDrojecting from Cyrene on the route to ApoUonia, large storehouses had also been excavated in the rock, which may have afterwards served as tombs. Of the old route itself nothing but a few traces has survived. Smith and Porcher had it partly restored, or rather had a now road built for the purpose of transporting the fine sculptures collected by them for the British Museum. But this work met with little favour from the natives, who reflected that a good highway gives ready access to troops and to the tax-collector. Some 60 miles to the south-west a depression in the plateau about 18 miles long and from 6 to 7 broad, is known to the Arabs by the name of Moj. Here nothing is visible except a solitary palm-tree, serving as a familiar landmark to the way- farer. But on the old lacustrine bed stands the site of the ancient city of Barke, which was first the Hellenic rival of Cyrene, and afterwards the first in rank of the " five cities " whence the country received its name of Pentapolis. It marks the extreme western point of the continent reached by the Persians under Darius four- BENGHAZI. 19 and-twenty centiiries ago. The Greek Barke became the Barlca of the Arabs, and, like Cyrene, gave its name to the whole region from the Egyptian frontier to the Greater Syrtis. Although, unlike its rival, possessing no imposing ruins of the Hellenic period, it enjoyed great importance during mediieval times, as the chief military station for the Arab expeditions betsveen Alexandria and Tunis. At that time it was the centre of a large trade in pro^"isions and suppKes of all sorts. But of those prosperous days Barka has preserved nothing but the ruins of a castle, and some extensive cisterns, which were needed to husband the water, the place being destitute of the perennial springs found at Cyrene. Under the Ptolemies Barka was eclipsed by its marine neighbour, Ptolemais, a name still surviving in the slightly modified form of Tolmitah. The town itself has disappeared, but traces remain of several edifices, and of its enclosures, which had a circumference of over 4 miles. Other ruins are occupied by the Agail tribe, a Marabut commvmity, which through professional jealousy long resisted the Senu- siya propaganda, but was at last compelled to yield. Although nearly choked with sand, the port still affords good shelter to small craft. As far as Benghazi, over 60 miles to the south-west, no other inlet along the coast offers equal facilities for landing. The ancient Teukhera, another seaport, which with Cyrene, Apollonia, Barke, and Hesperides formed one of the five cities of Pentapolis, has preserved its name under the Arabic form of Tokra. But the official titles of Arsinoe, and Cleopatris, bj" which it was known under the Ptolemies, have long been forgotten. Here are neither temple nor port, and little beyond a few huts and some tombs in which the Arabs reside during the summer ; but the walls are amongst the best-preserved ramparts bequeathed to us by antiquity. Although rebuilt by Justinian, they stand on far older foundations, several fragments dating fi'om the Macedonian epoch. These magnificent enclosures are flanked by twenty-four square towers. Benghazi. Benghazi is the modern representative of Euhesperides, Hesperides, or ITesperia, so named probably because it was situated to the west of the region of Cyrenaica. Later it took the name of Berenice, in honour of the Cyrenian princess married to Ptolemy Evergetes ; while its present designation comes from a " saint," whose tomb stands on the sea-coast a little to the north. Benghazi, capital of the province of Barka and of all eastern Tripolitana, occupies the whole site of the ancient Hesperides, except a portion of the headland crowned by the castle, which was washed away by the waves, the debris contribut ing to fill up the old port. The town lies at the southern extremity of the rocky promontory enclosed south and west by the sea. Eastwards stretches a salt lake which, even during the historic period, still formed part of the ^Eediterranean, and which, in stormy weather, is even now occasionally encroached upon by the waves. In summer it presents nothing but a muddy bed covered with saline efflorescences. The isthmus between lake and sea is commanded by an eminence supposed to be 20 NOllTH-WEST AFRICA. the islaud luentioned by the ancient writers as standing in the middle of the har- bour and crowned by a temple of Venus, now replaced by the tomb of a Marabut. Other lakes or morasses stretch north and south, separated from the Mediterranean by a narrow strip of coastline. Yet Benghazi is less insalubrious than most other Pig. C. — Benghazi. Scale 1 : 30,000. ^ 6T breenwich 34-*'e6'50" 34°a7'30" Sands flooded during to 16 northern gales. Feet. Depths. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 to 80 Feet. 80 Feet and upwards. . 1,100 Yards. jjlaces on this seaboard, thanks to the winds which carry off the miasma rising from the surroimding lagoons. But the houses swarm with insects, and Benghazi is proverbially known as the " kingdom of flies." Being in constant relations with the oases of the interior, whence, till recently. BENGHAZI. 21 a contiuuous stream of slaves flowed to tills point, the capital of Barka has a very mixed population, in which the Negroes are strongly represented amid the descen- dants of Berbers and Arabs. The Jews, remarkable for their beauty, also form a large section of the inhabitants of Benghazi. Settled in the countrj' from a time anterior to their o«ti traditions, they descend, probably, from those Hebrews who, under the Ptolemies, emigrated to Berenice with their national constitution and rulers, and who afterwards became powerful enough to revolt and massacre the Greeks. Immigrants from Mauritania are also munerously represented in Ben- ghazi, since the moral conquest of the land has been achieved bj- the religious order of the Scnusiya, who govern indirectly through the tribal chiefs and Turkish officials. Lastly, the European colon}', chiefly formed of Maltese, Italians and Greeks, is yearly increasing in importance, already numbering about 1,000 in a total population of 15,000. Benghazi is no longer the agglomeration of mud and straw huts described by the few European travellers who visited the place about the beginning of the century. It now boasts of solid two-storied stone houses, a lighthouse, some religious edifices, such as mosques, churches, and synagogues. But of the past not a single trace remains, beyond a few blocks here and there indicating the position of quaj-s and piers. But from the ground have been recovered valuable sculptures, vases, inscriptions, medals, a large share of which was secured for the Louvre b}' the explorer Yattier de Bour^•ille. Recently a few improvements have been made in the port, which, however, during the last two thousand years has become less extensive, more exposed, and shallower. Yessels drawing over 7 feet can no longer enter the har- bour, and in winter the Benghazi waters are almost entirely abandoned bj' shipping. But in spite of these disadvantages the town has made great commercial pro- gress, especially with France. It imports cottons, sugar, ydne, timber ; but its former export trade in ivory, gold-dust, and ostrich feathers has been mostly replaced bj- live stock and cereals to Malta, wool, butter, hides, salt from the sur- rounding lagoons, and sponges from the shallows along the neighbouring seaboard. The sponges are now seldom gathered by di\crs, the Greek and Italian fishers now usuall}- employing diving-bells in this industry. The Benghazi district is generallj' very fertile, especially along the north coast, which curves round towards Tokra. But it is still so thinly inhabited that the land is at the disposition of the first comer. A palm-grove, the only one occurring on the coast of Cyrenaica w-est of Derna, occupies a portion of the peninsula north of the to\\-n, and the lakes are skirted by a few gardens, which require special cultiva- tion in order to obtain good crops of fruit and vegetables. The surface soil is first removed and matting laid down, after which the mould is replaced, mixed with manure. The matting is supposed to prevent the saline particles from rising to the vegetable humus, while also serving to retain the fertilising substances. Farther east some old quarries and natural cavities have been reclaimed and cultivated by the peasantry. These plots resemble the " gardens of the Hesper- ides " spoken of by Scylax, and those that still exist in the neighbourhood of Syra- cuse. Some of the chasms are flooded, either temporarily after the rains, or 22 NOET^-^^'EST AFRICA. permanently from perennial springs. About five miles east of the town an under- gruimd ri\iilet flows through a deep gallery, which may be reached bj^ a large drain and followed for some distance. This mysterious stream is the famous Lathon or Lethe, the " river of oblivion," seen for a moment and then disappearing for ever. Nevertheless a rivulet flows from these hidden waters through a fissure in the rock to the shallow lake stretching east of Eenghazi. This swampy lagoon is itself famous in legendary lore. According to Pindar, Strabo, Lucan, and the unknown authors of "Peutinger's Table," it is a lake Triton or Tritonis, like that situated west of the Syrtes. Bej-ond Benghazi the coast continues to trend first towards the south-west, then south and south-east, before describing the long semicircular curve which forms the gulf of the Great Syrtis. Along the shores of this vast southern basin of the Mediterranean no towns or habitations are met, beyond a few groups of hovels and Bedouin encampments. Not even the ruins have survived of AJabia, which, in media2val times, was a populous and flourishing place as anoutport for the products of the oases. The coast, especially in the neighbourhood of Benghazi, is defended by a considerable number of little forts, some mere towers of Arab construction, others old bastions built of Cyclopean blocks. These form square enclosures rounded off at the angles, and filled inside with earth, so that the wall forms a sort of breastwork for the defenders. Beyond it is a deep moat, with bold counterscarp, cut in the live rock, all evidently defensive works erected by civilised peoples in pre-Mussuknan times. A few cultivated tracts, which become continually rarer the farther we advance from the capital of Barka, alternate with the grassy steppes and saline pools skirted by swampy margins. Low hills scored with ravines, the haunts of jackals and hyenas, project in headlands seawards. Here and there the coast is fringed with reefs, while elsewhere sandy dimes line the open beach. Not a single palm raises its leafy stem above these dreary, surf-beaten wastes, which are the terror of the mariner. Here the only haven is the little port of Braiga, formed by a chain of reefs, and visited by a few vessels engaged in the sulphur trade. This mineral is collected some distance inland, south of the extreme southern bend of the gulf, which is sometimes known as " Sulphur Bay." In the same neighbourhood is a saline lake, whose level has been reduced by evaporation below that of the Mediterranean. At Mukhtar, the point where the road from the mines reaches the coast, a few heaps of stones serve to mark the frontier between the Benghazi district and Tripolitana, properly so called. Near here, according to the commentators, if the story is not altogether fabulous, took place the famous meeting between the young Cyrcnian and Carthaginian runners, ^vho, starting from their respective territories at the same time, were to fix the frontier at the place of meeting. But the two brothers Philceni, who represented the interests of Carthage, fraudulently gained an unfair advantage in the race, and having to choose between death on the spot and a fresh contest, preferred to be buried alive under the monument erected to mark the common limit between the two states. Henceforth the shrine of the Philoeni became a hallowed spot for the Carthaginians, k^^-j^^S^^HT^ »f 'V'^- ( ^M' 1ft g— .^^'' \ A ^ ^ \ m ^MJ\^ CHAPTER II. THE AUJILA OASES. ROM tlic crest of the Jebel Akhdar the laud falls southwards, not iu a gradual slope, but rather through a succession of terraces, or terraced plaius intersected by wadies, whose beds were excavated by the ruuning waters at a time when the cKmate was more humid thau at present. But besides the traces of ancient rivers, here may also be seen those of a marine inlet, which may be regarded as the natural limit of the land of Barka iu the direction of the Libyan desert. TTest of the Siwah and Faredgha oases, both studded with " bitter lakes," which were also old arms of the sea, the valley probably still continues at a lower level than that of the Mediter- ranean. The groimd is here covered by myriads of shells of the oj'ster, pecten, urchin, and other marine fossils. The old level of the plain eroded by the -waters is here and there indicated by isolated eminences surrounded by sand. This depression, known to the Arabs by the name oE Gerdoba, is intcrrujitcd by the high dimes of Rhat. But if the preliminary measurements taken by Rohlfs and his associates can be trusted, it begins again farther west tmder the form of a ■winding wady, which is connected with the oases of Jalo and AujUa. The level of these depressions varies, according to Rohlfs, from 100 to 170 feet below the sea. East of the group of oases the broadest valley, kno^-n specially as the " wady," presents a general direction from south to north and north-west, probablj- merging in the Bir Rassam, another marine bed, which Rohlfs found to be from 330 to 350 feet below the Great Syrtis. Here the ground is abundantly strewn with fossil plants, especially palms and the mastic, forming extensive " petrified forests " like those of Egypt. At the point where the Bir Rassam depression was crossed by the Gei-man traveller, it turns north-westwards, probably to fonn a junction near its old mouth with the "Wady Fareg, another diied-up basin which, according to the Arabs, is a five days' journey long. Its mouth, now closed by dunes or, perhaps, rocky hills, is indicated by the Am Kebrit, a place nearly 120 miles south of Benghazi. The AVady Fareg is usually regarded as the line of demarcation between the habitable lauds and the desert. Travellers for the first time ascending the southern escarpment are expected to treat their companions to the " feast of 24 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. the valley ; " otherwise the caravan folk heap the surrounding stones into a cairn to serve as the tomb of the niggard. This is a kind of " anathema " analogous to that raised by the Greek peasantry against the tax-gatherer. Thus limited southwards by the Wady Fareg, the Bir Eassani, the Wady of the Aujila oases, Gerdoba and Siwah, the limestone plateau of Cyrenaica and Mar- mariea would seem to form a large island almost detached from the rest of the continent. There can be no doubt that the whole of this depression of the wadies and oases was formerly flooded with the Mediterranean ^\■aters. ^\iter their separation from the sea by intervening strips of coastlands, the marine basins gradually evaporated under the fierce sun of Africa. But the waters have left clear traces of their existence in the banks of recent shells, the deposits of salt, gypsum, saltpetre, magnesia, and numerous "bitter lakes." Thus from one extremity to the other of the Gulf of Sidra, there is an exact parallelism in the Fig. 7. — Regions South of Bakka lying iselow the Level or the Mediteee.vnean. Scale 1 : 8,000,000. .eo' L V or l,Jreen\^ ich 26° Tracts below the level of the Mediterranean, according to the Sm-vey of 1S69. 120 MUcs / physical aspect and relief of the several regions, and in the natural phenomena of ^^■hich (licy have been the scene. On both sides low-lying tracts stretch far inland, some of which li^^elow sea-level, and are supposed to have formed marine inlets at some more or less remote period. It has been proposed to convert both basins into an " inland sea," through which the Mediterranean waters might penetrate into the interior of the continent. After his first explorations in the Libyan oases, Eohlfs thought that by simply piercing the riverain sill on the Gulf of Sidra, it might ba possible to flood a large part of the continent as far as the Kufra oasis, under the 22° north latitude, " whereby the largest vessels might reach Fczzan, perhaps even the oasis of Wajanga." But more recent surveys have shown that the geographical changes produced by these projects would be far less important than was supposed ; in any case, the results of more accurate measurements must be awaited lefore there can be any question of creating an " inland sea." TOPOGRAPHY. 25 Topography. In the jDart of the territoiy hang south of the Barka plateau, there are neither towns nor permanent ^-illages, except in the group of oases occupying the depres- sions in the desert below the level of the Mediterranean. In a bee-line the distance is at least 130 miles between the Aujila oases and the point on the Gulf of Sidra where formerly stood Ajabia, the old outlet for the caravan trade of the interior. The track usually followed by caravans across the desert still reaches the coast at the same point. On an average, travellers take about ten days to cover the distance between Aujila and the seaboard. During the journey they have to traverse vast solitudes, " where even the flea forsakes the waj^arer," and where the only procurable water is a nauseous and brackish fluid often refused by the camel itself. In many places the traces of preceding caravans are soon covered by the sands. Here the only indication of the proper route to follow are the so- called allems, or heaps of stones raised at intervals as landmarks. On the eastern route, towards the Faredgha oasis, the sands conceal the dried bodies of forty travellers, who perished of thirst after being abandoned by their guide.* The eastern oasis of Aujila, which during the Hellenic epoch gave its name to the whole group, is neither the largest nor the most populous. Some 12 miles long with a breadth of little over half a mile, it is develojjed in the form of a crescent with its convex side facing eastwards. A solitary spring, as in the time of Herodotus, wells up in this depression, which is enclosed on all sides by the stony terraces of the serirs. The Jalo oasis, which occupies the centre of the group, is perhaps ten times more extensive than that of Aujila ; it is about the same length, but in some places has a width of from 6 to 7 miles. But it is ab.soluteh' destitute of fresh water, possessing nothing but a saline fluid, which serves to irrigate the palm groves; hence all the drinkino: water has to be brousht from the almost uninhabited oasis of the wady hnng farther east. The western part of the group of oases is the most thickly peopled, and in projjortion to its extent Aujila is one of the most densely inhabited districts in the whole world. Jalo presents extensive waste spaces and ranges of dunes interrupting its palm groves. Batofl or Battifal, lying to the south-cast, at the southern^(stremity of the wady, forms a badly watered dej^ression, dotted with a few camping-grounds, and fringed with reeds on «hich the camels browse. But beyond this point the whole zone of eastern depressions has been abandoned, except the small oasis of Leshkerreh, which is isolated amid the moving sands. Vegetables raised in the gardens of the oases, cereals, and dates, form the chief food of the inhabitants, who however also keep a few flocks of sheeji and goats, some poultry and pigeons. But they have neither asses nor oxen, and not more than half a dozen horses. The dog, although rare, is not unknown in the couutrv. The tribes occujjying the Aujila oases do not belong all to one stock. The Wajili, who clauu to be aborigines, and who descend perhaps from the Nasamons * Eohlfs, " Von Tripolis nach Alexandrien," ii., p. 68. VOL. XI. D 26 NOBTH-WEST AFRICA. mcnliouwl by Herodotus, still speak a Berber dialect closely related to the Tamasirlit of tlie Tuaregs. luliabitiug tlie western oasis and the part of Jalo which surrounds Lebba, the capital, they are engaged chiefly in agriculture. They also work" the saline beds of the neighbouring depressions, for in these old marine inlets salt is everywhere found, associated with gypsum. They have an excellent breed of camels, which they hire to the caravans, conducting them along the desert routes as far as Benghazi, Murzuk, Siwah, and Kufra. The Mojabras, who also claim Berber descent, although now speaking Arabic, dwell in the eastern part of the oases, and especially in the district of El-Areg in the Jalo depression. This tribe despise agriculture, but, like the people of Gha- dames, they are born traders, and like them also have founded commercial centres Fig-. 8. — GEOtJP OF THE AujiLA Oases. Scale 1 : 900,000. Q9 20 /^esAAo^eJi^ so tSouAjr^. n V . BSldjoii f ^ ■•..:^,.:a s r " -e* ^mv 4, -a S ^ PR" S-' f^ ?H- SO- .X 50- Bsft/^^^ J-..^ ET.o- L . of Greenwich ei-so- 1-2 Miles. throughout all the Libyan oases. Travellers pi'aise their courage, temperance, and perfect honesty. According to Burckhart, to them is due the discovery of the route leading from the coast through Kufra and Wajanga to Wadai. The little Le.shkerreh oasis is inhabited by the Zwiyas (Swaj'as), a tribe of Arab origin. But whatever the differences in speech and race, Mojabras, Wajilis and Zwij^as all closely resemble each other physicallj' ; and their almost black com- plexion attests the importance taken by the Negro element in the crossings of the races. The marriage tie is very lax amongst the inhabitants of Aujila. According to Hamilton, men are not unfrequeutly met who have successively contracted twenty or thirty unions, the price of a bride varying from twenty-five to thirty shillings. But the establishment of the austere Senusiya sect in the coimtry cannot TOPOGEAPHY. 27 fail to effect a reformation in tliis respect, bj- rendering divorces less frequent, and restricting the consumption of palm wine. The trade of the Aujila oases with the states of the interior, and especially with "Wadai and Dar-Fur, appears to have acquired some expansion since the route of the Xile has been closed by the revolt of the Egyptian Sudanese. In 1855 the ti-affic between Aujila and Wadai was completely suspended for some years in con- sequence of the action of some Maltese traders, who, at the instigation, as was said, of the Pasha of Tripoli, attacked a caravan near Aujila, killed several persons, and carried off thirty captives. It was to avenge this outrage that the Sultan of Wadai put Yogel to death, vowing at the same time to slay all Christian travellers faUing into his hands. The religious order of the Senusiya virtually rules throughout the oases, but the official representative of authority is a mudir who resides in the Jalo oasis, and who issues his mandates in the name of the Governor of Benghazi. His power is limited to the levying of taxes, the various Wajib, ^ilojabra, and Zwiya tribes, to the number of twenty, enjoying local independence in all communal matters. When Pacho visited the Jalo oasis, the authority was in the hands of an old French dmmmer, who had escaped from the Egyptian expedition, and who after a series of remarkable adventures at last found himself at the head of a jietty state surrounded by the wilderness, and forgotten by his fellow-countrymen. D 2 ^^>*^— — ^i_^ ^^ lip ^w^^li^ « J^^^ Wi ^]^ jmII ^g|w^ ^"ttrr mi Ml 1^ ^;^^ ^^ :^"^^ ^kj?t !^&r^ .oi) £==^^ ^s^ V^^^sJ;*^^ ^J^^^ CHAPTER III. THE KUFRA OASES. HE arcliipeliigo of green oases foniiing the Kufra group, lost amid the sands and rocks of the Libj'an desert, is one of the least acces- sible reffions in the whole of Africa. Hence it remained unlcnown to modern exi^lorers till the close of the last century ; nor is it at all certain that it formed a part of the world lu^own to the ancients, although undoubtedly inhabited by relatively civilised commimities. Hornemami was the first to hear of these oases during his visit to Aujila. But neither Hamilton nor Beurraann, who attempted to penetrate to the inj'stcrious laud, were able to procure guides willing to accompany them ; and when in 1874 llohlfs, Zittel, and Jordan started from the Dakhal oasis on the direct route for Kufra, with the compass as their only guide, they were compelled to abandon the project after a six day's march. Although followed by a whole convoy of camels laden with iron water-tanks, they were obliged to turn northwards in the direction of Siwah. Here they had the advantage of a relatively easy route between jiarallel chains of sand-hills ; whereas in the dii'ection of Kufra, for a distance of 240 miles, thej' would have had successively to cross a series of shifting dunes ranging in altitude from 300 to 500 feet. In 1879 Rohlfs, penetrating from the Aujila oasis southwards, at last succeeded in reaching Kufra, where, however, he ran a great risk of being massacred, with all his followers. From the last encampment in the Jalo oasis at the Battifal wells to the first springs in the Kufra district, the whole distance is no less than 210 miles. But the track does not follow a straight line, and, especially in the night, caravans often retrace their steps. The route taken by Eohlfs is estimated at 240 miles, a space of absolutely desert land, covered by an uninterrupted march of 106 hours. The surface of the plateau comprised between the two groups of oases presents nothing but a narrow zone of dunes at its southern extremity, while towards the centre it is intersected by a bahr bela-ma, a " waterless river," or depression destitute of vegetation, which was -so little noticed by Rohlfs that he mentions it only on the report of the natives. Nearly the whole space traversed by him consists of serirs, stony plateaux perfectly uniform in a])pearance, and strewn with a fine grit which looked almost THE KITFEA OASIS. 29 like a mass of petrified lentils. Not a single well affords refreshment to caravans in this frightful solitude, and the inhabitants of Kufra take care that none are sunk. They are anxious to keep aloof from the rest of the world, for they are a "feeble folk," probablj' less than a thousand souls altogether, and they would have long ago lost their independence had the Turkish troops been able easily to reach the de]3rcssion. But although wrongly marked on many maps as included in the government of Tripolitana, the Kufra oases have none the less been conquered by a foreign power, that of the iSenusiya brotherhood. Through their religious propaganda, the Algerian Khwans have become the true masters of the district ; and were the mother-house at Jarabub threatened by any Christian or OsmanH forces advancing from the coast, they would endeavour to establish the centre of their power farther inland, in their great Zawya of El-Istat. At the time of his \'isit, Rohlfs had ample opjjortunitv of observing how absolute was their authority in the place. Threatened hj them, he escaped with his Kfe only by flight ; but as soon as he found himself protected by a foi-mal order of the Mahdi of Faredgha, he commanded the homage of all, and his property was strictly respected. The Kufra oases do not lie below sea-level, as was supposed when the series of depressions was discovered which stretches from the Egyptian oases to the Gulf of Sidra. From the Aujila oasis, which stands below the Mediterranean, the ground rises imperceptibly towards the Taiserbo oasis, the northernmost of the Kufra group, where it already attains an elevation of 8^30 feet. Kababo, southernmost of the same group, is 1,300 feet high, and the land probably continues to rise in the southern desert as far as the Wajanga oasis. While an ocean of shifting sands rolls away to the north and north-east, dunes are everywhere rare in the Kufra district, except towards the centre, where they enclose the Buseima oasis. West and south they disappear completelj-, and here is everywhere visible either the bare rock or the marshy soil constituting the ground of the oases. The hills rising abruptly above the palm gro\x\s and the surrounding steppes consist of masses of Xubian sandstones and limestones overlaid with lavas. Separated one from the other, these hills appear to be the remains of a formerly continuous plateau, which has been mostly weathered or eroded by running waters, leaving nothing but detached fragments as proofs of its former existence. They are of almost uniform height, except that the ideal plain connecting all the summits, and probably coinciding with the ancient surface of the plateau, gradually ascends in the direction from north to south. EohKs nowhere discovered any fossiliferous rocks, but the sand contains a large number of vitrified tubes, products cither of electric discharges or of organic secre- tions. Here and there the surface is also strewn with round sandstone masses of all sizes, jjroducing the effect as if the plain were some vast arsenal stored with shells, balls, and bullets of all kinds. Of these concretions some are hollow, while others have a solid core or are tilled with loose sand. Good water exists in superabundance iu the Kufra oa.ses, and may be everywhere reached by sinking wells to a depth of from 3 to 10 feet. In this respect Kufra is 30 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. favourably distinguished from nearly all the Libyan oases. This abundance of Fio-. 9.— The Ktjfea Oasis. moisture seems surprising in a region where some years pass withoiit any rams. FLOEA AND FAUNA— INHABITANTS. 31 But it maj- be presumed tbat the highlands Ij'iug" to the south of the pLiteau are sufficiently elevated to intercept the moisture-bearing clouds. All the oases, except perhaps that of Sirhen (Zighen), situated in the north-east of the district, have in the centre either a lake, or at least a marshy sebkha, where is collected the overflow of the surface waters. Lake Busci'raa, in the oasis of like name, even presents from a distance the ajipearance of a highland lacustrine basin. Commanded by the crested escarpments of the surrounding cliffs, and reflecting in its blue waters an isolated crag of pyramidal form, it winds through the palm groves for a distance of about G miles. The saline efflorescences around its shores, where the columns of air whirl in incessant eddies, resemble the foamy crests of the waves breaking on the beach. Near the margin of all the lakes and saline marshes wells may be simk which yield fresh water, and the soil is everywhere clothed with an arborescent and grassy vegetation at least sufficient to afford pasturage for the camels. Flora axd Fauxa. Although distinguished from most other groups of oases in the desert by the wealth of their vegetation, those of Xufra present but a limited number of forms. A single species, such as the alfa, the tamarisk, acacia, or talka, covers extensive tracts, stretching for many square miles beyond the horizon. Rohlf 's exjilorations, interrupted, however, too suddenly to have yielded all the results that might have been expected, discovered only thirty-nine species, of which twenty-six were cultivated plants. One of the characteristic features of the flora of Kufra is the multitude of wild figs, which form dense thickets infested by coimtless snakes. These reptiles, which are not jioisonous, have the habit of coiling round the branches of fig and date trees, and watching with head erect for the little birds coming to perch within their reach. But they are preyed upon in turn by other birds, which appear to be specially characteristic of the avifauna of Kufra. On the marshy tracts wild duck and geese swarm in myriads ; a few storks are also seen in the neighbourhood of the waters, and the oases are \-isited by flocks of migrating swallows. Gazelles are rare, except in the Erbehna oasis, towards the south-west of the group ; but multitudes of little rodents are met, as well as certain species of lizards, sjjidcrs, and termites. As in the Aujila district, snails are nowhere to be seen in Kufra. Inhabitants. The term Kufra, derived from Kafir, is explained to mean " Land of the Un- believer." At the same time, it no longer deserves the title since the first half of the eighteenth century, when the pagan Tibbus were expelled by the Mohammedan Zwiyas. This tribe reached the Kufra territory mostly from the Ijeshkerreh oasis, and still maintain friendly relations with their fellow-countrymen of the Aujila group. The Tibbus at present seen in the country are barely tolerated, and would appear to be found onlv in the southern oasis, where thev form a distinct communitv. 32 NOETH-'W^ST AFRICA. confined to a solitary hamlet. Xumerous strueture.s, however, atte.st the former presence of these ancient inhabitants, as well as of their forefathers or precursors, the Gararaantes. Numerous worked flints also afford proof of a prehistoric period in this Libyan region analogous to that of the Stone Age in Europe. On the crest of the Jebel Busei'ma, an ancient \-illage has been so well preserved that the cabins might be again rendered inhabitable by simply spreading a roof of palm-branches above the cii-cular walls. The posterns, defensive towers, and outer ramparts all remain just as they were originally constructed. The rocky eminence rising in the middle of Lake Buseima is also crowned with a citadel of the same tyj^e as those erected by the former inhabitants of the country. There are even some ancient burial-grounds, which the Mohammedans suffer to be profaned with impunity, the bodies, deposited in a sitting attitude, being those of "reprobate Kafirs." The Zwiyu Arabs, now masters of the laud by right of conquest, claim to be amongst the most zealous disciples of the Prophet since they have accepted the teachings of the Senusiya brotherhood. A Zwiya sheikh will never present himself before the jieople of his tribe except on horseback, shaded by an umbrella, bearing a falcon on a small cushion, and followed by a greyhound. He is alwaj^s armed with a long matchlock provided with a rusty bayonet. The Zwij'as leave to the despised Tibbus of the southern village the use of their primitive weapons, such as the long heavy iron club tijiped with steel, which describes a whirling motion in its flight through the air. Topograph V. The Kufra group comprises five chief oases, of which the most important, if not the largest, is Taiserbo, in the north-west. Here Jrangedi, the old capital, and residence of the Tibbu sultans, is still crowned by the remains of a castle built with blocks of salt. The name of Kufra, now applied to the whole territory, apjDcars to have been originally restricted to Taiserbo alone. But the political pre-eminence of this oasis caused its name to be extended to all the other members of the group, although l^'ing at a mean distance of about 60 miles from each other. Sirhen, in the north-cast, is almost uninhabited, and here the Zwiyas have not even planted date-ijalms, although extensive groves might soon be developed with a little culti- vation. Nevertheless, it forms a very important caravan station, thanks to the excellent pasturage it affords for camels. Buseima, in the centre of the group, is noted for its lake, and for the Jebel Buseima, Jebel Sirhen, and Jebel Nari ranges enclosing it on the north, north-east, and south, respectively. The latter, under various names, and interrupted at several points, develops a total length of about 120 miles in the direction from east to west. In the south-west, Erbehna is about the same size and presents analogous features to those of Buseima, consisting, like it, of a circular zone of palms enclosing a lake, which is dominated north\\'ards by the abrupt escarpments of a mountain TOPOGRAPHY. 33 range. Lastly, in the south-east, stretches the Largest member of the group, the crescent-shaped and evergreen Kebabo, which has a total length of no less than 120 miles. Here is concentrated nearly the \yhole population of Kufra, and about the middle of the oasis has been founded the Ndllage of Jof, or the " hollow," which has now become the largest agglomeration of huts in this region of Africa. Hero also stands the monaster}- where reside the masters of the laud. The Zauija-el-Itaf, or " Convent of Puritj'," presents the aspect of a fortress. Above its lofty white Kg. 10. — KuFEA Oasis. Scale 1 : 3,4no.r)no. es 24' i^'^'^ ■^^J^ ^e^ . /"^■''^ 3S P4' L - of Ljreenwicri 24-' Limits of vegetation. 60 Miles. walls, which are strong enough to sustain a siege, nothing is visible except the roofs of the terraced houses. But no longer dreading an ojoen attack, the Senusij'a brethren, who reside withui the enclosure to the number of two hundred and iifty, nearly all in separate cells, have laid out garden plots beyond the precincts. Close to the convent itself they have planted an orchard sevei-al acres in extent, where arc cultivated nearly all the fruit-trees of the Tripolitana oases. Of the million of date-palms owned by them in the Kufra territory, nearly a third were received from the piety of the faithful. CHAPTER IV. THE GREAT SYRTIS AND TRIPOLITANA SEABOARD. HE maritime region of Tripoli, bounded east by the extreme bend of the Great Syrtis, west by the southern headlands of the Tunisian coast, forms a distinct territory both in an administrative and geo- grajjhical sense. The belt of coastlands, varying in width, and intersected by a thousand mostly dry wadies draining to the Medi- terranean, is dominated south and south-west either by chains of rocky hills and mountains, or by the rugged scarp of a plateau which runs mainly parallel with the shores of the Syrtes. This zone constitutes Tripolitana in the stricter sense of the term. The vilayet of the same name also comprises the portion of the plateau stretch- injj throuffh Ghadames south-westwards to the Algerian frontier. But this forms a separate geographical area, sloping, not seawards but towards the west, in the direction of the Sahara. In the south yet another natural region is formed by the scattered oases of Fezzan, separated from the Mediterranean basin by hills, plateaux, and vast desert wastes. Excluding Cyrenaica, Fezzan, Ghadames, and Rhat, and disregarding administrative divisions, the surface of Tripolitana, within the water- parting between the marine and inland basins, may be aj)proximately estimated at 110,000 square miles, with a total population of probably not more than 650,000, or about six persons to the square mile. Gexerai, Survey. Farther removed from Eurojie than ilauritania, and possessing but a small extent of arable lands, the seaboard of TripoHtana coidd never have developed much commercial life throughoxit the historic period. Vessels doubling the projecting headlands of Numidia and CjTenaica, and sailing southwards, fomid the desert in numy places already encroaching on the marine waters. For some hundreds of miles the coast is low and sandy, or else fringed with reefs, while swamps and lagoons stretch far inland, sejDarated from the sea by narrow strips of coastlands. These are often scarcely to be distinguished from the surface of the water, and the S3'rtes were especially dreaded by mariners, owing to their surf-beaten shores, the GEXERAL SUE'S'EY. 35 exLalations from the surrounding lagoons, and the savage character of the local tribes. The scanty population of Tripolitana, its slight share in the general commercial movement of the ilediterranean, the trifling revenue yielded to its political rulers, show that during the last two thousand years the country has remained in a more or less stagnant state. Its importance has in fact diminished on the seaboard, where great cities formerlj- flourished, and in the regions traversed by the maia highways to the interior. The exploration, one might almost say the discovery, of Tripolitana, remains still to be achieved. Although since the joui-ney of Horneraann in the last century, the country has been visited by such men as Lyon and Ritchie, Denham, Oudney Fig. 11. — Routes of the Chief Exploeees in Teipolitana. ScUe 1 : 12.000.COO. E . of G Depths L , Lyon. D. & C.. Denbam and ClapiMrton. Rch., Riph.ardson. Dick., Dickson. to 320 320 to 3,200 Feet. Feet. v., V(^eL Bt. &. O , Barth and Ovenreg. Dnv., Duveyrier. M. & Va., Mercher and Vattone. 3,200 Feet and upwards. R., Roblfs. N., Xachti^^U. B.. Beurmann. Lg., I^argeaa. By., Bary. Br , Bruoe. Cp., Camperio, Be., Beecbey. llOlIiles. and Clapperton, Laing, Richardson, Earth, Vogel, Beurmann, Duveyrier, Slercher and Vattone, Eohlfs, Xachtigal, Yon Barj' and Krafft, these explorers, starting mostly from Tripoli, have neglected many interesting districts ia the interior ; while little has yet been done for the geology, meteorology, ethnology, and archajology of the land. In our days the earth has already become too small for the restless sjiirit of modern enterprise, and certain geographical conditions, with which the ancients, confined to the marine highways, had no need to occupj' themselves, have acquired quite a new significance. The very break in the coastline which serves to cut ofE the plains of Tripoli from European influence, has become an advantage for the commimications with the interior. However otherwise inconvenient, the harbours of Tripolitana are the natural points of departure for the caravans proceeding to 3C XOETII-WEST AFRICA. Western Siulan. Thanks to the gulf of the two Syrtes, which forms a bight in the contour of the continent of a mean th^pth of about 300 miles, the journey across the desert to the fertile regions of the interior is reduced by one-fourth. Moreover the route from Tripoli to Lake Tsad, which lies due south, is relatively easy, being relieved at tolerably short intervals by the Fczzan and other oases. A' either the hills nor the dunes present any serious difficulties to modern engineers, while the scattered popidations of the oases, long familiar with their European visitors, would certainly oppose no obstacle to the construction of highways of communication. " To the future master of Tripoli belongs the Sudan," exclaims the traveller G. Rohlfs, when urging Italy to take possession of Tripolitana. He proposes, either from the port of Tripoli or from that of Bra'iga, at the head of the Great Svrtis, to construct a railway in the direction of Kuka, near the west coast of Lake Tsad. Even this line might perhaps be shortened by about 120 miles by creating a harbour in deep water on the west side of the Syrtis, somewhere near the Marsa-Zafran creek. Not only is this the shortest route for the line destined one day to connect the basin of the Mediterranean with that of the great inland lake, but it also seems to be the most convenient for the continental trunk line, terminating on the Atlantic coast at the head of the Gulf of Guinea, between the Xiger and Congo basins. Hence there can be no doubt that the railway penetrating from Tripolitana south- wards must sooner or later become one of the great commercial highways of the world. But even this can scarcely exceed in imjjortance the more westerly route, which is intended to connect the already developed network on the Algerian coast through the Wed-Messaura with the great bend described by the Niger below Timbuktu. In this direction both termini would offer an immense advantage in respect of population, abundance of natural resources, and commercial activit}'. Here also it would be a mere question of continuing lines either already opened, or for which concessions have been granted south of Algeria to a more southern latitude than Tripoli. PHYSir.\L Featires. The Tripolitana highlands take their rise eastwards in an unexplored region of the desert, where the Haruj-el-Aswad, or Black Ilaruj, so called from the colour of its lavas, forms a chain of volcanic origin with a mean direction from south-cast to north-west. Hitherto Hornemann is the only traveller who has crossed the eastern section of this range, although nearly a century has lap.r'ed since his visit. More recent explorers have only seen these mountains from a distance, or heard of them from native report. The Black Ilaruj, which is also covered ^vith much reddish scoria, lighter than the black lavas, consists of small low ridges and isolated peaks with abrupt sides furrowed by deej) fissures and crevasses. These hills, which have a mean elevation of 650 feet above the plateau, itself about 2,000 feet above sea-level, are perhaps the volcanoes which foniu-rly lit up the shores of the Mediterranean or of the lakes PHYSICAL FEATURES. 37 stretched at tlieir foot. But the system is also largely composed of the sandstone aud limestone formations, which have been pierced by the eruptive lavas. South of the Black Haruj stretches an extensive calcareous hamada, or jjlateau, terminat- ing north-east of the ilurzuk dejiression in a group of cHffs and hills known as the Harilj-el-Abiad, or " TThite Hariij." Here, according to the Arab reports, are found the perfect skeletons of large marine animals. Beyond the pass, which affords commimication between the Zella and Fogha Fig. 12. — Pkojected Railways across 'U'est Atkica. Scale 1 : 41,000,000. Meridian of breer,v\icn Lines opened. — Lines iu progress or conceded. . Several projected lines. 60'} Miles, oases on the northern and southern slopes respectively, the Ilaruj-el-Aswad is continued westwards by the Jebel-es-Soda, or " Black Mountains," already by Pliny designated by the spionymous expression, Mons Atcr. According to the explanation of the Roman ency,clopa.'dist, this appellation, which has persisted for at least two thousand years, is due to the appearance of these uplands, which look as if blackened by fire, although, when lit up by the solar rays, they seem to be wrapped in flame. 38 xoirrn-WEST .u'liicA. The Black Mountains, the highest range in south Tiipolitana, follow the normal direction from cast to west, while describing a slight curve with its convex side facing northwards. It is divided into two sections of different aspect by a broad breach, or as Duvcyrier describes it, " a continuous series of ravines," traversed by the caravan route between Murzuk and the Jofra oasis. The very names given to each of these sections of the range — Soda Sherkiyah and Soda Gharbiyah — indicate their respective positions east and west of this commercial highway. The Soda Sherkiyah, or " Eastern Soda," stands at but a slight elevation above the limestone plateau ; whereas the " Western Soda " attains considerable altitudes, the Kalb-Warkau, one of its summits, having a height of 3,000 feet, according to some authorities. At its western extremity, where it merges in the great stonj^ hamada known as the Hamada-el-Homra, or " Red Plateau," the Nabcr-el-Jrug, another of its peaks, is eA-en said to be 4,3o0 feet high. According to Rohlfs, who, however, was unable to take any accurate measurements in the Jebel-es-Soda, there are also in the eastern section of the system other crests reaching an altitude of 5,000 feet. The statement of Hornemann, that the Jcbel-es-Soda is to a large extent of volcanic origin, has been fully contirmed by Duveyrier, who has brought back fragments of a basaltic lava, which the geologist Descloizeaux regards as coming very probably from an ancient submarine eruption. Various sjjurs branch off northwards from the main range, sinking gradually down to the low-lj'ing coastlands. Several other projections have also become completely isolated from the rest of the system. Such, for instance, are those running towards the Jofra oasis, where they rise from 650 to 880 feet above the wady, which has itself a mean elevation of about 650 feet above the sea. The Lokhmani, one of these isolated groups, is clothed with palm groves half way up its sides. l^orth of the oasis the plain is dominated by the Jebel-Tar, a mountain mass completely distinct from the Soda range, and consisting of tertiary formations which contain thick fossiliferous beds. But its. moderate elevation, not exceeding 1,330 feet, is not sufficient to arrest the moisture-bearing clouds, so that on the slopes of the Jebel-Tar nothing is found except springs of bitter water. In memory of the explorer Nachtigal, who has done such excellent work in the Sahara and Sudan, his friend Eohlfs has given to the culminating point of the Tar sysli'ui the appellation of Jebel Bulbul, or " Mount Nightingale" (Nachtigal). AVest and north-west of the Jcbel-es-Soda stretches the interminable " Red Plateau," whose superficial area is estimated at some 40,000 square miles. From north to south, where it was traversed by Barth in 1850, between Tripoli and ^lu/urk, it is over 120 miles long, while extending through the Tinghert plateau for 420 miles east and west to the south of the Ghadames oases and of the region of Algerian dunes. This Hamada-el-Homra is of all the African -'hamadas " the hamada in a superlative sense — the " burnt" region which, owing to the absence of water, is most dreaded by caravans. On the edge of the cliff leading to it, each wayfarer religiously casts a stone on the buaaff'ur, or " father of the journey," a cairn or PHYSICAL FEATURES. 89 p_yraniicl of propitiation raised from centurj' to ecntiny by successive generations of travellers. Herbage, brushwood, and li\'ing things are rare in this desolate waste, which is avoided by the very birds, that fear to wing their way across solitudes more formidable than the seas themselves. Nevertheless camels find here and there a little nourishment in the scanty vegetation offered by a few dejjressions along the track across the jilateau. Earth even came upon some stunted palms in one of these hoUows, where the water collected after the rare storms soon evaporates, leaving nothing in its place except a thin saline effioresceuce. In many places channels have been formed by the wadies, although the running waters have not been sufficiently cojoious to excavate a complete river bed in the rock, so that beyond the last basin of erosion the depression is again closed. The jjlateau is on the whole remarkably level and uniform, free alike from stones and sand. In altitude it varies scarcely more than 150 feet, from 1,500 to 1,650, the highest point along the route followed by Barth being 1,700 feet, and indicated at a distance by a heap of stones. At first sight the surface of the ground might seem to be formed of basaltic slabs, so black and parched is its appearance. But it really consists of sandstone layers overlain with clay and gypsum, and still more frequently with marls, limestone, and silicious strata, in which numerous fossil shells have been collected. Southwards the ground falls through a succession of terraces and cliffs scoi'ed with deep ravines. The limit of the northern desert is marked by the copious Hassi wells and other springs, which ooze up from a depth of 760 feet below the plateau. South of this point begins the region of oases inhabited by the Hamatic (Berber) connnunities. The observer asks in amazement how the Roman armies, possessing no camels like the caravans of our days, were able to traverse the Red Hamada, as stated by the old writers, and as attested by the richly sculptured tombs occurring at intervals along the line of march, and especially on the crests or summits commanding extensive views of the country. Some of these sepulchral monimients, the sdnem of the Arabs, are graceful little shrines, whose correct style shows that the architects and sculptors of these remote regions scarcely yielded in artistic taste to those of the mother country. In modern times the direct route over the hamada was first explored by Barth, Overweg, and Richardson, other European travellers having followed the more easterly road across the Jebel-es- Soda. There can be little doubt that during the last two thousand years the whole region has gradually become drier, and thus would be explained the relatively easier access to the interior formerly afforded by the western route, pnvter caput sa.ri* " by the head of the rock." North-eastwards the Red Plateau, furrowed by numerous wadies, is broken into narrow promontories, which are again cut up into secondary headlands. Some of these segments of the great rocky tableland have even been completely detached from the hamada, thus forming small distinct ridges limited on either side by watercourses. Such are the Kaf Mugelad, the Jebel Khadaraia, and the Jebel * Pliny, v., ch. 5. 40 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. Erj^cnn, whose mean elevation is about the same as that of the plateau. From the head of the passes intersecting them a distant view is commanded of the system of broad raviues, all draining east and north-east towards the Mediterranean. In this rugged district every headland is crowned, like the summits of the hamada, with the ruins of tombs and of other Roman structures, embellished with columns and carvings. A methodical survey of the whole of this part of Tripolitana is urgently demanded, says Rohlfs, in order to study the interesting inscriptions and recover the more choice bas-reliefs here found in abundance. The establishment of an archaeological museum at Tripoli might help to preserve valuable ornaments, which Fiir. 13. — Jebel Ghtteiax. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. 5S 'V V. ^'arFeseata J. Msnte^i?u^^i^^ ..y*. Tekpt. y- r,.of^r^ /i O A-^ 2si_ yyS fto-..^.^! r-' 28' L * o"F , breenwich. 18° to 320 reet. Depths. S20 to 3,200 Feet. 3,200 Feet and upwards. . 120 Miles. fanas, Ben-Ajelas, and Nuails. Till recently conflicts were frequent in the border lands between the two states, and the victorious or defeated clans were continuallj- displacing their camping grounds according to the vicissitudes of battle. Although the art of writing has been lost among the Berbers of Tripolitana, most of these communities are designated on the ground or the face of the cliffs by complicated marks or signs, which must be regarded cither as abbreviated names, or symbolic marks, analogous to the totems of the North American Indians. There arc also some Arab tribes hold in great veneration, not on account of their pure morals or any special merit, but in consequence of the pretended sanctity THE XEGEOES. 53 of their origin. These are the so-called S/ior/a* that is, descendants of the Prophet, although the family genealogical tree is seldom authentic. It is enough for a woman to marrj- a Sharif, even though immediately afterwards repudiated by her husband, for all her children, and children's children to take this honoui'cd title. The " iTarahutic " families of Tripolitana also claim to have come from the west, whence the Shorfa are said to have migrated. Anyhow, it appears to be quite certain that a great many Arab tribes advanced as far as the Atlantic sea- board during the first years of the conquest. Since that epoch a general movement in the opposite direction has been effected, so that those tribes are regarded as of noblest blood who during their migrations have twice ti-aversed the route between ifauritania and the eastern provinces of Xorth Africa. Such groups are even more esteemed than if they had come straight from the holy cities of Arabia. At present this retrograde movement is more active than ever. The Algerian Shorfa clans, with their wives, childi-en, and herds, have already emigrated in thousands to Tripoli, in order to escape from the yoke of the " infidel." The Khwans of the religious brotherhood of the Senusiya, who have become so numerous in the oases of Tripolitana, are also immigrants from the same region. After the occupation of Tunisia by the French troops, several unsubdued tribes sought a refuge on the plains of Jefara, west of Tripoli. The Negroes. Next to that of the Berbers and Arabs, the largest section of the population is certainly the Negro element. Amongst those who call themselves Arabs, or even Shorfa, there are thousands who betray their black descent in the colour of their skin and haii", the form of their features alone attesting mixture with the white Semites. Commercial relations are so frequent and regular between Ti-ipoli and the interior of the continent, that there is nothing surprising in the presence of numerous Nigritians on the Mediterranean coastlands. The great majority, however, of those now living in Tripolitana have been forcibly brought thither as slaves. Fonnerly not a siagle caravan arrived from Sudan unaccompanied hy a gang of captives, ^e must therefore reckon by himdreds of thousands the number of blacks who have thus been imported into Tripoli, either to remain in the country or to be forwai-ded thence to Egypt or Turkey. Although at present no longer carried on openlj- iu the capital of the vilayet, the slave trade has not yet by any means totally ceased. On hearing of the arrival of a caravan ia the southern oases, the dealers in human flesh instruct their agents to obtain the best terms for theii' living merchandise, which never fails to find a purchaser. At the same time both Negroes and Negresses, at least in the capital, may at any time demand a letter of emancipation, and this document is never refused. Many of these freed- men remain in the houses of tteir former masters, who are still looked up to as patrons and protectors even by those who withdraw from their roof to live * Shorfa or Sturafa 15 the plural of Sharif, properly a noble or grandee, but usually restricted to the real or presumed descendants of llohammed. 5i NOETH-AVEST .VFEICA. iudeijeiKleutly. On all festive occasions they return to share in the family rejoicings. The great niajoritj- of the Negro population resides neither in the cajjital nor in any of the other to^vns of the province. Faithful to their racial instincts, they have grouped themselves in small hamlets, where they live in huts made of palms, branches, and reeds. Neither the houses of the civilised Turks uor the tents of the nomad Arabs suit the habits of communities still following the same mode of life as their fellow-countrjauen on the banks of the Niger and Lake Tsad. Although familiar with Arabic, most of them still sjDcak their native dialects. From the Niam-Niam territory to that of the Fulahs, all the regions of Central Africa are represented in Tripolitana by their respective languages, although the majority-, or about two-thirds of the population, converse in the Haussa already current thi'oughout Western Sudan. In many districts a stranger might fancy it had also become the prevailing language of Tripolitana, owing to the incessant chattering of the Negroes, as contrasted with the less voluble Arabs and Berbers. But it is not likely that the Ilaussa tongue will maintain itself for many genera- tions in the country ; for however correct the social life of the local black com- munities, however touching their devotion to their famiKes, the Negro women arc rarely very jn'olific, while infant mortality is very high. Yet in other respect.s the women would ajipear to resist the climate better than the men, and many even live to a great age. The Turks A^•D Kulugli. The Turks, who since 1835 enjoy not only the sovereignty but also the effec- tive power, are in a minority even in the capital. Nevertheless their language has gradually become predominant amongst most of the " Tarabulsiyeh," the preponderating influence of the administration having caused the official idiom to prevail over the Arabic. Yet the Tm'ks are still strangers in the land, holding aloof from the rest of the inhabitants, from whom they are already somewhat distinguished as " Malekits" in the midst of " Hanefite " populations. They are, moreover, careful to follow the fashions of Constantinople, and by an affected dignity of carriage they endeavour to sever themselves from the populace, to which as judges and administrators they nevertheless condescend to sell justice and protection. But for all their airs of superiority, their passion for strong drink has rendered them the most degraded section of the community. More respectable are the Kulugli, that is, the descendants of Turks and Moorish or other women of the country, whether black or white. Those half- castes pay no taxes, but are required to serve as irregular troops at the first summons to amis. Since the immigration of so many Algerian families, escaping from French rule, the Turks usually select their wives amongst the women of this class, who arc distinguished from the rest of the population by their honesty, sobriety, and correct morals. Many of the yoimg Algerian women are, moreover, noted for their personal charms, in this respect contrasting favourably with the TOPOGEM'HY. 55 native Moorish girls, wliosc reputation is also so bad that an alliance with one of this class is looked upon almost as a disgrace. But however respected the wives of the Turkish officials, their sons arc seldom destuicd to hold high positions in the administration. After serving in the gendarmerie or some other corjjs, most of these Kuluglis ^vithdraw to the rural districts suiTOundiug the cajjital, wheie they gradually merge in the rest of the population. The Jews, JMaltese, and Elropeaxs uf Teipolitana. In Tripolitana, as in the other Barbary states, the Jews are essentially the despised race. Yet they are amongst the oldest inhabitants of the country, having settled here imder the Ptolemies. During the early years of the Eoman administration they had secured the special protection of the Emperor Augustus. An encampment west of Middilar, on the coast of the Great Syrtis, still bears the name of Yehudia, or " Jewrj'," in memory of the Israelites who peopled the country before the arrival of the Arabs. In the Jebel Ghurian the Jews occupy, like the Berbers, certain underground villages, iu which, according to Lyon, their dwellings would appear to be cleaner and better excavated than those of their ucighbom-s. These troglodyte Jews, the only artisans in the coimtry, are exempt from the abuse and bad treatment to which their co-rcHgionists are elsewhere subjected in Tripolitana. In the capital, where they number about 8,000, they occupy a separate quarter admiuistcrcd by a '■political rabbi," ignorant of the Pentateuch and of the Talmud, but armed -nith the right to impose taxes, fines, the bastinado, and even issue interdicts against j^rivate families. Twice enslaved, the Jews of Tripoli are very inferior to those of Mauritania in uitelligeuce, hence adhere far more tenaciously to the old orthodox practices and hereditary customs. A few Koptic families, who arrived with the Arabs, have maintained them- selves in distiact groups in Tripolitana, where, however, they are not sufficiently numerous to exercise the least social influence. More active, although also numerically weak, are the Jeraba Berbers, immigrants from the Tunisian island of Jcrba. These are the richest dealers in the bazaar of Tripoli, although obliged to compete with 4,000 Maltese, who are Ai'abs by descent, Christians in religion, British subjects politicallv, partly Italians in speech, and French in education. This half Eui'opeau colonj' is yearly reinforced by true Europeans, mostly Italians, guests who hope soon to be masters, and who are meantime establishing schools to diffuse their national speech. In 1884 the Italians numbered 800 out of a total of 1,000 continental Europeans. Topography. West of Mukhlar, on the Tripolitan shores of the Great Syrtis, there is not a siagle town, or even a permanent -village comprising more than a few hundred huts. For a space of some 300 miles nothing is to be seen except groups of tents. 56 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. a few cabins and shapeless ruins. But at least one "large city " formerh' stood on tliis seaboard, the place in modincval times by Abu Obcid Bakri named Sort, •whose ruins arc still known to the Arabs under the appellation of Meciinet-cn- Sultan, or " City of the Sultan." Sort, or Sirt, was formerly the starting-point of caravans bound for the interior of the continent through the oases of "Wadan and Murzuk. But being unable to defend themselves agaiast the attacks of the nomad Bedouins, its merchants were compelled to choose another route to the east of the plateaux, traversing oases which were inhabited by settled agricidtui-al commimities. Amongst the ruias of Sort are the remains of some Eoman struc- tures, as well as aq^ueducts and reservoirs still in a good state of repair. Like the coastlands themselves, the whole of the steppe region stretching thence southwards is destitute of towns, although here the wells and depressions in the wadies, whore water collects in greatest abundance, serve as natural trysting-places for the surrounding nomad pastoral tribes. Towns, properly so called, are foimd only at the foot of the Haruj and Jebel-es-Soda, where the running waters are copious enough to feed the palm groves and irrigate the cornfields. Even the natural oases following in the direction from east to west under the same latitude as those of Aujila and Jalo are uninhabited. Jibbcna, to the east, Marade, in the centre, and Abu Nairn, farther west, are the three chief depressions whose spontaneous vegetation seems most likely to attract future agricultiu'al settlers. All these districts stand at least about 150 feet above the level of the sea. Towards the north, in the direction of the Great Syrtis, as well as on the opposite side towards the spurs of the Haruj, the surface is broken by limestone rocks, witnesses of a former plateau, weathered or perhaps eroded by running waters, and worked ia all dii'ections into the form of columns and fantastic struc- tures. Those rocks abound in fossils, in many places constituting the whole mass, while the sands of the oases are strewn with countless shells and f oraminifera;. In the east, towards the Aujila oasis, the view is obstructed by dunes which are amongst the highest in the whole region of the desert, some rising to a height of about 530 feet. The three oases abound in palms; which, however, M'ith the exception of a few thousand, all grow wild, or have lapsed into the wild state, springing up like scrub, and yielding a poor fruit without kernel. In the Abu Naim oasis there are probably no male dates, while the female plants are not fertile. All three oases produce a species of crab or wild apple-tree, whose fruit is no bigger than a walnut. The neighbouring tribes, or bands of marauders roaming over the steppes, come occasionally to gather the dates and graze their camels in the grassy hollows of these oases. Jibbena and Marade were still inhabited down to the middle of the present century; but in 1862 only a solitary person remained in Marade, a slave left to watch the raiders, and report their depredations at the annual visit of his masters. The establishment of a colony at the fountains of Abu Naim is prevented chiefly by the bad quality of the water, which is very sulphurous, or charged with the sulphate of magnesia. Doubtless the time will come, says RohLfs, when a visit to these sidphur baths of east Tripolitana will be recommended by European physicians as TOPOGRAPHY. 57 highly efficacious. Suljihur beds are numerous in this region, and a little to the north of the oasis are situated the mines whose produce is exported from the little port of Braiga. The oasis of Zella, or Zalla, lying in a rock-enclosed cirque at th.e northern foot of the Black Haruj, is one of the most densely peopled in. the whole of Tripolitana. In 1879 it contained about twelve hundred persons, members for the most part of the Arab tribe of the Aulad Khris. The cirque has a length east and west of 7 miles, with a breadth of 3 north and south. With the Tirsa oasis lying farther north, it contains about a hundred thousand date-palms. At the time of Beurmann's visit, in 1862, Tirsa was still inhabited, but has since been abandoned, probably owing to the dangerous proximity of the Orfella Arabs. This tribe, say the Aulad Khris, arrived ten centuries ago from Egypt, and after driving out the Christian populations, became the guides and escorts of caravans boimd for Central Africa. Edrisi relates that their town was the chief station between Sort and the Zwila oasis in Fezzan. But the " City of the Sultan," as it was called, has disappeared, and at present the chief outlet for the exports of the country lies much farther west, at the port of Tripoli. The people of Zella take no part iu this traffic except by devious ways. At the time of Rohlf's visit, in 1879, they had for several years been compelled to avoid the direct route to Tripoli, fearing the vengeance of tlie Orfellas, whose territory lay across their path, and some fifty members of which tribe they had killed in a fray. On the other hand, they venture fi'eely far into the southern wilderness, and to them in recent times has been due a real geographical discovery, that of the inhabited oasis of "Wau-el-Xamus, which no European has yet Arisited. Of all the TripoHtan Arabs, the inhabitants of Zella are the richest in camels. They are also the only tribe still occupied with ostrich farming, although since the journey of Hamilton this industry has fallen off. In 1879, two of these birds, fed on dates, yielded to their owner a net yearly profit of from £6 to £8. Although larger and more populous than that of Zella, the Jofra oasis is far less rich iu cultivated palms. Scarcely a twentieth part of the 800 square miles com- prising its whole area is under cultivation for dates, corn, or fruits. Its very name of Jofra, h'omjqf, stomach, indicates the fonn of the oasis, which is an elongated cirque stretching east and west, and everywhere encircled by hills rising 650 feet above the plain. A range of heights, running north and south, that is, in the direction of the short axis of the cirque, and interrupted at intervals, divides the oasis into two equal parts, each with its gardens, palm groves, grassy steppes, stony wastes, and saline lakes. Sandy gorges, in which water is rarely seen on the surface of the ground, converge towards the north of the twin oases in the Wady Missifer, which, mider another name, winds through the plain as far as the Great S3'rtis. Although situated on the ifc-diterranean slope, Jofra belongs administratively to the province of Fezzan. Its inhabitants long maintained their independeuec, paying no taxes either to Tripoli or to ilurzuk. At that time they constituted a small but sufficiently powerful republic, which afforded a refuge to the oppressed VOL. XI. F 58 NOETH-"V\^ST AFRICA. from all the surroimdiug lands. The population, at present estimated at six thousand, was then much more numerous.* In some of the Jof ra palm groves the water is of exquisite flavour ; nevertheless the towns have been founded in the vicinity of the saline springs. Notwithstanding this disadvantage, the oasis is one of the healthiest in the desert region. Ague is unknown, and ophthalmia rare, while other maladies common in the oasis of Fezzan never penetrate to Jofra. But although healthy and vigorous, the natives, whether Berbers or Arabs, have a sickly look, with yellow parchment skins. Men are seldom met amongst them distinguished by the regidarity of their features. Although the Arabs, in their quality as the "chosen peoj^le " and followers of the Fig. 16. — JoFEA Oasis. Scale 1 : 700,000. tfi^F'Hon"?. Six ^.TN.. ■' -■' v'f ""T^"- li- as ■■'fr-«^&3' '\i'=^^^='.KL-'W<"J'"' € lu.^ ^aMiI laSi SiSSilM 15° L oT Lreenwich I5°40- 12 llUes. Prophet, regard themselves as superior to the Berbers, they none the less recognise the rights possessed by them as the first possessors of the soil. This position of landowners has been maintained bj- the Berbers so exclusively that the Arabs are able to acquire j^ossession of the trees alone ; hence at times feuds and frays, requiring the intervention of the Turkish troops stationed in Fezzan. The races are doubtless so intermingled that it is difficult any longer to discriminate between the two elements in Jofra. Nevertheless, a traditional convention enables the Berbers to safeguard their primitive proprietary rights. The son, whatever the origin of his mother, is always regarded as belonging to his father's nationality. The gardens surrounding the towns of the oasis are admirably cultivated, and yield in abundance cereals, tomatoes, garlic, onions, and other vegetables. During * Lj'on, "Travels in Nortliem Africa." TOPOGEAPHY. 59 harvest time the arms of the cultivators and their slaves are insuiEcient to garner the crops, and then immigrants from Fezzan come to lend a hand as labourers for a few -weeks. Enriched by agricidture, the inliabitants of the oasis take no part in trade, like the natives of ilurzuk, Ghadames, and Ghat ; but the produce of their fields finds a market through the medium of other Arab tribes. Ostrich farming, pursued with success at the beginning of this centiiry, has since been given up. The present capital of the oasis is the walled town of Sohna, which contains about one-third of the whole population, and at times gives its name to the whole district. Its inhabitants belong almost exclusively to the Berber race, and still speak the old language, mixed, however, with many Arabic expressions. Son, situated nearly in the centre of Jofra, ia the eastern section of the oasis, is shared by Berbers and Arabs in common. It is the most populous town in the country, and at the same time owns the greatest extent of cultivated lands. Wadan, h'ing farther east at the foot of the hills of like name, is a " holy city," thanks to its Shorfa inhabitants, who enjoy the twofold honour attached to the descendants of the Prophet and to the families that have emigrated from Marocco. Built in ampLitheatrical form on a cliff, AVadan presents a very picturesque appearance. It is an old place, already mentioned centuries ago by the Arab geographers, and formerly gave its name to the whole oasis. According to Rohlfs, its walls would appear to stand on Roman foimdations. Following the route which leads from the Jofra oasis towards Tripoli around the eastern foot of the spurs of the plateau, the caravans have selected as their chief station the village of Bit-Xjcim, occupied by a few OrfeUa Arab families, who live by trading with the passing merchants and the surrounding pastoral tribes. The wells of Bu-Xjeim, lying in a deep depression of the steppe at a height little above sea-level, are vi.sited by the herds of camels for a distance of 60 miles round about. These animals are well acquainted with the roads leading to the watering- place. Every month, and more frequently during the hot season, they proceed in long processions to the Bu-Njcim wells, where they have at times to wait patientlj- hours, and even days, for someone to water them. All the other wells of the countrv, as far as the Bcui- Vlid oasis, belong also to the OrfeUa tribe. In this extensive oasis, some fifty villages and hamlets, scattered amid groves of olives and other fruit-trees, are permanently inhabited. Seen from the hiUs, the vallcv of the wady, which is of limestone escarpments overlaid with lavas, and ranginsr from 450 to ooO feet in heisrht, looks like a river of verdure over half a mile in width, and stretching east and west beyond the horizon. The oKve groves are divided into innumerable plots by dykes of large stones, which arrest the overflow of the inundations, and at the same time serve to retain the vegetable humus. The walls of the "Wady Beni Flid are sunk in .some places to a depth of over 130 feet. A few groups of huts in the 'gorges of the plateau at the foot of the hamada, may perhaps deserve the name of towns. Such are both G/iarias — Gharia-csh-Sher- kiya, the "eastern," and Gharia-el-Gharhiija, the "western," situated in the depres- sion of the wady tributary of the Zemzem. These two places, built at a distance F 2 CO NOETH-WEST AFRICA. of about 12 miles from each ofbcr, and at an altitude of over 1,6G0 feet, were formerly fortified, as indicated by their name, which means "fortress." The western Gharia still preserves a superb Eoman gateway, dating from the time of the Autonines, and presenting a singular contrast to the wretched Arab hovels resting against its massive buttresses. The eastern town is noted for its excellent dates, j-icldcd by plantations irrigated with a brackish water from the under- ground galleries of the /offaratfi. Mmla, lying farther north in the upper valley of the Wady Sofejin, although containi'ng scarcely five hundred inhabitants, is, nevertheless, a more important place than either of the Gharias, owing to its position on a much-frequented caravan route. At this point the road from Tripoli branches off in one direction towards the south-west, where it ascends the hamada in the direction of Ghadames, in the other southwards, across a series of ridges skirting the eastern edge of the Eed Ilamada in the direction of Murzuk. The inhabitants of Misda, of Berber origin, but largely assimilated to the Arabs, although still preserving traces of the national speech, belong entij-ely to the religious order of the Senusiya. At the time of Earth's visit, in 1850, the convent possessed no wealth of any kind ; at present it owns vast landed estates. In the surrounding districts are scattered numerous ruins of tombs and other Roman monuments. Although, comparatively well peopled, the Jebel Ghurian and the mountains forming its western prolongation have no towns properly so-called, unless the subterranean dwelling of Zcnthan be regarded as such. In this place the plateau is furrowed in every direction by ravines of slight depth, which serve as streets, on either side of which artificial habitations have been excavated in the rocky cliffs, where the white limestone alternates with yellow marl dejoosits. The softer parts are removed in such a manner as to give the group of caves the disposition of Moorish houses, with their courts and lateral chambers. But here the different apartments of the several stories communicate by means of an outer ledge or rocky projection, reached either by natural breaks and landings in the cliff, or hy flights of steps made of superimposed slabs. These underground dwellings number altogether from one thousand to one thousand two hundred, giving an approximate population of about six thousand to the town of Zeuthan. Above and round about the caves are planted the olive groves, which form the chief resource of the inhabitants, arable lands being rare in this part of the plateau. The fertile soil, which might be washed away by the rains, is retained by walls round the roots of the trees. During field operations and harvest, the troglodj'tes leave their abodes and caxa\> out, a change which often cures them of maladies contracted in their damp rocky retreats. Next to Zenthan, the two most important centres of population on the Jebel Ghurian, are the hamlets grouped round the Turkish castles of Kasv Ghurian and Kasr-cl-Jcbcl. The whole district is relatively well peopled, containing, according to native report, as many as " a hundred and one " villages. But before meeting a city worthy of the name, the traveller must descend to the coast; here. stands the capital, Tripoli, which, however, is the only town found ToroGEArnY. 01 along the seaboard between Tunisia and Cyrenaica. Even the upland Tar-hona plain, whose fertile soil formerly nourished a vast population, has nothing now to show except scattered hamlets and Arab camping-grounds, besides Misrafa, chief to^\Ti of the maritime districts. This place, however, which lies near the headland forming the western limit of the Great Syrtis, is little more than an obscure hamlet, although officially described as the headquarters of forty-four villages. A stone house, a modern lighthouse, two or three irregular lanes lined with hovels, and a few huts lost amid the palms and olive groves, make up the town of Misrata, which, nevertheless, possesses some importance as a market for the surroimding townis. Fig-. 17. — The Khoms Coast Disteict, Tripolita2ja. Scale 1 : 390.000. Wl6 L . of Gr, Depths. to32 Feet. 32 to SO Feet. 80 to ICO Feet. 160 Feet and upwards Carjjets, matting, goat and camel-hair sacks are amongst the more valued products of the local mdustry. In Misrata is found the mother-house of the famous order of Sidi-cl-Madani, whose founder emigrated from Medina in 1833. In the sixteenth centurj- Misrata was a wealthy place, enjoying a lucrative trade with Venice. It was the starting-point of most of the caravans boimd for Fezzan, and even till recentl}- those of Tripoli followed the coast route as far as Misrata in order to avoid the dreaded hostile tribes of the Ghurian highlands. West of Misrata follows Sliten, a town or rather a group of villages scattered amid the palm groves, and partly inhabited by Marabuts and Jews. Then comes the village of Khoms or Lchda, humble heiress of the ancient Lcptis, whose 62 XOETII-'U'EST AFEICA. spleudour and extent formerly earned for it the title of Magna. The site of the original Lcptis, founded by refugees from Sidon, is a loftj' headland hounded east- wards hv a rivulet, the peninsular bluff defended landwards \>y three lines of fortifications forming the acropolis. The breakwater, protecting the city from the fury of the waves, is constructed of huge square blocks, like those at the island of Kuad, on the coast of Syria. In this part of Africa, remains of the ancient Phcenician architecture are still found in a perfect state of repair. Within the line of quay walls occur at intervals vaulted recesses about 100 feet long, which Earth thinks must have served as dry docks for the Sidonian shipping. South of the citadel, on the left bank of the rividet, was gradually developed the new city of NeapoUs, which at last became one of the largest centres of ijojjula- tion in the Old "World. Hundreds of thousands of inhabitants were here grouped together, and the edifices of this African citj', partlj' constructed with the surround- ing marbles, yielded in richness and beauty to those of Rome alone. But their very ruins have been invaded by the sands, and many of these monuments lie buried under dunes GO or 70 feet high. A triumphal arch, the date of which is still legible, was here erected by Marcus Aurclius ; but most of the buildings of which any traces svirvive, such as basilicas and mausoleums, were constructed during the reign of Septimius Severus, who was a native of Leptis, and who con- ferred many privileges on the place. A few columns still lie scattered about, but most of those recovered from the ruins have been removed to England or France, and several now adorn the church of St. Germain des Pres in Paris. Amongst the debris of Leptis have been found three beautifid cameos, besides a trilingual inscrip- tion in Punic, Greek, and Latin, a monument bearing witness to the midtitude of strangers at one time resorting to this great African city. Along the east bank of the rivulet stretched another quarter of Leptis, and on the low point of land at its mouth stands a fort, which has often been rebuilt, and which commands an extensive view of the ruined city, and beyond it of the palm and olive groves and amphitheatre of Mcsclkita hills, crowned with fortifica- tions, in close proximity to the sea. The whole place occupied a superficial area five times more extensive than that of the modern Tripoli. Although nearly choked with sand, the port of Leptis continues to be frequented by vessels of light draft, nearly all English, which during the fine season here take in cargoes of alfa grass from the neighbouring steppes. According to the natives, olive culture dates back to Egyjjtian times, and an olive grove on the Mesellata heights containing some enormous trees still bears the name of " Pharaoh's "Wood." A carriage route connecting Tripoli with the Mesellata district at many points skirts an ancient highway, which may be still recognised by the ruts worn in the hard rock by the chariot-wheels of Carthaginians, Greeks, and Eomans. Along this route, the liirgest group of \'illagcs is that of Tajurah, whose industrious inhabitants occupy themselves at once -nith tillage, weaving, and dyeing. Tajurah was formerly a bellicose place, constantly at war with the Knights of Malta. TRIPOLI. 63 Tripoli. The present capital of Tripolitana has long ceased to rival the ancient Leptis ^lagna in population or wealth. Tripoli is little more nowadays than a third-rate city amongst those even of the ilediterranean seaboard, although of late years it has been much improved and enlarged Like Leptis, it is of Phcenician origin. Under the name of Uayat, Latinised to Oea, it was dedicated to the god Melkart, greatest of Tj'rian divinities, and dui-ing Carthaginian times rose to considerable power. Of the three cities of Leptis, Sabratha and Oea, the last having been chosen for the capital, ultimately took the general designation of the whole coimtrv. Under the form of Tarabolos, the Turks have preserved the Greek name of Tripoli, distinguishing it however from its Sp'ian namesake by the epithet of EI-Gharh, that is, the " western " Tripoli. A few ruins of Oea still exist, including deep cisterns and the foundations of ramparts dating from the Phoenician times. There is even one fine building perfectly preserved, besides a triumphal arch dedicated to Marcus AureUus and Lucius Aiu-elius Yerus. This monument might be easily cleared of the sands in which it at present Kes half buried, and of the wretched structiu'es encumbering its pUlars, which are formed of huge blocks of marble. Seen from the sea, the town of Tripoli presents a charming sight. A chain of partly emerged reefs jii'ojects in the blue waters nearly two miles from the beach, bearing at its landward extremity a massive tower and fortifications. Westwards from this point the citj' sweeps round in a crescent form, separated from the shore by a line of ramparts, which are overlooked by a row of white terraced houses, and limited at the eastern extremity of the harbour by the solid buildings, gardens, and palm groves of the governor's palace. Above the mosques and sui-rounding houses are 'visible minarets as slim as those of Tiu'key, and the flagstaifs and banners of the various European Consulates. Above and beyond all are seen the citadel and the "French Lighthouse," completed in 1880. Leo Africanus, who wrote about the beginning of the sixteenth century, relates a tradition according to which Tripoli formerly occupied a more northerly site, and ia his time the foundations of the vanished city were said to be still visible beneath the devouring waves. But this supposed subsidence of the ground can be little more than a simple phenomenon of local erosion, for the present ramjiarts rest partly on the foundations of the old walls of Oea itself. The modem to'RTi, which is surroimded by broken ramparts dating from the time of Charles Y., presents specimens of the most varied styles of architec- ture. Ln the inner labyrinth of narrow tortuous streets, most of the houses, here and there connected above the roadway by vaulted passages, have preserved their Arab physiognomy with their bare white walls and courts enclosed by arcades. Xearly all the structures erected by the Government — barracks, hospitals, prisons, magazines — recall the vast Turkish establishments of Like order iu Constantinojile ; the Maltese quarter in its turn resembles the suburbs of some small Italian town ; while the Marina is lined by sumptuous mansions like similar thoroughfares in the Gi NOETU-WEST AFRICA. large European seaports. Even the architecture of the Xiger regions is represented in this Mediterranean city, ia several of whose ruins are grouped huts roofed with branches, like those of "Western Sudan. The Bedouins of Tripolitana have learnt this style of building from theii- Negro slaves. Although still a very dirty place, muddy and dusty in turn, or both simul- taneously, Tripoli has been much embellished since the middle of the present century. The /lara, or Jewish quarter, still remains a labyrinth of filthy lanes and alleys ; but a central boulevard now intersects the old town from end to end ; the bazaar, occupied by Maltese and Jeraba dealers, has been enlarged, and new suburbs Fig. 18.— Tbipoli. Scale 1 : 75,000. l3°io- L. ■. oT breenwich Depths. Otol6 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 to SO Feet. _ 2,200 Yards. 80 Feet and upwards. developed amid the surrounding gardens. Artesian wells have even been sunk to supply the deficiency of good drinking water, the contents of the cisterns being usually insufiicicnt for more than six or seven months in the year. But hitherto the borings have yielded nothing but a brackish fluid. The urban population has considerably increased, now numbering about thirty thousand souls, amongst whom arc comprised four thousand or five thousand Europeans, mostly Italians and Maltese. The natives of both sexes wear nearly the same costume, the only difference being the different arrangement of their haa/i or toga. Three of these togas — gauze, silk, and wool — are commonly worn by the women one over the other. TEirOLI. G5 The so-called Meshiya, a belt of palm-groves encircling the citj% with an average breadth of 9. miles, is itself a populous district, containing, according to Krafft, about thirty thousand inhabitants. Here the emancipated Xegroes from Bornu and the Xiger states have resumed the same mode of life as in their native hamlets ; here are also nomad Arabs, who pitch their tents beneath the palms near some holy shrine ; Maltese dealers, whose stalls or inns are usually established at the cross roads ; retired Europeans or Turks occupying some pleasant country scat amid the verdant and flowering thickets. But in some places the Meshiya is threatened by the sands of an ancient marine inlet. Manj'' gardens are already covered witli dunes from 100 to 130 feet high, and elsewhere the trunks of the trees have been swallowed up, leaving nothing but the tojjmost branches mournfully beating the sands in the breeze. To this zone of dunes the people of Tripoli improperly give the name of " desert," through a sort of vanity leading them to fancy themselves near neigh- bours of the Sahara, from which they are nevertheless separated by the whole region of stejipes and by the Ghurian highlands. At the same time Tripoli and its outskirts present in many respects the aspect of an oasis, beyond which the eara\ans have at once to follow the track of dried-up watercourses. In the Meshiya itself innumerable wells have been sunk to an extensive underground reservoir, which has never been pumped dry by the irrigation works, and which near the coast Kes mthin 3 or 4 feet of the surface. The water weUs up spontaneously through the sands left exposed during exceptionally low neap tides. For the internal trade with the Tsad and Xiger basins, Tripoli is more favourably situated than more western cities, such as Tunis, Bona, Algiers, and Oran, inasmuch as it communicates directly with the regions draining to the Gulf of Guinea. Two main routes, one through Murzuk, the other through Ghadames, and connected together by intermediate byways, enable Tripoli to maintain constant relations with the towns of the Bornu and Haussa states. Before the year 1873, the caravan traders of Ghadames enjoyed a monopoly of the commerce with these coimtries ; but since then the Jewish merchants of Tripoli have organised a caravan traffic from their very doors, based on the princijjle of co-operation with the tribal chiefs escorting the convoys, who receive half profits on all the transactions, and who on their part render a faithful account of all their operations. During the year from TripoH arc usually despatched from six to eight large caravans, each comprising from one thousand to three thousand camels, and always escorted by hundreds of armed Arabs, who venture fearlessly into hostile territories. The journey generally takes between two and three months to the fh'st towns in the north of Sudan. Several merchants are associated to a greater or less extent in the common speculation ; but they are seldom able to realise their respective shares in the profits under two years, for it-takes a long time to negotiate on advantageous terms an exchange of the cotton goods, Maria-Theresa crown pieces and other European objects for such native products as ostrich feathers, ivory, gold dust, and slaves, and the Tripoli dealers have often to send their wares to many markets before 66 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. fincliug purchasers. The return trip is reported from Sokna or Ghadames by couriers mounted on meharis, and fresh negotiations are then ojieued mth the European dealers in anticipation of the approaching convoy. Since Wadai has voluntarily suspended its commercial relations with Egypt, and especially since the revolt of the Upper Nile proA-inces from the Khcdival rule, a fresh current of traffic has been established across north-east Africa through Dar-For and "Wadai to Tripoli, from which, instead of from Alexandria, Kordofan procured its supplies and materials of war during the rebellion of the late Mahdi. At the same time the chief source of prosperity for Tripoli of late years has been its export trade in alfa grass, of which about thirty-six thousand tons were shipped for Europe in 1875. Besides its monopoly of the direct commercial exchanges with the interior of the continent, Tripoli also enjoys the advantage of a favourable geographical position at a central point on the Mediterranean seaboard in proximity to Malta, Sicily, and Southern Italy. Nevertheless its trade, although six times more than that of the whole of Tripolitana in 1825, is much inferior to that either of Tunis or of Algiers, towns which have to supply the needs of a far larger local popula- tion, and in which the European element is much more stronglj' represented. Great Britain, mistress of Malta, with which Tripoli is in almost daily com- munication, enjoj'S more than one-half of the whole trade of the place ; she supplies nearly all the cotton goods, here known as "Maltese," from the name of the neighbourmg insular depot, taking in exchange the great bulk of all the alfa grass of the country. The Italians, represented in the town by almost all the European immigrants, occujiy the second position in the inovement of exchanges. Till recently France ranked even after Turkey in the general trade and shipping ; but since the seizure of the neighbouring jjrovince of Tunisia, her share in the traffic has considerably increased. But the importance of Tripoli as a great emporium of trade must continue some- what precarious until its harbour has been dee^Jened and sheltered from dangerous winds. During the month of January esj)ecially the aj)j)roaches are much di-eaded, and at this season vessels are often driven ashore b}' the prevailing north-westerly gales. The natural barrier of reefs lu-gently requires to be raised some feet higher in order more effectually to break the force of the surf, while other reefs obstruct- ing the entrance will have to be cleared away. The channel is onlj' from 16 to 20 feet deep at low water, and very little over 20 at the flow ; but vessels drawing more than 13 or 14 feet cannot venture to cross the bar without risk of grounding. "West of Tripoli the monotony of the Mediterranean seaboard is relieved by some pleasant districts, where a few permanent ■\"illages have been founded. But farther inland the naturally fertile and abundantly watered plaius of Jefara are inhabited almost exclusively by nomad communities. They might easily be changed, says Eohlfs, into a second Mitija, richer than that of Algiers. The coast route traverses Zcnzui- and Zauija, chief town of the eastern division of Tripolitana, beyond which appear the ruins of the ancient Sahratha of the Phoe- nicians, that is, the " market," one of the three cities which took the collective TRIPOLI. 67 iKiinc oi .TripoJis. The decay and final extinction of this place dates probably from the eighth century of the new era. To the riiins of Sabratha and of the little hamlet resting under the old walls, the Italians have given the name of Tripoli Vi'cc/iio, or " Old Tripoli," a title unwarranted by history and without any Arabic equivalent. Farther on lies the little port of Zoiirah, whose palm-groves, like those of Tripoli, are threatened by the encroaching sands. Zoarah is the last town of TripoUtana in this direction. A neighbouring strip of sand, the Ras-el-Makhhas, has become famous for the vast salt beds it serves to protect. In the thirteenth century the Venetians obtained from the Emir of Tripoli the exclusive privilege of working the sebkha of the Ras-el-Makhbas, or Zoarah, and so important became this industry that the Republic appointed special magistrates to regulate its opera- tions. Every year at a stated period a Ycnctiau fleet cast anchor in the Bay of Ras-el-!Makhbas, and shipped cargoes of salt for the whole of Xorth Italy, Switzer- hmd, Tvrol, and Dalmatia. But in the eighteenth ceutmy the Venetians were ousted bj' the Gfenoese as farmers of these salines. South and south-west stretches the frontier zone, which was long a sort of borderland, given up to lawless and marauding tribes. After the recent occupation of Tunis by the French, about 75,000 Arabs of the southern tribes took refuge in this almost desert region, and being imable to j)rocure any sustenance from the thankless soil, took to raiding in all the surrounding territories. At present most of these fugitives have returned to their native steppes, loa\4ng the wilderness again in the possession of the Xuails and a few otlicr nomad tribes. CHAPTER V. FEZZAN. OLITICALLT Fezzan belongs to the Turkish province of Tripolitana; by its jjosition to the south of the Jebel-es-Soda, as well as its climate, it forms part of the zone of the Sahara ; by its prevailing Negro population it depends more even on the region of Sudan than on that of North Africa. At the same time, the relative large extent of its oases, and their easy access by the routes from Tripoli, constitute it an intermediate region between the seaboard and the Sahara. In former times the Roman occupation had attached this territory of " Phazania" to the Mediterranean world. They were succeeded by the Arabs, who arrived as conquerors during the first half century of the Hegira. Then came the Turks, heirs of Rome through Constantinople, whose authority was finally established early in the present centurj^ after a long series of wars, promoted not bj^ a love of freedom on the part of the inhabitants, but by the rival ambitions of families aiming at the sovereign power. At present the products of Europe are introduced to a large extent through Fezzan into the heart of the continent, and thus is gradually brought about the work of assimilation between its various races. But whatever importance it may possess as the conunercial gateway to Central Africa, Fezzan counts for little in respect of population, which, according to Nachtigal's detailed statistical statement, amoimts at most to forty-three thousand, and to thirty-seven thousand only if we exclude the inhabitants of the oases lying north of the watershed. Even accepting Rohlfs higher estimate of two hundred thousand for the whole region, the propor- tion would be considerably less than two persons to the square mile ; for within its natural limits between the Black Mountains to the north, the spurs of the Jebel Ahaggar to the west, the advanced escarpments of Tibesti to the south, and the Libjan desert to the east, Fezzan has a superficial area of at least 120,000 square miles. But the administrative circumscription of Fezzan is far more extensive, as it includes, north of the Black Mountains, the oases of ZcUa and Jofra, and all the lands draining to the Mediterranean as far as Bu-Njeim. During the last hundi-ed years, Fezzan has been visited by many European travellers. In 1798, Hornemann, one of the missionaries sent by the African Exploration Society, traversed both the Black and the White Ilaruj by a track PHYSICAL FEATURES. C9 which, has been followed by no subsequent western explorer. Twenty years later Lyon surveyed the chief trade route connecting Tripoli through Jofra with Murzuk, and determined a few astronomical points, which were afterwards extended by the researches of Oudney, Denhani, and Clapj^erton. The expedition of the year 1850, associated with the names of Earth, Overweg, and Richardson, followed the direct highway across the Red Hamada wilderness. Then came the important explorations of Vogel, Diiveyrier, Beurmann, Rohlfs, Yon Bary, and Xachtigal, who have not only laid down the network of their own itineraries, but have also supplemented them with many others, on the authority of numerous Arab informers. Thus, to mention one instance, Rohlfs has published an accoim^t of the discovery of one of the Wan oases by Mohammed-el-Tarhoni, an Arab of Zella. In its general outlines, Fezzan presents the form of an amphitheatre gradually inclined towards the east, and on the other three sides encircled by plateaux. Its mean altitude is about 1,650 feet, the lowest levels of the oases nowhere probably falling below 650 feet. According to Earth, the deepest depression occurs at the Sharaba wells, east of ^lurzuk, where a lacustrine basin receives the drainage of an extensive area, and remains flooded for months together. Physical Features. The vast region enclosed by the escarpments of the plateau is itself a somewhat broken country, the general relief of which, as well as its mean elevation, shows that it has not certainly formed a marine basin during recent geological times, notwithstanding the theories lately advanced to the contrary by some eminent geographers, not only for Fezzan, but for the whole of the Sahara. Nevertheless in many places traces are visible of the former presence of salt water, and the siibmcrgence of the land at some very remote period is attested both by the undulating lines of shifting sands di-iving before the winds on the western plateau, and by the polished pebbles of diverse colours strewn like mosaics over the surface of the eastern serirs. The space encircled by the surrounding plateau consists in great part of secondary terraces, whose main axis runs in the direction from west to east, and which are separated from each other by crevasses with a mean depth of about 150 feet. These narrow, tortuous intermediate depressions take the name of " wadies," like the beds of temporary watercourses in the northern parts of TripoKtana, but as they are never flushed by any freshets, a more appropriate designation would be that of Lqfra or " ditch," which in fact is applied to one of these depres-sions in the Murzuk district. Some are mere ravines of sand or hard clay, while others present the aspect of verdant glens shaded by overhanging palm-trees. Although not forming a fluvial system properly so called, they generally converge one towards another, without, however, always reaching the common bed towards the east of. Fezzan. In this direction the unfinished channels are obstructed by sands and reefs. The southern slopes of the Jebel-es-Soda and of the Black Haruj present a very gradual incline. They are prolonged southwards by the spiu-s and terraces of 70 NOETII-WEST M^EICA. the Bcii-Aficn serir, plateaux of slight elevation strewn with stones and shingle, which greatly imj)ecle the progress of the wayfarer. South of the crest of the Jebel-es-Soda a sjjace of about 80 miles has to be traversed before reaching the escarpment at the foot of which begins Fezzan properly so called. In this almost absolutely desert district the stony surface is broken only by a single green depres- sion, that of the Fogha oasis. The base of the Red Ilaruj is abru^Dtty limited by the Wady Heran, the first occurring in Fezzan jji-oj^er. A few trees are here occasionally met in the moist depressions near the wells ; but throughout nearlj' its whole course the wady presents little to the traveller's wearied gaze bej'ond shifting sands interspersed with sandstone blocks blackened bj' the heat. Never- Fig. 19. — EouTES OF TitE Chief Exploeees is Fezzas. Scale 1 : 700,000. ^9' PS' /■ i /\ '■>-. i.r.-^ '-»■" ..■^-■^ .-■* • ■ Ji.. •7,' ^3.ahr- eA'DoiUi^ \ /..-■' V' ; •js tD A. \ S5 ■■ v._ ,*tf' Omooli If L . of" Green.v'icK IS- H., Homemann. D. & C, Denhnm and Clapperton. Rich.. Bichardson. v., Vogel. Bt. & O., Barth and Overwegf. R., Rnhlfs. DuT., Duvejrier. By., Baiy. N., N.icbtigal. B., Beuermoun. 120 Miles. theless, the aspect of the valley changes at its confluence with a broader wady skirted on the north by the escarpments of the spurs of the Black Mountains. The bed of this Wady-esh-Shiati, as it is called, is covered with a layer of humus, through which the roots of the palm-trees penetrate to a mean depth of 10 feet before striking the moist sands underneath. According to the measurements taken hx different explorers, the altitude of the wady varies from 1,100 to 1,650 feet, but from these data no idea can be formed of the real .slope of the valley, which may possibl}' be even more elevated towards the centre than at cither extremity. South of the Wady-esh-Shiati, which is lost eastward? amid the cliffs of the "Wbifc ITuruj, the ground merges in a terrace which in some places has a breadth LAKES AXI) AVADIES. 71 of about GO miles ; but its surface is broken bere and there by small verdant depressions, mostly inhabited, and bj' some narrow wadies. Amongst these is the A^'ady Zelaf, a remarkable fissure in the ground overgrown with a forest of palms, whose delicious fruit is the common property of all wayfarers. Custom, however, forbids them to carry away any supplies, and what is not consumed on the spot by passing caravans is gathered hj the inhabitants of the Esh-Shiati. The western part of the plateau intersected by the wooded Zelaf watercourse is occupied by the so-called edei/cn, that is, in the Temahaq dialect of the eastern Tuaregs, " sandhills." According to M. Duveyrier, who traversed it at two points, this sea of sands stretches for a distance of 4S0 miles in the direction from west to east, with a mean breadth of 50 miles. Towards the part of the plateau crossed by the main caravan route between Tripoli and Murzuk, the hitherto uninterrupted sandy surface becomes decomposed into a number of low eminences and distinct archipelagoes of sandhills, which are nowhere disposed in regular ranges, but rise in some places in completely isolated heights. North of Jcrma, Earth's caravan found the winding Hues of dunes so difhcult to cross, that the men were obliged to level the crests with their hands before the camels could gain a footing. But the sandhills attain a still greater elevation farther west, where by trigonometrical measurement Yogel found one eminence rising 5^ feet above a small lake occupying a depression in the plateau. L.\KEs AND Wadies. The explorer is often surprised to meet in this almost rainless region permanent or intermittent lakes in the midst of the dunes. In a single group north of the ilurzuk haniada there are as many as ten, nearly all, however, of difficidt access, owing to the hillocks of line sand encircling them, in which the foot sinks at every step. Two of these basins contain chloride of sodium and carbonate of soda, like the natron lakes of the Egyptian desert ; hence the designation of Bahr-el-Tnmia, or " Sea of Xatron," applied to one of the Fezzan lakes. Several other lacustrine basins are inhabited by a peculiar species of worm, highly ajjjjreciated by the epicures of the district. The lake yielding the most abundant supplies of this delicacy is specially known as the Bahr-el-Dud, or "Sea of Worms," and the local fishermen take the name of duwada, or " worm-grubbers." This sheet of water, fringed by palms and almost circular in form, has a circumference of about 600 miles, with a depth in the lowest part, measured by Vogel, of 26 feet. But owing to the almost viscous consistency of the excessively saline water, it appears far deeper to the natives, who regard it as fathomless. Invalids from all parts of Fezzan frequent it in crowds, first bathing in this basin, and then plunging in some neighbouring freshwater pool, in which is dissolved the incrustation of salt covering their bodies. The worm, known to naturalists by the name of artcmia Oachiet/i, is the larva of a diptera, whose serpentine body, one-third of an inch long, and of a gold-red colour like that of the cyprinus of China, flits about like a flash of fire, with surpris- 72 XOETII-WEST AFEICA. iiij» velocilj' amid the animalculnc swarming on the surface of tho lake. Ey means of fine nets the larva is captured, together with other larvae which prey on it, and the fucus on which it feeds. The whole is then kneaded into a sort of paste, which has a flavour resembling that of shrimps " a little gamy." The mess is mostly used as a sauce or relish with other aliments. The plateau of dunes is abruptl}' terminated southwards bj^ the depression of the Wady Lajal, which runs mainly in the direction from west- south-west to east- north-east for a total distance of nearly 300 miles between the deserts separating Ilhat from Fezzan, and those stretching towards the ^Vhite Haruj. But the depressions in this wady are occujiied by oases for a space of not more than 1:20 miles altogether, with a mean breadth of about 5 miles. Towards its source in the west, the Wady Lajal has an elevation of 2,000 feet above sea-level, falling to 1,350 at the point where it merges in the eastern deserts. The most striking contrast is presented by the opposite banks of the wady, those on the north side consisting of gently rounded sandy heights, while on the south rise abrupt cliffs, a continuation of the partly Devonian Amsak range, which commands the entrance of the valley. Near the centre two corresponding sandy and rocky headlands projecting towards each other divide the depression into two sections, respectively known from their geographical position as the Wady-cl- Gharbi and Wady-esh-Sherki. The latter, or " eastern " wady, which is the largest, is connected eastwards with the palm-groves of Sebha, beyond which it is interrujJted by the desert, reappearing again in the small oases of Temenhint, Semnu, and Zighen. The position of these oases seems to indicate the existence of a former tributary between the Wadies Lajal and Esh-Shiati ; but the whole valley is now obstructed by sands. Like that of other depressions in Fezzan, tho soil of the Wadj' Lajal is formed of heisha — that is, a very hght humus saturated with salt and swollen by the com- bined action of heat and the underground waters. Saline efflorescences in many places develop a central zone skirted on either side by cultivated tracts at the foot of the cliffs and sandhills. In the Wadj^ Lajal the mean dejDth of the water is about 12 feet ; hence it is unnecessary to irrigate the palms, which derive sufiicient moisture through their roots. But the water required for the cereals and vege- tables is obtained from the wells, into which is i:)lunged an apparatus made of date- wood, looking at a distance like shears for masting of shij^s, or the cranes mounted on the wharves of seaport towns. Notwithstanding the statement of Rohlfs to the contrary, there appear to exist in Fezzan the so-called fogaratx, or systems of irrigation wells, one of which was visited bj- M. Duveyrier on the slope of the southern cliffs of the wady, not far from Jerma. The Murzuk hamada, which separates the Wady Lajal from the depression specially knovm as the liofra, or " Ditch," forms an extensive plateau almost uniformly level, except on its northern verge, partly skirted by the abrupt Amsak range, and at a few other points furrowed b}- crevasses cither occupied b}- oases or at least containing artificial wells. Such is the Godva oasis, traversed by most of the caravans between Murzuk and Tripolitana. Narrowing towards its western OASES OF FEZZAN. 73 extremity to a space of not more tliau a day's marcli in breadtli, tlie Murzuk hamada broadens out eastwards, gradually merging in the stony serirs and the unex2jlored deserts skirted on the north by the limestone terraces of the White Haruj. In its western section it is limited southwards by the narrow Wady Aberjush, beyond which recommence the stony plateaux. These desolate wastes, ^^hich are continued indefinitely southwards in the direction of the Tibbu territory, are destitute of any vegetation be3'oud a few straggling gum-trees in their depres- sions. But towards the east is developed the vast semicii'cular basin of the Ilofra, the great central cavity in which is situated Murzuk, present capital of Fezzan. This low-lying region is divided by waste and stony tracts into two clearly defined sections : to the west the Murzuk oasis, to the east that of Esh-Sherkiya, or " the Fig. 20. — Oases of Fezzah. Scale 1 : 7,000,000. The towns and tillages are suiToiinded by Oasea. —^——^^—^— 120 Miles. Eastern." The latter consists in reality of a long narrow chain of oases sub- divided into numerous secondary depressions, which are separated from each other by sandy ridges, without presenting anywhere any regular slope. Oases of Fezzan. The various oases vary in altitude from 1,000 to 1,650 feet, and Temissa, the last in the direction of the east, is everywhere surrounded by solitudes. The bed of the Ilofra, like that of the other dej)ressions in Fezzan, consists of heisha ; here, however, containing rather more argillaceous soil than elsewhere. But this clay is saturated with salt to such an extent that the unbaked earthen bricks of the houses are dissolved during the heavy rains. The water drawn from the deep wells is VOL. XI. G 74 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. also so brackish that strangers find it verr unpalatable. lu several places it rises to the surface, .spreading out in sebkhas or swamps, which are usually fiinged by a crystalline zone of salt. The Hofra, with its eastern prolongation, the Sherkiya, lies south of the last great oasis in Fezzan. Along the route towards the plateau, 2,oOO feet high, which separates this region from the Tibbu domain, caravans meet nothing but a few wells and the two small oases of Gatroiin and Tejerri. Eastwards, in the direction of Kufra, the desert is even more dreary than towards the south. Serirs, dunes, saline depressions follow in succession for a space of over 120 mUes before the traveller reaches a first oasis, that of "V^au-el-Kebir, or, " the Great "Wau," which was unknown to geographers before the journey of Beurmann in 1862. It was occupied by a Negroid Tibbu population down to the year 1841, when they were driven out by marauding Arab tribes, who made it the centre of their raiding expeditions. The Tibbus attempted in vain to recover this oasis, although the conquering tribe was expelled in its turn, and at the time of Beurmann's visit Wau was held by members of the Senusiya brotherhood, who, being all ceKbates, allowed no women to reside in the place. Beurmann was informed that at a distance of three days' march west«"ards there was another oasis, known by the name of TTau-es-Serir, " the little Wau," or Wau-Namus, " Mosquito AVau ; " but no one in the district was able to show him the route to follow, the only person acquainted with the oasis having recently died at an advanced age. This lost depression is the same that was rediscovered in the year 1876 by the Arab Mohammed Tarhoni, aided by a few voluntary explorers from Zella. Unlike Great Wau, it is uninhabited, although nvmierous potherbs and palm groves cleared of their undergrowth show that imtil recently it supported a small population, probably of Tibbu stock. Besides date-palms, its flora comprises acacias and tamarisks, as well as shrubs of smaller growth. In the rocks is found a deposit of " fine yellow sulphur," while a small lake in the centre of the oases accounts for the swarms of winged insects, whence it takes its name. The former inhabitants had settled on " a very high mountain " above the lake and the clouds of mosquitoes. According to local tradition, there exists to the south-east another oasis, the TTau-Harir, a valley clothed with a rich vegetation, and inhabited by a large number of animals, such as moufflons, gazelles, and antelopes, which have not yet learnt to fear man, and allow themselves to be attacked and speared. Camels which have lapsed into the wild state are also said to herd beneath the shade of the palms along the banks of the streamlets watering this mysterious oasis. Climate of Fezzax. Ljnng under a more southern latitude than Tripolitana, properly so called, Fezzan has naturally a higher temperature, ranging from 81° to 83° F. Never- theless the cold is more intense, both on account of its greater distance from the sea, which always exercises a moderating influence on climates, and also in consequence of the greater purity of the atmosphere causing at night a free FLOEA OF FEZZAN. 75 radiation of heat into space. Still the sky is seldom perfectly cloudless, the lo^■cly azure of temperate zones being here replaced by milkj' white tints and the striated cirri of the upper atmospheric regions. In December, and during the first half of January, the thermometer at sunrise seldom rises above 42° or 43'^ F., and in manj' parts of the plateau water often freezes at night. Suow is even said to have been observed on the mountains encircling the countrj^. On the other hand, the excessive heat is almost intolerable for strangers. If, according to Lyon, the summer average is alreadj^ 90" F. at Murzuk, Duveyrier here t\^-ice recorded in July a temperature of 110" F. in the shade, while in the desert, pro23erly so called, the glass often rises to over 121'^ F. In the sun it exceeds 170^ and even 187° F. Altogether Fezzan belongs to the cKmatic zone of the Sahara, in which the extremes of temperature suffice, in the language of Herodotus, to consume the very heart of the coimtry. Where are the rocks capable of resisting the expansions and contractions caused by extremes of heat and cold, whose mean annual discrepancy amounts to 198°, and j^ossibly even 208° F. ? The rainfall also is all the Hghtor in Fezzan, that the moisture-bearing clouds from the north are arrested by the Jebel-es-Soda and Black Haruj ranges. There is even a complete absence of dew, owing to the dryness of the air. Yet, strange to say, the inhabitants of the country do not themselves desire rainy weather, not only because it washes away their earthern cabins, but also on account of its injurious effects on the palm-trees, by interfering with the normal system of irrigation from the subterranean supjilies. " Rain water is death, underground water is quickening," says the native proverb. Heavy showers fall usually in winter and spring, that is, from December to Ajjril, when the northern winds contend for the supremacy with those from the south. Flora of Fezzan. The great extremes of heat and cold have as their natural accompaniment a correspondinglj- impoverished flora. Plants unable to adapt themselves to the severe colds and intense heats, all aKke jierish in this climate. Even in the sheltered dei^ressions of the desert there are scarcely any spontaneous growths, beyond a few t;dha acacias of scant}' foliage, pale tamarisks, the thorny alhagi, on which the camel browses, the sandy colocynth, alfa grass, some scrub, a species of salsola, and two or three herbs. The cultivated are perhaps more numerous than the wild species, although in many of the gardens of the oases there is a great lack of variety. In some of the wadies are growTi wheat, barley, and several other kinds of cereals, the gombo, whose pulpy fruit is highlj- appreciated by the Arabs, some thirty species of vegetables enumerated by Nachtigal, amongst which are comprised nearly all those growing in European gardens. The fig and almond peld excellent fruit, but most of the other fruit-tfees of the temperate zone are rare, or represented only by a few stunted sf)ecimens. The olive reaches no farther south than the Wady Otba, to the west of Murzuk. Tobacco, cotton, and indigo flourish in the gardens of Fezzan, but the supply is G 2 76 NORTH- WEST ATEICA. very Kmited. The gmn-tree, especially in the Wady Lajal round about the Ubari oasis, yields an excellent gum, by no means despised by the Targui when there is a dearth of other aKments. But of still more importance ia the economy of the country are the plants yielding fodder, such as luzeme, clover, and several varieties of memotus (sweet clover). In Fezzan the date finds a thoroughly congenial home. According to the natives, it thrives best ia the Hofra disti-ict, and especially in the oasis in the centre of which lies the town of Traghen. Xowhere else is it found growing in greater profusion, or with such dense masses of foKage. Xo less than three himdred varieties are reckoned ia the whole country, of which over thirty occur in the siagle oasis of Murzuk. Forests springiag spontaneously from the scattered date-stones are so nimierous that their produce is left to the g^elles. In the oases the cultivated palms are crowded together ia prodigious quantities, in that of Murzuk alone no less than a million beiag claimed by the Turkish Government, which also possesses large numbers in other plantations. In a coxm^try so destitute of other plants, it is impossible to overrate the economic importance of this marvellous plant, whose fruit, stem, branches, sprouts, fibre, sap, are all turned to accoimt. Dates and cereals form the staple food of the settled commimities, while for the nomads the date, with camel's milk, yields an all-satisfyiag and perfect nourishment. The domestic animals, including even the dogs, also consume this fruit, either as their chief food, or in the absence of their more customary aliment. It has been noticed that nearly all the iahabitants of Fezzan suffer fi-om decayed teeth, the cause affecting them being attributed to the too exclusive use of the date, which, although greatly superior to that of the Tripolitan seaboard, is stiU inferior to the Egyptian and Algerian varieties. Fattn-a of Fezzax. The absence of pasturage prevents the native populations from occupying themselves with stock-breeding in a large way. The domestic animals are of extremely smaU. size, and relatively no more numerous than wild animals, which find but a scanty supply of herbs and water. The " lion of the desert " does not prowl over the solitudes of Fezzan, where the wayfarer meets neither the panther nor the hyaena. Xot even the jackal's nightly howl is heard round the villages and camping-grounds, which are infested only by the long-eared fennec fox. Gazelles and antelopes, described by Lyon imder the name of " buffaloes," must be very rare, this game being nowhere exposed for sale in the market-places. A few vultures, wall falcons and ravens, swallows and sparrows, everywhere the constant associates of man, are almost the only birds seen ia Fezzan, except during the summer months, when doves and wild duck arrive in large flocks from more southern regions where they have passed the winter. In the courts and farmyards are seen neither poultry nor pigeons. Goats and sheep degenerate, and nearly aU those bred iu the country are characterised by long bony frames, stiff tail, small head, and fine coats. The homed cattle. I>nL\:BITA>"TS OF FEZZAX. 77 introduced from the north, are all of small size, and resist the climate badlv. Horses are fomid only in the stables of chiefs and grandees, and scarcelv fifty are said to exist in the whole country. The only quadruped extensively employed in the service of man is the camel, which is of the Arab species, differing little from the variety common in the Tuareg territory. The largest and finest breeds are found in the Black Mountains and the Haruj district. Here they are clothed in winter with a dense coatinw of hair, which is shorn once a year, and employed for weaving carpets and tent-cloths. According to most authorities, the camel was not introduced from Egypt into the more westerly regions of Libya before the first century of the vulgar era, before which time the Garamantes made use of oxen, of horses, and wheeled carts in their iournevs across the dunes and serirs. This circumstance indicates a great change of climate during the last two thousand years, for at the present time it would be impos-sible to traverse these solitudes without the aid of the camel. The rock carvings still seen at Telissarhe, in the south-western part of Fezzan, represent with great accuracy herds of cattle on their way to the watering-places. On these rocks have also been recognised sketches figuring a horse and an ass. IXHABIT.VXTS OF FeZZAX. The inhabitants of Fezzan belong to all the races of Xorth Africa, constitutins an essentially mixed population, in which the primitive elements appear to be the fair Berbers and the dark Ethiopians, the oldest occupants of the land. In more recent times the Arabs, especially the Aidad Slim an family from Egypt and Cyrenaica, have also largely contributed to renew or modify the local population. Formerly, when the Barbary corsairs still scoured the Mediterranean waters, a number of Italian captives were regularly introduced into the harems of the Murzuk sheikhs, thus supplying an additional ethnical element possessing a certain relative importance in a region so sparsely peopled. Amongst the natives of Fezzan is seen every shade of colour, from a deep black to an almost fair complexion. Eohlfs even tells us it frequently happens that, by a phenomenon of which the inhabitants of Spanish America offer many examples, individual members of the family have spotted skins — white on a black, or black on a white ground. The blacks of Fezzan are also often seen with long, sleek hair, while that of the whites is on the contrary short and woolly. On the whole the predominant colour may be said to be that of the yellow Malays, although the hair and features are those rather of the Xegro stock. Besides that of the Tuareg Berbers, several languages are cirrrent amongst these mixed communities. The most prevalent is Kanuri, the speech of the kingdom of Bomu : and several local names of villages, wells, and other places attest a long residence in Fezzan jof the Bomu Xegroes, descendants probably of the Gammantes. All the adidt men imderstand Arabic, the language of commerce ; and the dialects of Haussa, and other parts of Xorth Africa, are also heard in the cabins of the Fezzan iXegroes. 7S XOETH-WEST AFRICA. The Tuaregs of this region, a smaller and feebler race than those of the Jebel Ahao-aar, in the south of Algeria, roam for the most part in the south-eastern • districts between Murzuk and Rhat. These belong to the Tizilkum group, free men, who despise the Arab, base " payer of tribute." They are members of the . brotherhood of Mohammed-el-Madani, whose mother-house is at Misrata, and they generally speak Arabic. According to Richardson, they number altogether about a thousand. Slavery, which has so largely contributed to cross the original population of the countrv, has scarcely diminished, notwithstanding the formal edicts against the traffic issued in Fezzan by order of the Osmanli authorities. The exportation has doubtless fallen off ; but the slaves, no longer forwarded to the seaports of Tripolitana, or through the Aujila and Siwah oases to Egypt, tend only to increase the local enslaved class. According to Xachtigal, from five to eight thousand slaves passed every year through Fezzan towards the middle of the present century ; but in 1870 the gangs had been reduced to about one-third of that number. The blacks who remain in the country have seldom occasion to regret their lot. Here thev are absolutely regarded as members of the family into which they have entered, and those amongst them who return to their native homes usually do so not as fugitives, but as commercial agents in the interest of their late masters. The Fezzanese are altogether of a remarkably mild disposition ; but morality is at a verv low ebb, and manr children perish abandoned on the threshold of the mosques and convents. Whoever chooses to pick up one of these foundlings becomes its adopted father, and never fails to treat it as one of his own children. The traffic in slaves has hitherto been replaced by no other more legitimate trade. The only important article of export is soda from the " Xatron lakes," a few tons of which are yearly sold in the Tripoli market. The time has gone by when gold dust, ivory, and ostrich feathers contributed, with slaves, to enrich the Fezzan traders ; who, however, were never able to compete successfully with theu- commercial rivals of Ghadames, Jofra, and Aujila. Although the produce for- warded from Sudan to the coast passes through their territory, they derive little profit from this transit trade. Even in Murzuk itself the chief merchants are the Mojabras of the Jalo oasis. The vast distances required to be traversed between the scattered oases oblige the Fezzanese to rely mainly on their local resources. The regular commercial relations established in Mauritania between the inhabitants of the Tell and those of the oases, the former exchanging their cereals for the wool and dates of the latter, scarcely exist between the tribes of the Tripolitan oases and the people of Fezzan. Nevertheless a few palm groves in the Wady Shiati, south of the Black Mountains, belong to the Arabs of Tripoli, who yearly cross the hills and plateaux to collect their crop of dates. In general the land is distributed in fair proportion amongst the inhabitants, each of whom has his plot of ground and palm-grove ; but they are weighed down with heavy taxes. Being unable to breed live-stock owing to the dryness of the climate, and the industries being scarcely sufficient for the local wants, they have no means of procuring any supplies from abroad. TOPOGRAPHY. 79 Since the middle of the centiuy they have even grown poorer, the more vio-orous young men having emigrated to Sudan to escape military service. Accordino- to Richardson, the men are considerably less numerous than the women in Fezzan, scarcely exceeding 11,000 in a total estimated by him at no more than 26,000 adults. In certain A"illages visited by Duveyrier the able-bodied men had been reduced to about 12 per cent., foreign rule having here also depopulated the country and caused a relapse into barbarism. TOPOGRAPHT. In the "Wady Shiati, the most important oasis of North Fezzan, there are two places ranking as towns : in the east Brak, residence of the mudir or governor, in the west Edcri, standing on an eminence and surrounded by fortifications. Jedkl, that is, the " Xew," in the more southerly oasis of Sebha, despite its name, is at least three hundred years old. It is also enclosed by walls, and has a population of about a thousand souls. Like the neighboiu-ing town of Karda, it was formerly ])eopled by a branch of the Aulad SKman Arabs, who, however, were driven out by the Turks and dispersed throughout the surrounding countries, even as far as Wadai. To the north-east follow the three towns of Temenhiuf, Semiitt, and Zighen, in the oasis of like name — the last mentioned, a mere collection of hovels grouped round a central castle, and exclusively inhabited by ilarabuts from the Fogha oasis. In the Wady Lajal, south-west of Jedid, the largest places are Tekertiba, Vgraefeh, and Ubari. Towards the western extremity of the valley lies the little \Lllage of New Jcrma, near the ruins of Garama, which 2,500 years ago was the capital of the powerful nation of the Garamantes, who held sway throughout the Libyan oases as far as the region now known as ilarocco. Of Jcrma Kadim, or " Old Jerma," there still remain the enclosures, 25 miles in circumference and flanked by broad earthen towers. Xot far from the palm groves of Jerma stands a well-preserved monument, noteworthy as being the most advanced Roman structure in the iuterior of the continent. To this point diu-ing the reign of Augustus had penetrated ComeKus Balbus Gaditanus, conqueror of Garama and Cydamus, or Ghadames. Hence the special historic interest attaching to this square tomb, which is in the form of an altar, decorated at its four angles with Coriuthian pilasters. Murzuk, present capital of Fezzan, has the advantage of being situated in the centre of the country. Nevertheless, it seems strange that its rulers should have selected such a malarious place for their residence. In the hot season nearly all strangers, even the Negroes, are attacked by ague ; and till recently the whites were allowed to reside in the town only during the three winter months, not through any soKcitude for their health, but from the prevalent idea that their bodies fomented and rendered more fatal the miasmatic exhalations. In the cemetery to the east of the town is shown the tomb of the traveller Ritchie. But the choice made of ilurzuk, which lies on the track of the caravans traversing the southern plateaux in the direction of Sudan, has helped to make it the most populous city in Fezzan, the number of its inhabitants being estimated by Nachtigal at six thou- 80 NORTII-'^MJST AFRICA-. snnd five hundred, and by RoUfs even at a still higher figure. Standing at an altitude varioush^ estimated at from 1,520 to 1,600 feet, Murzuk covers an area of over a square mile, within an earthen wall, strengthened by bastions and flanked by towers. Round the enclosure stretches a zone of sand, and salt marshes, bej^ond which are the gardens and scattered palm groves. The streets within the walls, mostly at right angles, are intersected by a broad lendal, or boulevard, running from north-west to south-east, and dividing the town into halves. At its north-west end stands the citadel, a massive gloomy building over 80 feet high, and in the middle of the town regular porticoes give access to the bazaar, where are heard all the languages in North Africa. The mean annual value of the exchanges in this mart is estimated at £20,000. On the route to Rhat, west of the capital, the oasis of Otha or Tessawa, an ancient settlement of Negroes from Haussa, is the only Fig. 21. — MuEziiK. Scale 1 : 17,000. N>C>J'^ tx t"LTT,.-sr T '^ i: \^T "C I4*l0 L of^ breenw ch i4-'l0 20 P5' &D" district containing anj' groups of population. Beyond this point nothing is met except a few wells, such as that of Sharaha, near which Miss Tinne, the "King's daughter," as she was called by the natives, was assassinated in 1869. In the Ilofra district east of Murzuk lies the decaj-ed town of Traghcn, in the oasis of like name. For centuries this place was the capital of Fezzan, and residence of a Negro dynasty, whose sepulchral mounds are still shown near the town. But as the population decreased, the magnifi- cent palm groves of Traghen deve- loped into a vast forest, the produce of whicli is now little used except for the fabrication of lakbi, and a Uquor prepared from the fermented juice of the sap. The most copious spring in all Fezzan wells up near the crumbling walls of Traghen ; but this soui-ce of Gauderma became obstructed during a civil war, and now oozes into a marshj' depression. Zuila and Temissa, the former occupied by Shorfa, or reputed descendants of Mohammed, the latter by Berbers who still speak the national idiom, are both situated in the " Eastern " oasis. Like Traghen, Zuila was also at one time capital of Fezzan, and the whole region is still knoA^Ti to the Tibbus by this name. In another oasis near the southern frontier lies the " holy " city of Gatron, held by learned Marabuts, who monopolise the trade with the Tibesti uplands, and who claim to have come from Marocco three or four centuries ago. But their mixed descent is suflBciently betrayed by (heir Negroid features, and even now they seek their wives 550 Yards. "-TBB I f^::;1?l]f'iai||B!iM^^ TOPOGEliPHT. 81 ctiefly among the natives of Tibesti. Gatron lies in a hattiija, or swampy depres- sion, surrounded on all sides by dunes and cliiis. Its vast palm forest is said to vield the best dates in Fezzan, and the baskets made by the native women are exported to all the surrounding districts. Gatron lies at the northern extremity of a chain of oases which stretches as far as Tejerri, the last inhabited place in Fezzan, on the verge of the desert. Here also are seen the last date-palms, and the first dum-palms in the direction of the Sahara. Eohlfs was unable to determine the slope of the wady, which is perhaps nothing more than a depression in an old lacustrine basin. South of Tejerri, where the Negro element already greatly exceeds that of the Fezzanese peoi^le, nothing farther is met on the caravan route to Sudan except the Bir Mfshru well, which has been frequently choked by the sand. Round it are shown the skeletons of men and animals still clothed with their sun-dried flesh. Groan- ing under the lash, worn out by the march across the arid plateaux, burnt by the torrid and dusty atmosphere of the desert, the gangs of slaves trail their chains with difficulty to the brink of the well. Here they often fall prostrate for the last time, and are left by the caravans to perish of hunger in the scorching rays of the sun. CHAPTER YI. GHADAMES. iJLTHOUGH included witliin the political and administrative frontiers of the Turkish ijossessions, the group of oases of which Ghadames is the centre forms a distinct geographical region, differing in its ethnology, history, usages and commercial relations from Tripolitana projjerly so called. While the latter forms part of the ^lediter- ranean seaboard, the Ghadames district lies within the area of drainage of the desert, in a basin whose waters never reach the great inland sea. The intermittent stream which rises north-west of the Red Hamada, and which under diverse names reaches the Ghadames oasis, after a course of about 150 miles, has no longer any perceptible channel in the region of dunes stretching beyond that point to the Tgharghar basin. The other parallel wadies descending farther north from the southern gorges of the Jebel Nefusa also run dry in the same zone of sands, leaving nothing to indicate their course at a period when they were still rimning waters. It is probable, however, that all converged in a vast fluArial basin, tributary of the great southern sebkhas of Tunisia. In this region of the Sahara slope, Ghadames is far from being the only, or even the most important oasis, as regards either the abundance of its waters, or the extent of its palm groves. But its special importance is due neither to its agricultural resources nor to the local industries, but to the commercial enterprise of its inhabi- tants, who have long been the chief agents in furthering the exchanges between the Mediterranean seaports and the markets of Sudan. From time immemorial Ghadames, the Cydamus of the Romans, has been the starting-point for caravans traversing the sea of sands in the direction of Lake Tsad and the river Niger. This commercial pre-eminence of a small oasis endowed with no exceptional advan- tages, must be attributed to its position precisely at the converging point of the Cabes and Tripoli route, on the very verge of the desert, between two inhospitable and almost inaccessible regions — to the west the shifting sands, to the east the rocky terraces of the Red Hamada. The advanced station, forming a sort of pass penetrating far into the desert, has become the necessary head-quarters of caravans bound for the Tuareg territory, the Twat and Wcd-Draa oases. Thanks to the intermediate station of Rhat on the route to Sudan, it has also been able to com- pete with Sokna and the towns of Fezzan for the trade with Central Africa. PHYSICAL FEATURES. 63 Since the French conquest of Algeria, most of the trans-Saharian traffic, in order to avoid the territory of the Ruini, has been deflected from its natural channel to the Ghadames route, l\"ing scarcely 1-5 miles from the conventional frontier between the French and Turkish possessions. Further political changes, and espe- cially the development of the railway system, must necessarily involve a still greater displacement of the old commercial highways. Ghadames lies only 300 miles from Tripoli, and to the nearest point on the coast towards the coumion frontier of Trijjolitana and Tunisia the distance scarcely exceeds 240 miles, a journey for an ordinary caravan of ten or twelve days. Throughout nearly the whole of its extent, this much-frequented trade route is moreover easily traversed, and little exposed to the raids of the Urghamma Fig. 22. — Ghadames District. Scale 1 : 2,450,000. 50' 40' 50' ■J 3HADAME: '•'.StJ \| 50 40- £ ^ H £> f*t 50* L . oT ureerwich oU Miles. marauders on the Tunisian border. Hence Ghadames has been frequently visited by European explorers since the time of Laing, who first reached this place in 18'<^G. Richardson, Dickson, and Bonnemain followed each other towards the middle of the century ; Duveyrier resided here in 1860, and two years later a French mission imder Mircher studied its geographical features and commercial relations. During his journey to Central Sudan in 18G-5, Rohlfsmado a detour to ^•isit Ghadames, and since then Largeau and several other French explorers have traversed the neigh- bouring frontier to survev the oasis, which the French annexation of Tunis has brought into still closer relation with the European world. Physic-il Features. The sandy plain of gypsum where Ghadames stands at an altitude of 1,170 feet according to Duveyrier, or of 1,300 according to Yatonne, would present a most 84 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. forbidding aspect, but for the green fringe of palms partly concealing the town, and pleasantly contrasting with the surrounding yellow plain, furrowed here and there with grey or reddish strips. The powdery soil, in which the camel sinks at eyery step, is strewn with blocks of sulphate of lime, occasionally forming poly- hedric groups, which are interspersed with gypsum and quartzose sand in nearly equal proportions. In the midst of the plain stand the so-caUed giirs or Icpfs, isolated eminences 1-30 to 160 feet high, and terminating in a table of white chalk, the remains of an upper layer which formerly coyered the whole district, but which has been gradually eroded by the ceaseless action of outward and subter- ranean physical agents. It is easy to detect the work of destruction still going on. The superimposed strata of sandstone, carbonate of Hme, gypsum, marl, or clay, resist in different degrees the influence of heat and cold, which oscillate between such freat extremes in these soKtudes ; hence foUow irregular moyeraents of expansion and contraction, producing faults in the strata. Water also infiltrating throuo-h the porous soil expands and disintegrates certain rocks, the upward pressure causing fractures in the surface layers. Throughout the whole of the Ghadames plateau this action is eyident. The ground is coyered with small cones upheayed by the thrust of underlying forma- tions ; between these irregular eminences rising in fantastic disorder aboye the normal leyel are still yisible the uniformly superimposed strata ; the rocks present the most yaried aspects, from the solid and compact strata to one of the most complete disintegration. Certain hills stiU preser\-ing their upper table haye been fissured on one side, like burst flour-bags discharging through the rent a stream of sand from the inner rocks, which haye been gradually triturated by the alternating temperature. Thus the plateau, at first cut up into isolated eminences, is being transformed into a system of dunes, some of which remain for ages disposed round a more solid central core, whilst in others the rock becomes completely ground to dust, drifting under the action of the winds and merging in the lines of dunes, whose long undulations coyer certain parts of the desert. The rocks which best resist these weathering influences are the ferruginous sandstone deposits ; hence in many places the sm-face, already denuded of the limestone and gypsiun formations, is still coyered with hard and blackish sandstone masses, which yield a metallic sound under the wayfarer's footsteps. The Ghadames oasis is encircled by an earthen rampart 31 milps in circum- ference, formerly raised against the marauding tribes of the desert, but now possessing no defensiye yalue. Broken here and there by broad gaps at some points, especially on the west side, it seryes to accumulate the sands, which are thence blown by the winds into the streets and gardens. The town, comprising several quarters, lies in the south-west part of the oasis, where haye been sunk the wells on which the inhabitants depend for their supply of water. The chief spring fills a yast basin of Roman construction. Usually known as the fountain in a superlative sense {ain in Arabic, and fit in Berber), it is more specially named the Ain-el-Fers, the " Mare's Spring," or, in the local Temahaq dialect, the Arsh-Shuf , or " Croco- dile's Spring." Its slightly thermal water (85° to 86" F., or about 17° higher PHYSICAL FEATUEES. 85 tliiui the meau temperature of the oasis) comes from, a natural reservoir lying probably at a depthi of 465 feet below the surface ; and although containing about twenty grains of salt to the pint, it has no disagreeable taste when allowed to get cold. Multitudes of leeches swarm amid the surrounding aquatic plants. Besides this spring and the other artesian weUs, seven or eight ordinary wells some 65 feet deep yield a liquid with a temperatui-e of not more than 65° F., but so charged with salt as to be undrinkable. With every economy, the water from all Fig-. 23. — The Guabajies Oa^is. Scale 1 : 10,000. .*. .t Djemaa jia-TipinggroundofrhpTouare^s ^* '" — 50- 8" 15-10- r c.f G.., .-K -6'<-x- ^ Gate * WeUs ■ Tower o Waterless wells V Gate and tower v Springs, wells of hot water 550 Yards. sources scarcely suflSces to irrigate some hundred and eighty-five acres, in which are crowded sixty-three thousand pabns, and where are also cultivated various fruit-trees and vegetables, all of poor quality except the melons and pistachios. Formerly the whole space of four hundred acres comjjrised within the ramjjarts was under cultivation ; but during the course of centuries the water supply has fallen off, or else the natives have relaxed their efforts, wearied with the incessant struggle to preserve their lands from the ever-encroaching sands. In few other districts is the land more subdivided than ui the Ghadames oasis, 86 NOETH-WEST .iPEICA. where every head of a family has his separate plot, be it only a single palm, or the h iM.llll. Si 111 'I'n I ■■■ ' " ll|,iiiiliiiMl';i!,,iijLlllliiiiil!i liii iP iiiii-';. A II o I < a bo ilEi; ilil^te!!:!!!' '" 1 ^> IJ ,1 5 If ^ ^ tkr* fl V t 1 . i ^' I ^' ^11 V- ground on which it grows ; heuce all land capable of being irrigated commands a price far higher than its producti\e value. TOPOGEAPHT. 87 ToPOGKAPHT. The town of Ghadames presents the same constructive features as Siwah, and the ancient Berber cities reaching as far as Xubia. The streets are vaulted passages, admittiug the light only at rare intervals through apertures in the ■walls of the houses. These passages are used by the men and female slaves alone ; but so dense is the gloom that to prevent collision a warning voice or sound is needed, the men stamping on the ground, the women uttering a sort of plaintive murmur. The better classes never go abroad without a lantern. The houses, either of stone or adobe, consist mostly of a ground floor, ser^^ing as a store, and of one story com- prisiug a central apartment encircled by smaller rooms. The general disposition is the same as in the iloorish houses, only instead of being open to the air the dwellings are lit through a hole in the flat roof. All the terraces, although enclosed by low parapets, communicate with each other, so that the women, for whom this space is exclusively reserved, are able to walk from one end of the quarter to the other ; real streets are even laid down along the houses above the tunnels, set apart for the men and slaves. On the terraces a special market is daily held for the barter of jewellery and textiles, but inaccessible to the men. Grown-up children pass the night abroad, boys in the gardens, on the seats of the cross-roads' or in unoccupied houses, girls with some female friend or relation whose husband is from home. The natives of Ghadames are fundamentally of Berber stock, and the current speech closely resembles that of the Tuaregs and of the Siwah, AujUa and Jofra oases. Xevertheless the race is very mixed, both featui-es and complexion betray- ing strains of Arab and Negro blood. The people, who, like the Tuaregs, go abroad either wholly or partly veiled, have regular features ; but they lack the strength and Kthe figures of their Algerian neighbours. Most of them are of a lymphatic or nervous temperament, and the stranger is surprised to meet so many with glossy skin, flaccid flesh, lustreless eyes, thick lips, feeble voice. Yet the women are distinguished by really noble features, and a graceful form enhanced by a ehanning costume. As in most Berber towns, and in the mediajval cities of Italy, the population is divided into hostile factions, whose rivalries appear to spring, to a very slight degree, from racial differences. The Beni-^asit, themselves subdivided into four shiieras or secondary groups, hold the southern and eastern parts of the town ; the Beni-Ulid, or Tescu, with two shueras, the north and north-west, the latter devoted mainly to trade, the former chiefly householders and agriculturists. Before the Turkish occiipation, both factions often engaged in mortal combat, and although now dwelling peaceably together, such is the force of tradition that they still remain confined to their respective quarters, never exchanging visits or inter- marrying. They meet onlv on the market-place, or outside the ramparts in the convents of the religious brotherhoods. But many natives of Ghadames will recognise each other as fellow-countrymen only in such remote places as Tripoli, Kano, Timbuktu, vLsited by them during their trading expeditions. 88 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. Besides the civilised Berbers, the population of Ghadames also comprises members of the neighbouring Arab tribes : Suafas, or immigrants from the Algerian Siaf, Negroes from AVest Sudan, and even Fullahs from the Upper Niger. The descendants of the black slaves constitute a separate group, that of the Atriya, who commonly speak the Haussa dialect, but do not enjoy full civic rights. A branch of the Azjar Tuaregs encam^D in large numbers on a plateau near the south- west side of the town, of which they are the most faithful allies. But for their co-operation all trade relations between Ghadames and the Tsad and Niger basins would be suspended, and in some respects the inhabitants consider themselves members of the Tuareg confederacy. A Targin chief reduced to want is supported at their expense ; and every Targin, whether free or slave, receives hospitality during the time of his residence in the town. But the prevailing influence amid all these diverse elements is Arab culture, although the Arabs themselves are far from numerous ;n Ghadames. The traders, all polyglots, and sufficiently instructed to read and write, use Ai-abic in their correspondence, and their Berber dialect itself is largely affected by words and expressions drawn from the Koran. No traces have survived of the old Berber alphabet, although there is a local system of numeration by fives, by means of which commercial transactions with distant towns can be kept secret. The produce of the surrounding gardens would scarcely suffice for the require- ments of the seven thousand residents in Ghadames for a single month ; nor do the few local industries contribute much to the wealth of the people, who dejiend for their support chiefly on trade. Thanks to their relations with most of the markets in West Africa, they had acquired a certain affluence when the Turkish Government began to hamper their relations with vexatious regulations. Like Murzuk and the other intermediate marts between Trijjoli and Sudan, Ghadames has lost much of its prosj^erity since the restrictions imposed on the slave trade and on the direct trafiic with Algeria and Tunis. The native dealers, who have to pay the Turkish Government a yearly impost of £10,000, enjoy a high reputation for probit}' ; their woi'd is always enough, even in the case of transactions involving a credit of several years. When a caravan loses any camels along the trade routes kept open by the friendly Ajar tribe, the loads are left on the spot sometimes for over a j'car, without any danger of being carried off by casual wayfarers. Owing to the xuiwarlike character of the people, their caravans, Hke those of the ancient Carthaginians, are always escorted by mercenaries. At the time of Largeau's second visit in 1878, a guard of ten invalided Turkish soldiers sufiiced to enforce respect for the authority of the Sublime Porte. On their trading expeditions meeting people of all beliefs — Mohammedans of diverse sects. Christians, Jews, and Pagans — the Ghadamesians have in general acquired a broad spirit of tolerance, although stiU strict observers of the Melekite rites. Jews, however, are not suffered to settle in the place, probably owing to professional jealousy. No branch of the widespread Senusi confraternity was established in the oasis till the year 187(). Polygamy is rarel}' practised in Ghadames itself, although the traders have taken wives in the various cities where thev have to reside for anv length of TOPOGKAPHT. 89 time. Amongst the peculiar marriage ceremonies, is tlie imposition of absolute silence on the bride for tbo first seven days of the union. The onlv local antiquities are the already described Roman reservoir, a bas- relief said to betray Eg^-jitian influences, a few columns and hewn blocks, besides a ruined tower with an inscription in Greek and imknown characters, " perhaps in the Garamantine language," but in any case a precious monument of the com- mercial relations established at least two thousand years ago between Cydamus and the Hellenic world. Outside the walls Duveyrier discovered a Eoman inscription dating fi-om the time of Alexander Severus, a monument of great historic import- ance, showing that Cydamus, at that time attached to the administration of Lam- bessa, remained at least two himdred and fifty years under Eoman rule after its conquest by Cornelius Balbus in the reign of Augustus. On the plateau forming the camping-ground of the Azjar Tuaregs stand some shapeless columns, by the natives called El-Esnamen, or " The Idols." According to DuvcATier, these pre-Roman ruins are the remains of Garamantian monuments, perhaps tombs. In the neighbourhood a space of some square miles is covered by the cemetery of Ghadames, in which the older monuments are always respected, and amongst these Roman sepulchral inscriptions may yet be discovered. To the north the isolated dolomitic eminence of Tidiit is crowned by the ruins of a town, whose inhabitants have escaped to Algeria in consequence of a standing feud with their neighbours. The Dcrj oasis, lying over 60 miles due east of Ghadames, in the same area of drainage, might hope to become the commercial centre of the district, if the local traffic depended entirely on the abundance of water and vegetation. Derj, or the " Step," so named because it occupies the first stage on the Red Hamada route, is surrounded by plantations containing some three hundred thousand palms, and yielding a far greater supply of dates and other fruits and vegetables than is needed for the local consumption. Hence the Ghadamesians, who from remote times have owned more than half of the trees, draw much of their supplies from Derj. The inhabitants of the oasis, grouped in foiu" villages, claim some to be Berbers, others Arabs, but are in. fact so mixed by crossiags with slaves, that they look more like Xegroes than Semites or Hamites. In every house a state room is decorated with copper vases representing the price paid for their wives, who pride themselves in displaying all this glittering treasure. Xorth-east of Ghadames, on the slope of the plateau facing the desert, lie the palm groves of the Sinaun oasis, one of the caravan stations on the route between Ghadames and Tripoli. But this oasis is being gradually devoured by the pitiless sands, which are invading the plantations and gardens, filling up the ditches, and encroaching upon the two villages, whose enclosures are already in ruius. A large number of the inhabitants, thoAulad-Bellil, a noble race proud of their descent, have alreadv emigrated to Ghadames. VOL. XI. CHAPTER VII. EHAT. HAT (Gliat), a trading place like Ghadames, also forms a Berber community, wliicli since 187-4 has been officially brouglit under Turkish rule, so that any European power occupj-ing Tripoli would doubtless claim this district as an integral part of the conquest. Lying much farther from the coast than Ghadames, 540 miles in a straight liae from the Tripoli seaboard, it is also separated from the coastlands by the Eed and Tinghert (" Limestone") hamadas and by other plateaux, as well as by the region of lofty dunes. But even more than by nature, Ehat was defended from the prying curiosity of the whites by the fanaticism and commercial jealousy of its inhabitants. Ismail Bu-Derba, the first explorer who visited it in 1858, was chosen for this mission because of his Arab nationality ; but since then the mysterious land has been leached by Eichardson, Overweg, Earth, Duveyrier, Von Bary, and CsiUagh ; the two last named here died. In 1869 Miss Tinne was assassinated on the route thither, and in 1874 Dournaux-Duperre and Joubert met the same fate within one or two days' march of the En-Azhar wells, between Ghadames and Rhat. In 1881 also the three French missionaries, Richard, Morat, and Pouplard, were murdered by the Tuaregs and Shaambas, a day's journey south of Ghadames, while attempt- ing to reach the same place. Duveyrier was comjjcUed to stop within half a mile of Rhat, the inhabitants having threatened him with death if he attempted to penetrate into the town. From this distance, however, he contrived to make a sketch of the place from his own observations, supplemented with data supplied by some of the natives. Standing at an approximate altitude of 1,300 feet above the sea, Ehat lies, like Ghadames, on the slope of the basin formerly watered by the great River Igharghar ; but the valley occupied by it is now choked by sands, and the rare flood-waters are soon lost amid the northern dunes. Like Ghadames, Ehat also is indebted to its geographical position for its commercial prosperity. Its narrow valley affords the most convenient route between the highlands and plateaux, which in this part of the continent form the waterparting between the Atlantic and Mediterranean EHAT. 91 Fig. 23. — Ehat. Scale 1 : 715,000. basins. Westwards rise the Tolcanic heights of Tasili, at whose foot winds the Aghelad, or " Passage," followed by the main caravan route from Rhat to Ghadames, and continued northwards by the Wadies Titerhsin and Ighargharen, the latter a tributary of the Igharghar. To the east stands the almost inaccessible schist and sandstone Akakus range, which in a whole generation has scarcely been scaled by more than two or three venturesome Tuareg mountaineers. At its northern extremity this rug- ged chain is skii-ted by the path leading to Fezzan, which through the arid Tanezzuft valley reaches the Murzuk plateau by the Ehalle pass and the stony Taita wastes. Southwards the Ehat valley rises gradually in the direction of a hill about -4,000 feet high, which marks the northern verge of the Sahara. Here, amid huge blocks and pillars of sandstone, and withia sight of granitic domes and pyramids, ends the long narrow detile, where the traders have established their chief depot between Ghadames and the Sudan. Earth, who has named this section of the waterparting the "Adzjar Uplands," identifies them with the Jebel Tantana of mediaeval Arab writers. Rhat stands on a slight emiaence at the north-west foot of a rocky hill. "Within the ramparts it is almost geometrically divided into six quarters by streets terminating at as many gates. The houses are ia the same style, but generally smaller and less numerous, than those of Ghadames. Withia the enclosures the population scarcely exceeds four thousand; but outside are a number of villages, and in the intervening space is held the annual fair, on which the prosperity of the plain largely depends. The surrounding plain is here and there dotted over with clumps of palms and other trees ; but the oasis nowhere presents the continuous stretches of verdure seen at Ghadames. Yet it would be easy to extend the area of culti- H 2 £■;■ F . ;"^Gr^ei.v;t:h |C°3C: ::.':?iJ 12 Miles. 92 NOETII-"\\T!;ST ^VPEIC'A. ration, abundance of water lying at a slight distance below the surface. Artesian wells sunk at several points yield a copious supply for irrigating tbe surrounding tracts. Topography. According to the local tradition, Rhat is a relatively modern town, having been founded some twelve or fifteen generations ago by the Ihajenen Berbers, jointly with a few neighbouring tribes. Amongst these were the Kel-E-hafsas, in whom Duveyrler recognises the descendants of those who in Roman times occupied the town of Bnpsa. This military and trading station mxist doubtless have stood some- where in the Aiciuity at the entrance of the detUe connecting the two slopes of the Sahara. But in any case the Ihajenens and other neighbouring Tuaregs have long been the masters, or at least the protectors, of the district. In the town, however, the nomads have gradually been rejjlaced by the descendants of traders from other parts of North Africa. Nevertheless the familj' is still regarded as belonging to the old stock, so long as the descent is maintained through the female line ; for the Ihajenens are Beni-Ummia, or " Children of the Mother," amongst whom rank and jiroperty are transmitted not from father to son, but from uncle to nephew. Hence at Rhat the Berber law reserves to the women, representing the old rulers of the land, the administration of the inheritancy. They alone dispose of dwell- ings, springs, and gardens, in administrative capacity and commercial enterprise showing themselves in no respects inferior to the men. In some families the children succeed to the movable and real property ; but the eldest son of the sister alone can claim the seignorial rights over the serfs, and the traditional dues levied on travellers. Most of the non-Tuareg inhabitants come from Ghadames and Twat, or else are of the harfcncs class — that is, the children of Negro women abandoned on the route by their husbands. But all these various ethnical elements, recently increased by the Turkish garrison troops, are sufEciently subject to the local traditions to adopt the native Berber dialect. Most of the inhabitants also wear the Tuareg costume — jjantaloons, blouse, and veil — and still adhere to the old trading tradi- tions of the place. For centuries the same routes are followed, fixed by custom and the exigencies of the tribes claiming transit dues in return for their j^rotcc- tion. Thus in order to reach Timbuktu, the caravans from Rhat have to make an enormous detour bv the Twat oasis. Direct intercourse with the French Algerian possessions is also interdicted by the Turks .and the fanatic Senusiya brotherhood, which has been very powerful in the oasis since the middle of the century. For its support the town is thus reduced to the profits of its trade with the distant Sudanese markets between the Niger and Lake Tsad. The produce of the local industries and agricultm-e is even less important than that of Ghadames. The surrounding district nourishes scarcely three thousand date-palms, amid which the Tuaregs have set up their stone or earthen houses, their huts of branches, and skin tents. In the oasis the only other centre of population is Al-Barkat {Barakaf, Ibcrhe), GOVEENMENT AND AD^nXISTRATIOX OF TEIPOLITAXA. 93 a small Tuareg village lying some 6 miles farther south. The clean and pleasant spot, better watered and more fertile than Rhat, presents an agreeable picture to the traveller, such as he wiH not again meet for hundreds of miles along his southern route. Yet the ruins occui-riug here and there in the sui-rounding districts show that these now arid and almost inaccessible uplands were also at one time inhabited. Even in the Jebel Akakus the natives point to the site of the ancient city of Tender art, where are seen the mjTtle, necessarily introduced by a civilised people, and sculptures carved on the face of the rock. A few domestic zebus iu the Rhat oasis are all that now survive of a species formerl}- abounding in the whole of Tripolitana, at a time when the rains were more abundant, and the now dricd-up wadies veritable rivers. Xorth of Rhat the isolated crescent-shaped Idenen range raises its jagged crest between the narrow Aghelad defile and the valley skirting the western foot of the Akakus highlands. Idenen is known also as Kasr Jenun, or " Castle of the Jias," the e^•il spirits for thousands of miles round about being supposed to assemble here for the concoction of their maleficent spells. Richardson nearly lost his life when scaling these rugged heights, and Barth failed to reach the summit. "Worn out by fatigue and devom-ed with fever, the dariug explorer fell at the foot of a tree, where he remained seven-and-twenty hours before he was discovered by his attendants. His failm-e naturally confirmed the dread felt by the natives in approachiag these dangerous mountains. Yet their mean altitude seems to be little over 2,300 feet, above which rise, 200 or 300 feet higher, sandstone towers isolated or grouped in frowning citadels. GOVERXMEXT AXD AdMINISTRATIOX OF TRirOLITAXA. The portion of Tripolitana annexed to the Turkish empire constitutes a vilayet, like the other Ottoman provinces in Europe and Asia. The authority of the Sultan is, therefore, exercised directly, not through a vassal sovereign, as was till recently the case in Tunis, and is still in Egypt. The vali, or governor, is usually chosen among the superior oSicers of the armv, generally ranking as a mmhir, or marshal, and commanding a body of troops which at times scarcely exceed five thousand, but which are at present estimated at about three times that number. Under this pasha, who disposes at once of the civil and military authority, are the mutaserifs and kaimakans, admiuistrators of the secondary provinces, while the kazas or cantons are ruled bj- niudu-s, who have replaced the former kaids. But each tribe and Arab commune still retains its own headman, who in towns and villages takes the title of sheikh-el-beled. Their functions, supposed to be exercised gratuitously, are in reality the most burdensome to the xmfortimate people, for justice is dispensed, for the most part venally, by the sheikhs. While the revenue of the ATlayet is estimated by the Minister of Finance in Constantinople at from £120,000 to £160,000, probably ten times that amount is actually raised in the form of taxes and fines. In the Berber communities, where the democratic instinct is much more 94 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. developed than amongst the Arabs, the general interests are in the hands of the jemaa, or assenablj', at whose deliberations all take part freelj'. Bj' it taxes are imposed, criminal charges heard, fines regulated, and in serious cases sentence of banishment pronounced. But in important places, such as Ghadamcs and Rhat, the local constitutions have been modified to the profit of the Government, which appoints a mudir, whose almost exclusive mission is to look after the revenue. In this he is assisted by a mejeles, or council, consisting of a mufti, the sheikh-el- beled, and four notables chosen by their peers and confirmed by the pasha, on the recommendation of the mudir. The assembly occupies itself chiefly with com- mercial matters, while the special communal interests are managed by a jemaa elected by the inhabitants of the different quarters. A cadi, or rather a naib, or lieutenant of the cadi of Tripoli, decides all cases of inheritance, marriage, and divorce. The zaptiehs, or police, armed with staffs, are responsible for the maintenance of order in the towns, although they are them- selves usually convicts condemned to exile by the tribunals of Constantinople. At the same time most of the higher ofiicials in Tripoli and the provinces are banished to this African region mainly at the pleasure of the Sultan. In east Tripolitana nearly all the populations are governed by chiefs belonging to the religious order of the Senusiya. They are the real rulers, administering all affairs either directlj^ as in the Kuf ra oases still independent of Turkish authority, or through the medium of ofiicials, whose functions are mainlj' limited to receiving their share of the local revenues. In Fezzan the chief functionaries, as well as the garrison ofiicers, are all of Turkish nationality, the sheikh-el-beled alone excepted, who is always chosen in the same clan. The ancient royal family, which comprised about two hundred members, has been completely exterminated. CHAPTER YIII. i r- ' 1 xrxisiA. ITHIX its present Kmits, Tunis does not form a geographical unit distinct from the rest of Mam-itania. Its highlands belong to the Algerian orographic system, while its chief rivers take their rise beyond the frontiers, which are themselves frequently displaced, and which, since the French occupation, have acquired a pui-ely con- ventional value. Hence it becomes impossible to study the main physical features of Tunisia apart from the rest of the Atlas regions, of which it forms little more than a special geographical division. I^evertheless, certain natural limits may be traced along a Hne of rugged and almost uninhabited hills ; its historic evolution also differs in several respects from that of Algeria, whUo its inhabitants are still grouped \mder a distinct political administration. Taken in its broader sense, and not in its more restricted historic acceptation, ilauritania forms one of the best defined natui'al regions in the world. It comprises the portion of Xorth Africa which embraces the whole of Tunisia, Algeria, and Marocco, and which was designated by the Arabs under the general appellation of Gharb., or Maghreb, that is, the " "West," in a pre-eminent sense, and even Jezirat- cl-ilaghreb, or the " "V^^estern Island." Belonging, like Spain, the south of France, and Italy, to the Mediterranean zone, it is far more compact than those south European lands, presenting a surprLsing simplicity of outline instead of a contour broken by deep bights, headlands, and peninsulas. Its general form is that of a regular quadi'ilateral, limited northwards by the Mediterranean, east and west by the Gulf of Cabes and the Atlantic, south by another ocean of sands, clays, rocks, and shingle. This very desert space, or at all events a great part of it, may itself have possibly at one time been a marine basin, as Bourguignat has endeavoured to show, and as has since been asserted by many writers. But this Saharian sea, dry land at all events since the early Miocene period, has left no fossils to attest its former existence, and it is now known that the proposed attempts to restore the inland basin coiild result in nothing more than a chain of lakes flooding the shotts standing at a lower level than the Gulf of Cabes. But however this be, Maghreb stUl remains, from the geographical standpoint, a perfectly isolated upland region, connected b\' no rivers or great natural or arti- 96 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. fieial highways with the fertile and thickly peopled districts of Central Africa. It must remain a simple dependence of Southern Europe until it becomes attached to the Senegal and Niger basins by such routes as modern industry may yet create : in a word, until the vast obstacle of the intervening desert has been suppressed. The Atlas Orographic System. The Atlas Moimtains, which constitute the backbone of Mauritania, and which would justify its being called by the name of Atlantis, apparently applied to it about tlie dawn of written history, forms a continuous orographic system from tho Atlantic Ocean to the Sicilian waters. But they do not develop themselves in a Fig. 26. — Ancient fokm of Maueitania, accoedixg to Boubquiokat's Hypothesis. Scale 1 : 34,000,000. 3e''eo Meridian of. 'Greenwich ie°ao' . coo Miles. single range, as formerly represented on tho maps, for they rise in distinct ridges or confused masses, and at many points are replaced by slightly rolling tablelands. The western section, to which the term Atlas is more specially applied, alone con- stitutes a true Alpine chain, whose highest peaks probably attain an elevation of over 13,000 feet. Hence they were described as the loftiest mountains in the world by tho early Phoenician and Greek navigators, who beheld their alternately blue and snowy crests standing out against the grey or azure background of the firmament. Herodotus speaks of Mount Atlas as tho "Pillar of Heaven," an expression not unnaturally applied also to Moimt Etna and other lofty summits constantly wrapped in cloud and fog, which to the ancients seemed to represent the true celestial vault. But in reproducing the reports of explorers, legend could scarcely fail to personify the Atlas, giving to the word a sense different from its primitive meaning. On its Ik H <1 W H pq M o I W Pi o s LIBRARY THE ATLAS OROGRAPHIC SYSTEM. 97 brawny shoulders it now bears the world itself, and sculptors represent it as a giant straining every muscle beneath the huge mass of the terrestrial globe. But accord- ing to most authorities, the term Atlas is simply a softened form of the Berber word Adrar, or "i[ountain." In Marocco the range is still called Idi-aren, or, more simply, Deren, the "Mountains," so that for the last two thousand years — that is, since the time of Strabo — the name has undergone no change, doubtless because the same Berber populations still dwell at its foot. Although now separated from Spain by the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlas belongs none the less to the same system as the Sierra Nevada and the other sierras of the Iberian peninsula. They are certainly loftier, and, with the southern chain of the anti- Atlas spui'S and secondary offshoots, occupy a greater superficial area ; but thej- consist of the same rocks, disposed in the same order, while their general direction from west-south-west to east-north-east is maintained almost parallel with the Si^anish ranges. Like these also the Mauritanian highlands are partly interrupted by plateaux of great elevation. Thus, east of llarocco, the line of the Atlas is continued throughout Algeria and into Tunisia by the zone of the great plateaux at a mean altitude of over 3,300 feet. The Algerian ranges are in fact for the most part merely border chains skirting the plateaux north and south. The northern or coast ranges have the greatest mean breadth, about 50 miles, those on the south being scarcely 30 miles broad, from the edge of the plateaux to the verge of the Sahara. But, towards the east, on the Tunisian frontier, the two highland zones converge and develop fresh chains, which continue in the normal direction of the whole system. Even the extreme peninsida of Dakhla-el-Mahuin, projecting between the gulfs of Tunis and Hammamat, runs south-west and north-east in the direction of Sicily. Between the Marocco frontier and Central Algeria none of the summits attain an elevation of 6,600 feet ; but in Jiu'jura and the Jebel Aures, west of Algiers, the highest peaks exceed 7,500 feet. Farther east the hills gradually fall, the loftiest crests in Timisia rising to a height of not more than 5,000 feet. From one extremity to the other, the sj-stem has a length of no less than 1,400 miles. Owing to the parallel disposition of the highlands, plateaux, and plains, in the long Mauritanian quadrilateral, the whole region from the Atlantic to the Gulf of Cabes is distributed in narrow zones, differing from each other in physical appear- ance, climate, products, and inhabitants. The fertile coastland valleys support an agricidtural population, while the upland steppes are peopled by nomad pastors and their flocks ; in the southern oases, encroaching on the desert, tillers of the soil again constitute the bulk of the commxmity. Thus are developed in parallel lines a number of distinct zones, whose inhabitants differ in their pursuits, character, traditions, and often even in origin. An interchange of necessary commodities takes place between the various zones ; but the relations are not always pacific, and neighbouring tribes often contend for the conterminous territory. This natural distribution of Mauritania into longitudinal sections, each with its distinctive ethnical conditions, is certainly one of the chief causes of the political dismemberment of the land. The littoral zone, stretching- from Cape Bon to Cape 98 NOET^-^VEST AFRICA. Sijartal, was far too long for its slight breadth, aud thus became broken into several frao-ments, analogous to those which destro3-cd the unity of Italy. But the form and outlines of coimtries have a continually decreasing influence on the destiny of their inhabitants, the work of man tending more and more to reduce the importance of distances and diminish the contrasts of climate aud relief. Timis is at present more intimately associated with Tangiers in the extreme west than it formerly was with the adjacent districts of Bon and Cabes, separated from Goletta Bay by stormy headlands. In their hydrographic systems Tunisia, Algeria, aud Marocco present analogous conditions. The northern slope of the Atlas, facing the Atlantic and Mediterranean, is too narrow to develop large fluvial basins. Hence only a small number of watercourses, rising on the upland steppes, or at least fed by affluents from those regions, have succeeded in forcing their way through the border ranges seaward, thus presenting a development analogous to that of the European rivers falhng into the Mediterranean. Thus the Maluya of Marocco, the Algerian Shelif, and the Mcjcrda of Tunis, are exceeded in length only by the Rhone aud Ebro. On the Sahara slope there would certainly be no lack of space for the running waters to excavate long channels in the direction of the Niger, the Atlantic, or the Syrtes. But here the rainfall fails, and the streams have no volume corresponding to the extent, of their basins. Except the Draa, which rises on the southern slope of the Marocco Atlas, but fails to reach the Atlantic opposite the Canary Islands, there is not a single stream in the Sahara region which flows freely on the surface from its source to the sea. The beds formerly excavated, when the rainfall was more abundant, may, however, stUl be traced in spite of the shifting dimes, and it is evident enough that they formed water sj-stems rivalling in extent that of the Euphrates. One of these old streams, rising in the Atlas, flowed southwards to the Niger ; another, the mighty Igharghar with its vast system of affluents, formed in the Jebel Ahaggar and Jebel Tasili, took a northerly course to the depression of the Algerian shotts ; but within the present geological period It has had no outlet to the Gulf of Cabes. Its area of drainage, probably exceeding 320,000 square miles, is scarcely inferior to that of the Danube. Ethnical Elements. Owing to the substantial uniformity of the physical, hydrographic, and climatic conditions throughout Mauritania, the local flora and fauna must also everywhere betray a certain resemblance, although in many places the migrations have been checked by natural obstructions, thus giving rise to many gradual modifications of species. Between Capes Bon and Nun are met representatives of the same races of mankind, differing in their distribution according to the endless variety of the environment and the chequered course of events. Everywhere in Mauritania the Berber clement, of unknown origin, constitutes the fundamental stock, and accord- ing to Faidherbe stiU comprises at least three-quarters of the present population, estimated at about ten millions between the sea and the desert. But although ETHNICAL ELEMENTS. 99 forming the great majoritj', the Berbers have at all points been driven from the plains to the uplands. Peaceful tillers of the soil, too sluggish to progress, too slow to combine together, they have been fain to j-ield to the more warlike Arab tribes. The Arabs themselves, forming probably less than a sixth of the Mauritanian population, are found either in settled or nomad communities scattered over the whole region as far as the Atlantic seaboard. But while more numerous in the central districts, they diminish gradually from east to west, according as they recede from the Arabian peninsula. The blacks, who by intermixture have also tended much to modify the other ethnical elements, were everywhere originally introduced as slaves or mercenaries. But they are naturally most numerous in those districts which maintain the most frequent relations with their native land ; hence they prevail chiefly in JMarocco, which enjoys constant commercial intercourse with TVestern Sudan. Even the imperial family, although claiming descent from the Pi'ophet, is more Negro than Ai-ab. All the towns throughout Mauritania are largely peopled by "Moors," that is, an endlessly mixed race, resulting from the fusion of Roman, Yandal, Arab, Berber, Italian, French, Spanish, and other Mediterranean elements. If the Moors present a somewhat uniform type from one end of the land to the other, this is assuredly due, not to racial j)urity, but to their common historic evolution, to the similar surroundings and piu'suits of more or less ci^T-lised urban com- munities. The term " Moor " is, however, one of those vague expressions which has often been used in different senses. According to Tissot, it originally meant " "Western," while Sabatier thinks it was at first applied to the inhabitants of the upland districts. Mauritania would thus mean " Highlands," as would appear from the root matir, mur (Amur), still met -n-ith in all parts of the country. But the Spaniards, and after them European Christians generally, applied the term Moors, Moor, in a much wider sense to all Mohammedans, and in ordinary language even to all pagans. At present its use is restricted to the Mohammedans of the Mauritanian towns, distinguished by their settled life and higher culture from the Arabs of the rural districts. Eelatively speaking, the Moors are most numerous in Timisia. Although numerically inferior to the indigenous element, the intruding Arab people were long the rulers of Mauritania, and from them the French met with the most obstinate resistance in the conquest of Algeria. It is noteworthy that they have spread with a certain uniformity, especially over all the open plains and least rugged plateaux — a phenomenon due to the successive migrations pressing the tribes continually forward, and thus producing at diverse epochs a general dis- placement from east to west. Even long before the Hejira, Mauritania had already been invaded by Arab tribeS,- such as the Luata, or Ruadites, who settled in CjTenaica during the first centuries of the new era, and who under different names gradually advanced to the eastern districts of Maui'itania. Then followed the period of conquest and conversion, which also left a certain number of Arab tribes 100 KOETH-'S\'EST AFEICA. in the country, and four centuries later the great movement of migration, whence are descended most of the Arab nomads at present encamped in the Barbary states. Then the stream of migration was reversed, and many tribes that had reached the Atlantic retraced their steps eastwards. Throughout Mauritania, Tripolitana, and the eastern oases, the tribes who show the longest genealogies and claim the title of Shorfa, or descendants of the Prophet, are precisely those that for a time sojourned in Marocco before starting on the return journey towards Arabia. Another reaction was that of the so-called " Arabs," who had overrun the Iberian peninsula ; but these conquerors were mainly Berbers, who during their long resi- dence in Spain had become intermingled with Ligurians, Iberians, Kelts, Visigoths, and other local populations. Most of these fugitives, known in ^Mauritania as Andalus (Andalusians), settled in the towns, where they blended with the Moors, thus adding a new factor to the tangled web of local interminglings. In a reo-ion peopled by such diverse elements, not yet fused in a single nation- ality, it would be vain to look for a spirit of patriotism such as pre\ails in longer- settled and more homogeneous European communities. Amongst Berbers and Arabs the sentiment of solidarity is restricted to the family or the tribe, so that the consciousness of forming a single people, with common interests and aspirations, is entirely absent. As Mohammedans rather than kinsmen, the Mauritanian Arabs combine against the Christian, who has hitherto always been able to rely on intes- tine quarrels and tribal feuds to hasten the work of conquest. Nevertheless it was a slow process, in Algeria especially, because the country remained long exposed to the incui'sions of the southern tribes. Even after its reduction, the seaboard continued to be threatened by the neighbouring highland peoples ; and when these were subdued, the inhabitants of the plateaux had still to be conquered. •Until the parallel geographic zones were all defended by fortified to^vns, agri- cultural settlements, and military outposts, the new conquest, destitute of a solid southern frontier, presented a thousand weak points to the restless border tribes. But the situation was different in Tunisia, which being enclosed on two sides by the sea and on a third by a chain of fortified stations, was limited southwards by lagoons and the desert. It was, moreover, already traversed east and west by a line of railway, so that a protracted resistance was nowhere possible, even if the French invasion had been preceded by a formal declaration of war. But on the pretext of frontier tribal disturbances in the west, the coimtry was suddenly invaded east and west by overwhelming forces, all strategical points rapidly seized, and the capital occupied even before diplomatic relations were interrupted between the two states. Thus the Bey had no option except to sign a treaty presented at the point of the baj'onet, which practically converted Tunisia into a French in-ovincc. The limits of Tunisia being still undetermined towards Tripolitana and Algeria, its superficial extent can only be approximately estimated. According to the planimctric calculations of recent geographers, it has a total area of from -1:6,000 to 47,000 square miles, including the lagoons and sebkhas, which occupy extensive tracts in the central and southern districts. But the triangulation now in progress must soon reduce the discrepancies still existing between the extreme estimates. HISTORIC BETEOSPECT. lOt Although comprising not more than a thirteenth or a foiu-tecnth of the whole of ilauritania, the relatiTe densitj- of its population gives to this region an importance out of all proportion with its actual extent. Doubtless the population itself must remaia somewhat doubtful, pending accurate official retiu-ns, and recent estimates have varied as much as from one to two millions ; but since the French occupation there is a general consensus that one million five hundred thousand is about the most probable figure. But even acccjiting the lowest estimate, of one million, Tunisia would still contain a relatively much larger population than either Algeria or Marocco. Historic Retrospect. Xevertheless, even allowiag for the consequences of a capricious Government, and for the general displacement of political power, it stiU seems strange that a country so fortunately situated as Tunisia should have so greatly retrograded, and that it should have been almost completely effaced as a factor in the historic evolution of the Mediterranean lands. Placed at the very centre of the inland sea, at the eastern extremity of Mauritania over against SicUj', possessing a long coastline with deeper inlets and better ports than those of Algeria and Marocco, endowed also with a healthy climate and fertile territory, Tunisia enjoys natural advantages which formerl}- enabled it to take a leading part amongst the Mediter- ranean states. In the interior the relief of the land is no less favoui'able than its general outlines. The longitudinal zones, elsewhere sharply defined in Mauritania, here lose their abrupt contrasts, while the great inlet of the Gulf of Tunis com- pletely turns the rugged coast range, giving access to the inland plateaux through the Mejerda and Melleg valleys. On the east coast, also south of the Gulf of Hammamat, the marine basin penetrates far inland towards the central regions of Algeria, while the great trade route across the desert has its terminus on the Gulf of Cabes. Through these very gulfs and eastern plains, Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantines, Greeks and Arabs found access to the interior, Asiatic and Em-opean influences thus penetrating beyond the seaboard into the very heart of Mauritania. On the vcrv shore of the Gulf of Tunis, commandinsj at once the central channel of the Mediterranean and the natural approach to the Libyan continent, stood the city of Carthage, which became the emporium of the Old World, and which long arrested the destinies of Rome. Even after its reduction, the province of " Africa," now a European settlement, by its commercial, industrial, and intellectual life, caused its name to be ajiplied to the whole continent. Again, in medieval times, Timisia had its period of culture and prosperity. To a near future therefore belongs the duty of restoring it to the place amongst the nations to which its geographical position naturally entitles it. For the Mediter- ranean trade it is better situated than Algiers, better even than Naples or Messina ; while for the communications with the Niger basin the Lesser offers greater advan- tages than the Greater Syrtis, thanks to its more advanced position and less dangerous navigation. 102 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. PiTi'siCAL Features. The mean altitude of Tunisia dimLuislies gradually from west to east, although the culnunatiag points, rangiug from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, are distributed irregularly over the face of the land. One of the loftiest ridges occupies the north-west comer of the coimtry towards the Algerian frontier, where it is disposed in the direction from south-west to north-east. To it may be given the name of "Khumir range," from the now historical group of tribes, who raise their crops of barley, maize, and tobacco in its iipland glades. South-westwards it is continued through the scarcely less elevated Ushtetta hills, and by those of the Beni Salah, which are limited southwards by the rugged gorges traversed by the Upper llejerda ia the department of Constantino. Most of their slopes are clothed with forests of leafy trees, and from many of the hcfs, or summits, nothing is visible to the eye except a boundless sea of verdure. These hills are furrowed by a labyrinth of steep ravines and narrow glens watered by streamlets, which flow either south to the ^lejerda, west to the Wed-el-Kebir, or north to the ilediterranean cirques. Here lofty headlands project far seawards, such as Cape Roux, whose abrupt escarpments and ruined forts mark the frontier between Tunis and Algeria. Farther west the Jebel Mermal develops another promontory, ojjposite Tabarka Island, which still bristles with Genoese fortifications, and which was formerly connected with the mainland by a dyke, now replaced by a tongue of sand flush with the water. East of the Khumir Moimtains stretches the less elevated but still hilly district of Mogod, termiuating north-west and north of Bizerta in several capes, such as the Ras-Dukkara, Ras-el-Kerun, Ras-Engela, Ras-el-Abiod, or " Cape White." These northermnost headlands of the African contiuent advance 20 geographical miles beyond the thirty-seventh parallel, thus approaching 90 miles nearer to the I'ole than the point of Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar. Here the Tunisian waters are studded with a few islets and reefs, amongst which are the Fratelli, or " Brothers," known to the Romans as the Altars of Neptime. Farther seawards, in a line with the Sorelle, or " Sisters," the island of GaHta, over 1,000 feet high, and consisting of trachyte rocks analogous to the andesites of Ecuador and the blue porphyries of Esterel, can scarcely be geologically connected with the neighbouring mainland, from which it is separated by an abyss 170 fathoms deep. Pliny asserts that the soil of Galita kills the scorpion, a fable still repeated in another form by mariners, who tell us that these volcanic rocks harbour no venomous rejitile. The absence of snakes might serve as an additional proof that the island is not a detached fragment of the continent, although it has yielded some land shells of the same species as those foimd on the oj^poslte coast. South of Mejerda, the region along the Algerian frontier presents no distinct orographic sj-stem. Broken into distinct sections by the Wed Mellcg and its afllu- ents, the hills here follow the maiu line of the Atlas from south-west to north-east, leaving everywhere broad breaches mostly accessible to wheeled traffic. This region in fact forms the eastern prolongation of the upland steppes separating the two Algerian border ranges, which slope towards the Mediterranean and the Sahara PHYSICAL FEATUEES. 103 respectiyely. The Tunisian steppes, forming a continuation of the Aures plateau, o > I ^ are dotted with isolated eminences, whose summits terminate in tables representino- the remains of older formations that have been eroded by the action of water. 101 XORTH-WEST APEICA. Several of these flat-topped precipitous heights have frequently served as a refuge for whole trihcs and their flocks. Such, north-cast of Tebessa, is the Kalaa-es- Senam, or " Castle of Idols," 4,830 feet high, approached by a dangerous path leading to a village of the Hanensha tribe, the most elevated group of habitations in Tunis. Farther east, towards the geographical centre of the country, the plateaux are large and uniform enough to have received the name of hamada, like the stony plains of the desert. Here the whole region culminates in the Jebel Borberu (4,920 feet), the Ras Si Ali-bu-Mussin (5,050), and the Jebel Haluk (4,810). Kes- sera, the most regular of the hamadas, whose summit consists of an enormous table wm^;;-: C ' Fig. 28. — Hamada-el-Kesseea. Scile 1 : 180,000. n:^//^'-: ,1 -, ■ ^.^s -^ L. oT' breensvich ''^':'^> ■% :/'^ - i>iy ,1 y"4h _ 3 Jliles. 10 square miles in extent, contains a small sebkha in one of its depressions, and its precipitous slopes are almost everywhere densely wooded. North-east of the central hamadas the uplands develop a regular mountain range, which comprises the Jebel Jugar and the superb Zaghwan, which during the Eoman epoch gave the name of Zeugitana to the whole of this highland region. Of all the Tunisian heights, none is more famous than that of Zaghwan, whose blue pyramidal crest (4,470 feet) is visible from Tunis. From the Jugar and Zaghwan hills Carthage drew its supply of water, and these sources are still utilised by the modern capital. A conspicuous feature of the landscape is also the Jebel Ressas, or " Lead Mountain," to the south-east of Tunis, from which it is separated by the intervening valley of the Wed Melian. Another steep mountain, the Bu-Kurneiu, or " Father of the Two Horns," rises immediately above the southern shore of the Gulf of Tunis, where it is recognised far seawards by its twin peaks resting on a massive foundation of reddish rocks. TUNIS AN[ , <3 A7nBeida Batna ^,^._ ^^.^ .-^^,'^s;:;^^' '.« ^*--..-. «'•<'-«- ■Tebes3alT«*««*«i '^ S Hf s ^ Hadjsr So,;our ^ y JCsh \ El-H>mn... El Ud;an \ 1 •*«ve f'-^ (./■ Sb ■Kellb ■ ICl^poeal i«l T. nla Z.lfet 'Kour 37 J MJ^-^iv Gitlf of Bttntrntnnet .Makte^ •4- j.i/:> • Hernia " TJ4 Mamfnam Souss /*£.«.-;.,(™. Msiken MonaStir(8ararus) ta(L^pt;jM;,ior«. T.bo-lba Jamal'' Bokfllta' TKapsua.R. ^Mahdiya ^e^'^ •6or.R<.dj;d Ksour.eScf' •Sel5k4a|Sylle=tum| 3G 'SbaVtIa iSufTctMiBl tl- Jem(Thysdru«) ^/a (V- Gr-tn-r'tT Jtat KapvuilisJi .('' 35 ^' / i*' ,y SFAKES TWni.R. JiK^t-k^nMt/Cc^n^itii^ ^V Sh Oit ^ J. EI-HofYim.- CABES I Douz 8° Houn*t Souk J Jer^m Bordj e) Kariara a ,^ Kgisr MoMdantn 10 ir nzu [ZZ! leOtoSZO 3Z0 107600 iSODx^ftarcls B4 12 4 C- l._!.;. . b : PHYSICAL FEATUEES. 105 East of these hills the ground falls to a broad depression, through ^vhich will probably soon pass the line of railway intended to connect the shores of the Gulfs of Tunis and Hanunamat. Beyond this point the land again rises in the Dakhelat- el-Mahuin peninsula to a height of over 1,000 feet. Here the Eas Fortas stands over against Cape Carthage on the opposite side of the Gulf of Tunis, while at the extremity of the peninsula the various spurs of the Has Addar (Cape Bon) com- mand the eastern entrance of the great gulf. Its western approach, some 40 miles distant, is indicated by the Eas-el-Khair, more generally known as the Eas Sidi Ali-el-ilakki, whose form, like that of the rock of Gibraltar, resembles a crouching lion. The western headland, formerly consecrated to Apollo, and the Fi"r. 29. — The Jebel Zaghwan. r^'S' eastern, on which stood an altar of ilercury, are both fringed with islets and reefs, and the former is continued seawards by the island of El-Kamala (Plane). Near it is the islet of Pilau, so named because its form resembles the dish of rice (pilau) commonly served at Eastern meals. "^est of the Eas Addar rise the two islands of Zembra and Zembretta (Simbolo and Simboletto), Jamur-el-Kebir and Jamur-es-Sebir, the iEgimures of the ancients, both inhabited, and in'2embra attaining an elevation of over 1,320 feet. About 24 miles due east of this coast is the better-known volcanic island of Pantellaria, which however depends politically on Italy, and apparently belongs to the European geological system. VOL. xi. I lOQ NORTH-WEST APEICA. Soufli of the central Tunisian plateaux the uplands diminish in height, and arc interrupted bj- broad valleys, and limited eastwards by extensive ^Dlaius, where have been collected the brackish waters of tlie sebkhas. But beyond these depressions the Sahel, or "seaboard," which advances in a semicircle seawards between the Gulfs of Hammamat and Cabes, merges in a rugged plateau which is termina.tcd by vast plains and sharp headlands. "West of the sebkhas, southern Tunis preserves its hilly aspect, mountains here following continuously as far as the great depression of the shotts which forms the natural boundary between Jfauritania and the Sahara. Nearly all these ridges are disposed normally from south-west to north-east, in the same direction as the section of the coast of the Lesser Syrtis lying between Cabes and Sfakes. Here rises the remarkable Jebel-bu-Hedma, commanding the saline waters of the Manzuna or En-Nuail sebkha, north-west of the Gulf of Cabes. Its peaks, over 4,300 feet high, rise majestically above a broad region of arid steppes, and in its gorges are still visible the galleries of the old Eoman mines, where auriferous ore has been discovered by Fuchs. Farther west, in the neighbourhood of Gafsa, stands the Jebel Arbet, from whose summit (8,6()0 feet) a panoramic view is afforded of the surrounding plains, high- lands, seas, oases, and sandy wastes. These uplands are limited southwards by an abrupt ravine, through which will run the future railway from Constantino to Cabes. But beyond this gorge the plateau again develops a series of terraces gradually falling towards the Faraun sebkha, South of the low-lying region of the sebkhas are seen a few hills, the advanced spurs of the range which is continued south-eastwards through the Metmata and Urghamma highlands in the direction of the Jebels Nefuza and Yefren belonging to the Tripolitan system. From the summit of the narrow Urghamma crests ai'e at once visible the Mediterranean and the great desert. They are separated by steppelands from the dunes and rocky heights of the seaboard. Hydrographic System. The Tunisian hydrographic system is readily explained by the relief of the land. Along the " ironbound coast " stretching from Cape Roux to the Ras-el- Abiod there is no space for anything beyond small torrents descending from the neighbouring hills ; but farther east, notwithstanding the slight local rainfall, rivers of considerable size have been developed, thanks to the broad depressions here occurring between the ranges and on the plateaux of Mauritania. Notwithstanding its Wed-el-Kebir, or " Great River," better known under the name of the "Wed Ahmor, the northern slope of Tunisia does not boast of a single stream exceeding 60 miles in length. The most copious is the Wed-el-Tin, which discharges into the Eshkol or Eskel basin, whoso level and salinity vary greatly according to the abundance of the rainfall and evajwration. It has a mean depth of from 2 to 6 or 7 feet, and the reefs abounding in the fossil cardiam cdiilc show tliat it was at one time a salt or bracki.sh reservoir, probably a marine inlet HTDEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM. 107 separated from the Mediterranean by a local upheaval of the coast. During the floods the Eskel has an area of over 80 square miles, and its emissary, the Wed-et- Tiuja, or " River of the Lagoon," sends down a large volume to feed the neigh- bouring Tinja Benzert basin. This is the Lake of Bizerta, which communicates through a long channel with the sea. Covering an extent of about 60 square Fig. 30. — Lakes of Eskel and Bizeeta. Scale 1 : 350,000. Depths. Oto32 Feet. 32 to SO Feet. 80 to 160 Feet. 6 ilUes. 160 Feet and upwards. mile.*, it has a far greater depth than the Eskel, even near the banks varying from 10 to 16, and in the middle from*40 to 50 feet. Were it connected by a broad na%-igable channel with the sea, it woidd form a spacious harbour, large enough to accommodate all the shipping in the Mediterranean. While the water of Lake Eskel is nearly fi-esh during the rainy season, that of Bizerta is scarcely less I 2 108 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. saline than that of the sea, and the fishes here captured in large quantities all belong to the marine fauna. The alternating current of its emissary, setting now towards the sea, now towards the lake, as already noticed by Pliny, is due to the changes of level caused by the rains, marine currents, and winds. After the heavy rains the channel is converted into a river discharging its overflow seawards ; but when the evaporation exceeds the volume contributed by its affluents, the deficiency is supplied by the marine floods. The outflow usually coincides with the east winds, the inflow with those from the west. The mouth of the Mejerda, the chief river in Tunis, is separated from Lake Fig. 31. — GOKOES OF THE MIDDLE MeJEBDA. Scale 1 ; 280,000. %r ■■•-- ^-^m ''^'*' '^ ' ^'n v4y ; — ^ i> 9°io L of ureen\A/ich 9°S5' , 3 Miles. Bizerta only by the range of hills terminating on the coast at the sharp headland of Sidi Ali-el-Mckki. The Mejerda, the Bagrada of the Eomans and Makarath of the Carthaginians, rises in the same Algerian uplands that send northwards the waters of the Seybus. Following in all its thousand windings the normal direction of the Tunisian coast, it plimges soutli of the Suk-Ahras plateau into a meandering gorge, now traversed by a railway, and by a road which crosses the torrent no less than twenty-seven times. At Ghardiman, within the Tunisian frontier, after receiving the contributions of numerous torrents, it enters an old lacustrine basin enclosed some 12 miles farther down by the projecting bluffs of two mountain ranges advancing in opposite directions. Through this gorge the river has HYUEOGEAPHIC SYSTEM. 109 excavated a deep cliaimel to tlie Dakhla plaiu, an old lacustrine basin at least 300 square miles in extent, which has been filled in by alluvia of the ]»Iejerda, Melleg, and other affluents. To a height of 70 feet above the present level of the plain, traces occur of the sedimentarj- deposits formed before the emissary from the Fig. 32. — Old Beds of the Lower Mejeeda. Scale 1 : -130,000. Depths, to 32 Feet. 32 to SO Feet. SO to 160 Feet. . 36 Miles. ICO Feet and upwai'ds. lake had cut through the rocky sill above the upper bed, which dammed up the lacustrine waters. In the Dakhla plain the Mejerda is joined by its largest tributary, the Melleg, which is at least 60 miles longer than the main stream. Rising near Tebessa, in Algeria, it flows mainly north-west and south-east, but loses much of its volume by 110 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. evaporation, whence the brackish character of its waters. The course of the two streams across the plain does not appear to have been perceptibly modified within the historic period, for the old Roman highway runs directlj- through this alluvial basin, at intervals touching the windings along the left bank. At the confluence of the Beja descending from the north, the Mejerda enters the series of narrow tortuous gorges by which it has forced its wa}-- through the sm-iounding chalk formation. But at the junction of the Zerga it encountered harder rocks, which it was unable to pierce. Hence it is here abruptly deflected southwards to its confluence with the Siliana, where it finds an easier outlet towards the north-east. Below the barrage constructed in 1622 by Dutch engi- neers the Mejerda flows by the west foot of the Jebel Ahmor to the alluvial plain through which it discharges into the shallow El-Bahira (Ghar-el-Melah) lagoon. This basin, which in the seventeenth century was " the finest harbour in Barbary," and which still communicates with the sea through a small channel accessible to fishing-smacks, has been gradually filled in by the alluvia of the Mejerda. Its depth, which now nowhere exceeds 5 or 6 feet, appears to have been diminished by 30 feet during the last hundred j^ears. It will probably disappear altogether before the end of the century, just as the older Gulf of Utica in the same delta has been converted during the last one thousand six hundi-ed j-ears into the marshy depression of Mabtuha. The Er-Ruan sebkha and other lagoons in this district are also being slowly effaced, while the shore line between Cape Sidi AU-el-Mekki and the hills of Carthage is continually advancing seawards. According to Tissot, the land has here encroached on the sea to a probable extent of 100 scpare miles in the course of the last two thousand one hundred years. During the historic period the Mejerda has often shifted its bed, and by the aid of the old writers and a careful survey of its lower course, it might be possible to reconstruct the map of its delta at different epochs. In the time of the Carthaginians, the Makarath or Bagrada. skirted the north foot of the Jebel Ahmor, leaving on the left a ridge of insular rocks from 100 to 150 feet high, and reaching the sea at a point just north of Cape Carthage. The old bed can still be traced by the sands and gravel, in which now grow a few oleander bushes. Subsequently two other beds were excavated farther north, both of which had also their origin in the gorge at the north foot of the Jebel Ahmor. But the present channel runs due north along the depression of the old Lake of Utica, terminating just south of the headland at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Tunis. South of the Mejerda there are no permanent rivers, their mouths being closed by a bank of sand for at least several months in the year. But commimication with the sea is effected h\ one lagoon, the Lake of Timis, a second Bahira, similar to that into which the Mejerda falls ; it is somewhat larger, however, and attains a greater depth, being some 6 feet in the deepest parts. Its approach is formed by an artificial canal, which has replaced a natural channel farther south, and which will admit vessels drawing over -1 feet of water ; but its waters arc rendered impure by the sewage of Tunis, and hence the banks are unhealthy. Like those of the Mejerda delta, this lake, which was formerly crowded by the Roman and HYDROGEAPHIC SYSTEM. Ill Carthaoinian vessels, is losino- in volume, and is bordered throug-liout its circuinfer- ence hj hollows, left by the receding waters, whicb have become swamps or sandy beaches. The Wed Melian, a term which probably conveys the sense of " Full 112 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. Eiver," a name it no longer merits, is not a tributary of tlic Baiiira ; it descends from the Zaghwan mountains, and its volume, increased by the -(vater at present collected by the aqueduct of Tunis, flows southwards round a low eminence which bounds the lacustrine depression. The Tixisiax Sedkhas. On the eastern shore of Tunis, the coast is skirted by numerous sobkhas, which are separated from the Mediterranean by strips of sand. But at some distance inland, depressions are also found into which fall several rivulets, whose waters quickly run dry in their saline clay beds. Such are the sebkhas which follow in succession west, south-west, and south of Susa, and which are alternately vast sheets of water and saline plains. During winter time Kairwan has often been completely cut off from the rest of Tunis by these quagmires. At the very com- mencement of the rainy season a large portion of the country is transformed into a veritable slough, leaving no other route available to the caravans except the ridges running between the hollows. The most extensive lagoon is the Sidi-el-IIani sebkha, or Lake of Kairwan, whose siu-face at the jjeriod of the floods is at least 200 square miles in extent, and whose central depression, in rainy years, alwaj's retains a little water. It is completely cut off from the coastlands by the Sahel hills, whilst Lake Kelbia, not so extensive but always filled with water and even bearing boats, occasionally discharges its surplus waters into the lowlands over a ledge some 60 feet high. When the rainfall is very abundant — that is to say, on an average every eight years — the emissary called the "Wed Menfes attains a coast- land lagoon, the sebkha of Jcriba, which is connected with the sea by the Halk-el- Jlengel. Travelling at this part of the coast is rendered dangerous on account of the looseness of the soil, and till recently, before the construction of the causeway, not a winter passed without the caravans losing some of their men or animals. According to ]\DL de C'ampou and Rouire, Lake Kelbia, whose surface varies from 20,000 to 32,000 acres according to the season, forms the basin of a fluvial system as vast and even more important than that of the !Mejerda. The "Wed Bagla, which flows into this basin together witli its tributaries the "Wed Feklca, the Marguelil, and other rivers flowing from the heights of Central Tunis, ajDpears on the maps recently drawn up to have a far less extensive area of drainage than the northern rivers. In several essays M. Rouire has also attempted to prove the identity of the Bagla with the river Triton of the ancient writers. But how is it possible to identify with certainty a river which, according to Pliny, forms the source of the Nile, and one of whose branches is lost in the Xiger ? And the lake of the same name which !M. Rouire identifies with Lake Kelbia, may in fact have been that mysterious basin which different writers have sought in various places along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, Strabo placing it at Berenice, to the west of the Great iSyrtis, whilst Diodorus seeks it in the vicinity of the " ocean which surrounds the world." It would assuredly be a hopeless task to endeavour to reconcile all the assertions that ancient writers have made about the THE TUNISIAN SEBKIIAS. 113 river and Lake Triton, more esi^eciallj' as not one of their statements liarmonises witli the present conditions. All the proposed identifications are contradicted by one or another passage of these authors, and beyond doubt numerous changes have taken place in the physical geography of the country, effacing many a topo- graphical detail now vainly sought by the commentators. It suffices to say that, although unacceptable on other heads, M. Rouire's hj'pothcsis concernin"- the identity of the "Wed Bagla with the river Triton, is at least so far in accordance A^ifh the writings of Ptolemy, that this watercourse really rises in the ravines of Mount Ussalet, the Ussalefon of the Alexandrine geograjDhers. ^loreover, ' throughout the whole eastern shore of Tunis, the Bagla is the only wed which, rising at some distance inland, flows on in a perceptible bed, if not as far as the Lesser Sj^rtis, at least, according to M. Eouire, as far as "a little iSyrtis," to which it brings a small quantity of water. Lake Kelbia, on the other hand, is, in circum- ference, almost exactly the thousand stadia (111 miles) which Scylax assigned to Lake Triton. At the same time, the extent of this lake would seem to be much too great, if the statement of Herodotus is true, that the Libyan virgins, after having engaged in a combat in honour of Athene, " bore the most valiant round the marsh." The prolonged cry which the women uttered at the feasts of the goddess is synonymous with the zat/rif, tuluil, or yu-i/u, which the Libyan women of all the modern Berber tribes give vent to, tapping their lips to give effect to the sound, on such occasions as feasts, weddings, funeral processions, and warlike expeditions. To the north-west of Sfakes, another depression contains the saline lake called Mta-el-Grarra ; and farther south, near the regular curve described by the Gulf of Cabes, there is still another depression, filled with water or a saline efilorescence, called the ]Manzima, or Sebkha-en-Nuail. But these survivals of former lakes are a mere nothing in comparison with the jiartiallj- inimdated plain which forms the natm-al boundar}^ between the " Isle of Maghreb " and the Sahara. For over a space of 240 miles from east to west, a succession of sheets of water, saline basins, marshes, and hollows filled with clay, stretch south of Tmiis and Eastern Algeria. It is probable ia some part of this depression, so remarkable in all respects, that most ancient geographers located the sacred waters near which Minerva and Bacchus were born. Shaw, towards the end of the eighteenth century, was the first to put forward the hypothesis that Lake Triton was identical with one of the Tunisian sebkhas. As a zone separating two natural regions, two faunas, and two races, and from a hj-drographical point of -siew appealing to the imagination both by its vast size and by its divers phenomena, this region ought to prove of much greater interest to geographers than the little lake on the eastern coast, north of the islands. The vast basin of the Igharghar, whose waters formerly flowed into the chain of "Tritonic" lakes, presents a surface of at least 3'20,000 miles, forty times superior to that of the Tunisian weds which run into Lake Kelbia. This basin, however, has been completely separated from the Mediterranean for a period long antecedent to all historic records. 114 XOETH-WEST AFRICA. Judoiiiff from the fossil shells, the mariue iulet or the fluvial bed between the Mediterranean and the lacustrine basin of the Sahara, was definitely closed about the postpliocene period. Nevertheless, the riverain peoples of the shott, struck by the aspect of dried-up inlets presented by these basins, persistently maintained that communication formeily existed between the sea and the sebkhas, but that Alex- ander the " two horned " closed the outlet by his enchantments. Before the geograiDhical exploration of the country, the Isthmus of Cabes, between the sebkhas and the sea, was merely considered as one of those sandy Fig. 34. — Sill op Cases. Scale : 1,500,000. L . of ureenw^ch 9 Otol6 Feet. Depths. 16 to 32 32 Feet and upwards. 12 Miles. beaches such as are found on every .shore before the mouths of rivers whose current, even when aided by the ebb and flow of the tides, is not sufficiently strong to clear a passage seawards. It was supposed that sandhills had gradually raised the bar, which had itself probably been elevated above the sea-level by the effect of some inland disturbance. M. Fuchs, by measuring the height of the sill with a barometer, at last discovered the true state of the case. From a mean elevation of 330 feet, the little cliain of hills revealed two breaches from 190 to '2U0 feet high, whose geological formation he ascertained to Trm TrxisLAJN" sebkhas. 115 consist of eocene sandstone and chalk. The Italian expedition under Antinori, which visited the shores of the Gulf of Cahes in 1875, also found that the sUl was partially composed of rocky layers, and not merely of sand heaped up by the winds. The lowest point found by the expedition on the waterparting between the streams which mn to the sea and those which flow westwards towards the sebkha, is over 170 feet above the sea-level. Since then, Roudaire, a French officer, has carefully prepared a detailed map of the whole region comprised between the Gulf of Cabes and the Algerian " shotts," and has definitely cleared up all uncertainties. The bar of Cabes stiU offers at its lowest elevation a height of over 150 feet ; the sebkhas, which it separates from the ilediterranean, are themselves situated at a height of from 50 to 80 feet above the sea-level, and terminate westwards at another ridge more than 300 feet high. Beyond this point begin the depressions lying below the level of the Mediterranean. The total breadth of land required Fig. 35. — Zont; of the Shotis Soxtth op East Aix}eeia am> Tots. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. N ..-Zeiibe* d^ Wed / SSLvV. Memsmsha L/ ArLf /Si ,/J^ S5' ^■- "i, io1 -•'D Wed L . of breenwicn ;■ ^. Be^on below the level of the sea. ^__^-^— _^^__ 60 Miles. to be excavated in order to connect the basin of the " shotts " with the Mediter- ranean would be over 100 miles. The whole system of shotts and wadies — or, retaining the Arabic form, shtuts and widans — which may be called the " Tritonic " system, according to the hj-po- theses of most archaeologists, was at one time probably a fluvial basin commencing at the soiu'ce of the Igharghar. But this hydrographic system has long been broken ujj. The river bed is in many places blocked by dunes, and the secondary depressions have been separated from it by ridges of upheaved rocks. That of the east especially, the largest of all, is bounded by hilly ridges which effect a junction with the southern Tunisian chaias. From the ridge of Cabes to that of Kriz follow in succession north of the -basin a series of abrupt cliffs, called the " Lips" (Esh-Sherb), as if the plain of the ancient lake was compared to an immense mouth. The sebkha, known at its east end by the name of Shott-el-Fejej, at first is narrow, but gradually broadens out westwards ; then, beyond a promontory on the southern 116 XOETH-WEST AFRICA. bank, a long rock continued bj- dunes, the basin, here called Shott Faraun, suddenly becomes three times larger, and forms the Shott-el-Jerid, or " the Shott of the Palms." At its western extremity this huge laciistrine plain is called by various other names. It is no less than 120 miles long from east to west, with a breadth, from north to south, at the widest part, of 45 miles. The riverain people say that water remains permanently only in the central part of the Shott-el-Jerid ; but this water is not visible, being hidden by a saline crust, which suggested to the Arab authors its comparisons to a silver leaf, a cry.stal sheet, a bed of camphor. On it the footsteps re-echo as on the stones of an archway. Besides the deep waters of the lake properly so called, which is concealed under its saline covering, the lowest parts of the lacustrine depression are usually filled Fig-. 36. — Tracks of Te.ivelleks in the Shott-el-Jekid. Scale 1 : 050,000. — Tr^c'.:. =- 12 Miles. with water, at tmies of sufficient depth to reach the girths of horses crossing the sebkha, and which under the influence of the wind is disjjlaced from side to side of the depression. When the water is driven on to the saline crust over the hidden springs, it becomes partially dissolved, and the level of the waters of the shott thus often becomes changed. It occasionally happens that the crust of salt is forced upwards by the pressure of the water, or of the inflated gases, into the shape of a cone, just as if a subaqueous volcano had sprung into existence. Thus arc formed islands which, thanks to the mirage, when seen from afar appear like veritable hills, and, indeed, are so called by the riverain peoples. One of the largest of these islands, called Jcbcl-el-Melah, or " Mountain of Salt," is scarcely twenty paces in diameter and rises no more than about 3 feet above THE TUNISMN SEBKHAS. 117 the level of the sebkha. In the middle of this flat space is an ancient well, now- filled up, which has procured for the islet the further title of Bir-en-Ifsof, or " the Central "Wells." Numerous springs rise in the hard tracts of land found iu many parts of the sebkha. but the water they yield is as brackish as that of the fountains in the surrounding oases. Four islets lying near the southern bank of the Shott Faraim, are collectively termed Xkhal Faraun, or "Pharaoh's Palms," thanks to a legendary report of the passage of an Egyptian army through this lacustrine basin, which the local traditions confound more or less with the Eed Sea. The palms found on these four islets are said to have been planted by Pharaoh himself, in place of the olive-trees which previously covered the now inundated plain. These palms belong to none of the varieties known in the Jcrid, and the dates they yield never attain a complete state of maturity. The great Tunisian sebkha is crossed by mmierous caravan routes, which connect the oases on both sides of the basin. Tissot enumerates nine of these routes, but there are others not so well known, more especially in the eastern portion of the basin, Mhich is hence caUed Shott-el-Fcjej, or " the Eoutes," on account of the roads which traverse it. Some of these tracks are perfectly free from danger, whilst others must be crossed with the utmost caution, owing to the fissures, iu which the wayfarer might suddenly disappear. On commencing the transit, the guide always admonishes the travellers to follow carefully in his footsteps, so as to avoid this danger. The sebkha of Tunis is much more inclined than the Eunn of British India, presenting a slope of from 30 to 36 feet from east to west, whilst it is also much more perilous to traverse. A cloud of dust, or a mirage which hides or distorts the landmarks, a mistake on the part of the guide, or a stampede of the pack animals, might hurl the caravan into the midst of certain death. By certain traditional agreements amongst the tribes, the course to be followed should be indicated by stones on one side and trunks of palm-trees on the other, a space of a few hundi'ed yards intervening between these landmarks. This arrangement, however, is not observed with sufficient attention ; most of the gmairs, or guiding marks, are no longer in their proper place, or else have been replaced by the remains of camels. The sides of the road connecting the oasis of Kriz with those of the southern promontory, are bordered by abysses filled with a greenish- coloured water, " more bitter than that of the ocean," and of such a vast depth that the bottom has never been reached by the soimding lines. According to the ancient Arab stories and traditions, the earth has often given way under the weight of the caravans, and the men and animals composing it have been swallowed up by these abysses, whose mouth has immediately closed over the heads of its victims. South of the lake, iu the neighbouring region of Jfefzawa, in which numerous hot springs take their source, there is another natural well of imknown depth, which is called by the Berber name of Tawerga, and of which the tribes in the vicinity say, that it demands an annual sacrifice of a human being. According to a local tradition, several centuries ago the site of this abyss was displaced by a \'iolent earthquake. Xorth-west of the great Tunisian sebkha, the cliffs of the "Lips" are continued Its NORTE-WEST AFRICA. by an irregular escarpment, which at one point forms a hill some 570 feet high, before losing itself in the sands in almost imjjerceiJtible undulations. This chain, whose depressions contain the pleasant oases of Jerid, forms a barrier separating the Shott-el- Jerid from the Shott Gharsa, a basin similar to the eastern sebkha, but of much less extent. The Shott Gharsa, shaped like a crescent with its convex side facing northwards, is much lower than the Shott-el-Jerid. It lies entirely below the level of the sea, and if ever a canal should be opened to establish com- munications between this depression and the Mediterranean, its banks would be under water for some 6 miles beyond the present water-mark. The western extremity of the Shott Gharsa penetrates into Algerian territory and stretches on like a huge arm of the sea in front of a labyrinth of much more extensive shotts, known collectively as Melghigh (Melri'ir). The two basins are separated from each other by low-lying ridges and intermediary dej^ressions. According to the project with which the name of Roudaires is connected, it was the Shott Melghigh which, together with all the adjacent land, was destined to form to the south of Algeria that " inland sea " which, in the imagination of its projectors, was one day to revolutionise the climate of the neighbouring countries, to attract moisture-bear- ing clouds to the Aures Mountains, to increase the amount of rainfall, to fill permanently the, at present, dried-up beds of the watercourses, and to bring forth from the soil springs which had long ceased to exist. But although it may be difficult to imagine the formation of a navigable course leading from the ridges of Cabcs to the oases of the Algerian desert, it may at least be understood how useful it would be to restore the ancient route which skirted the southern face of the island of Maghreb, between the Lesser Syrtis and the valley of the Draa. Like those of the eastern coast of Tunis, properly so called, the v.'cds of the Tunisian Sahara are almost always without water. The most important in volume, if not in the length of their course, are the Wed Akarit, Wed Melah, and Wed Cabes. The Wed Cabes is hardly 6 miles long, although at high water coasting vessels can sail up it as far as the oasis of the town.- The hj'pothesis has been put forward that the shallow current of the Akarit or Cabes is identical with the " river Triton " of the ancients ; nor is this supposition altogether improbable, especially as the Libyans, as is proved by the legendary hydrography of Africa, readily believe in the existence of subterranean rivers in the region of the sands. Uesides, it is an indisputable fact that the basin which receives the Akarit and Cabes is of considerable extent above the springs where the water wells up very copiously. Hence it may be questioned whether some fissure in the rock may not afford an outlet, through the streams flowing to the Mediterranean, to the deep waters concealed beneath the saline crust of the Shott-el- Fejej. The Tunisian Coast and Islands. Although the mountains which continue the Tripolitau " Jebcl " approach the coast in southern Tunis, sufficient space has still been left for the formation of sebkhas, amongst others the Sebkha-el-Melah, or "Salt Lagoon," the Bu-Guerara, THE TUNISIAN COAST AKD ISLANDS. 119 and the Bahiret-el-Biban, or " Lake of the Gates." This latter coastland swamp, perfectly similar in formation to those found in Languedoc, is separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land known as " The Dog's Xose." In the narrowest portion of this strip of land are two inlets, one of which is so deep that horses are obliged to swim through it. An islet at this point of the coast, lying between the two channels, is occupied by the fortress of Biban, or " the Gates," so called on account of the marine passages which it protects, and also because it guards the approach to Tunis from the TripoUtan frontier. This portion of the coast seems to have been greatly modified within historic times. Ediisi places at about a mile from the beach of the Biban fortress an island called Ziru, which is no longer in existence, imless, as many writers bebeve, it has become merged in the strip of land between the sea and the lake. But in this ease it would have changed its shape, and the sea would have gradually eaten it away, for in the time of Edrisi, in the twelfth century, it was covered with villages surrounded by vines and palni groves. Forty miles long by half a mile broad, this island must in any case have been a sandy tongue of land which has eilected a junction with the coast. The site of this vanished land is probably marked by the reefs and sandbank of Zera. At this point a piece of land still stood high and dry in the sixteenth century, and here was assembled the fleet of the Duke of Medina-Coelis, when on an expedition against Jerba island in the year 1-560. The islands of Southern Tunis are not of independent origin. Like the volcanic cUff of Pantellaria, off Cape Bon, but are merely fragments detached from the neighboui-ing coast by the erosive action of the water or by the subsidence of the land. The Kerkennah islands, the Cercina and Cereinitis of Strabo, which form off Sfakes the northern limit of the Sj-rtis ilinor, or Gulf of Cabes, present the appearance of a mass of soil incessantly eroded by the waves. It is even very probable that the archipelago of the two islands and the adjacent reefs has been gradually diminished within historic times. Scylax speaks of but one island, of which the two present islands are probably no more than a mere fragment ; and the measurements which PHny and Herodotus assign to Cercina (Cyraunis) and Cereinitis are no longer correct. Thev have diminished, and the northern portion has been partially demolished by the waves, although the strait which separates the two islands has scarcely changed for the last two thousand years. There are still to be seen the ruins of a causeway, some 4,000 feet long, which connected the two banks, and which might be easily rebuilt. At the southern extremity of the Gulf of Cabes, the large island of Jerba, the Meninx of the ancients, which tradition points out as " the land of the Lotophagi," has apparently better preserved the shape it had at the beginning of historical times. However, it is Scarcely separated fi-om the mainland, from whicb it can be easily reached by fordinsr the intervenins; channel. The island terminates south- wards in two points towards which are directed two promontories fi-om the mainland, and on both sides tbe coast has been eroded between these capes in such 120 yOETII-^'EST AFRICA. a manner as to form a kind of lake, very similar in appearance to two neighbouring lakes, tlie Sebklia-el-Mclah and the Eahirct-el-Biban. According to Wood, this marine lake is the river Triton, so long sought for on the neighbouring coasts. The western branch of the strait, some 8,330 feet broad, and commanded by lofty hills and cliffs, is the only one which is navigable for shipping, the passage excavated by the action of the tides beiirg from 10 to 50 feet deep. The eastern branch, although broader, is partly obstructed by islets, reefs, sandbanks, and at Fig. 3". — Island of Jeeba. Scale 1:110,000. Otol6 Feet. Depths. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. 3 Miles. ebb there remains scarcely 2 feet of water in the deepest parts. The ford followed by the caravans, which bears the name of Trik-esh-Jemel, or " Eoadof the Camels," winds to the west of a Roman bridge spoken of by ancient travellers, and of which some remains are still to be seen. Two castles, the Borj-el-Kantara, or " Castle of the Bridge," on the shore of the island, and the Borj-el-Bab, or " Castle of the Gate," in the very centre of the strait, recall the ancient viaduct, worthy of being compared to the works of modern engineers, if not for boldness of design, at least THE SYRTBS. 121 for its great length. Another insular castle protects the Camel Road. According to the statement of an ancient trayeller, the eastern channel of the strait was navigable dm-ing the Carthaginian period. Viewed from a distance, Jcrba Island seems to continue the maialand into the sea in the shape of a long flat point covered with palms and skirted with strong castles, formerly raised against the Spaniards or the Knights of Malta. The highest elevations of the land, towards the centre of the island, are but a few feet above sea-level. No rivulets wind through the plains of Jerba, and the natives have no other water than that of their wells. Nevertheless the whole island is densely wooded, and the olive here attains a size unknown even in the Sahel. The Syrtes. The Gulf of Oabes, which extends in a semicircular shape between the Ker- kennah group and the island of the Lotophagi, was as much dreaded by the ancients as the Greater Syrtis itself. As long as the Carthaginians monopolised the trade carried on along the shores of the Lesser Syrtis, they were careful to describe the navigation of these coasts as highly dangerous, so as to scare away sailors of other nations ; and those foreigners who were the first to venture into these unknown regions might well have supposed at first that the jealous Carthaginians had not deceived them, when thej' were surprised by the treacherous tides which distinguish the Lesser Syrtis from all the other seas of the Mediterranean basin. The first Roman fleet which penetrated iato this gulf, more than one hundred and twenty centuries ago, ran aground in the shallows at low water, and when floated by the incoming tide, the sailors had already lightened the vessels by heaving the provisions and merchandise overboard, and being thus deprived of their sujiplics, they were compelled at once to return to Sicily. Opposite the mouth of the "Wed Cabes, at the extreme end of the Syrtis Minor, the water alternately rises and falls over G feet, while on the shores of Jerba Island the average swell of the tide is not less than 10 feet. In the port of Sfakes, at the other extremity of the gulf, the average rise of the tide is nearly 5 feet, but at the period of the equinoxes the difference between ebb and flow is a little over 8 feet. The phenomenon of such considerable tides at this spot is accounted for by the funnel-like shape of the gulf and by the gradual slope of its bed. The liquid volume coming from the open sea collects ia the Syrtis Minor much more readily than in the almost landlocked seas, such as the Adriatic, or in more open baj's, such as the Syrtis Major. But the tides of Cabes being now thoroughly understood, are divested of their terrors, and vessels of small tonnage visit these shores without encountering any of the dangers which were formerly so greatly dreaded. Armed with sounding lines, the coasting vessels which cross the gulf sail cautiously along, the sailors standing by the anchor, ready to let go the moment the lead indicates that there is not a sufficiency of water under the keel. And even in case of ship- wreck, there is very little danger to be run, the sea for a distance of 6 miles out being so low that the crew coidd easily make to shore. The waves on this coast never attain a very great height. On the vast banks of soft mud which surroimd VOL. XI. K 122 NOETH-WEST APEICA. the Kerkcnnali Islands, the surface of the water cahns cIoT^-n, let the winds rage ever so fiuiously on the open sea ; hence in these still waters vessels can find a sure haven of refuge, even in the roughest weather. The Syrtis Minor is known to Italian sailors as the mare morto, or Dead Sea, in contrast to the deep waters of the mare tiro, or oj^en sea. The great changes which have taken place in the contour of the islands and continental coastline of Tunis have, by some travellers, been attributed to local oscillations. Like those of Tripoli, the beaches of Jerba and Kerkennah are said to have sunk and consequently diminished in extent. Grenvillc Temple endeavours to prove that within the historical period the Kuriatcin Islands still formed a portion of the coast between Monastir and Cape Dimas. On the other hand, according to Roudaire and the geologists attached to his expedition, the plateau of Cabes was produced by some internal disturbance, which at the same time upheaved the Shott-cl-Jcrid above the level of the sea, and changed its slope from facing eastwards to westwards. The coast of Tunis does imdoubtedly show in many places above the sea-level traces of ancient beaches that may still be easily recog- nised. Thus, throughout the plateau of Cabes and along all the windings of the coastline as far as Sfakes, as well as on the other side of the headlands on the Susa coast, Fuchs discovered, in 1874, a sandy beach, now lying at a uniform height of from 40 to 50 feet above the sea, although it contains organisms which are still existing in the Mediterranean. But although the existence of these elevated beaches is a sufficient p)roof that a change has taken place in the relative heights of the land and sea, it in no way shows that the subterranean impulse is still active, as many travellers believe themselves justified in stating. The silting up of the ports of Malidij'a, Carthage, Utica, and Porto-Farina is quoted as a proof of the iiphcaval of the coast, whereas, in all these instances, the change may bo accounted for by the depositing of marine sands or of allusia brought down by the rivers. Besides, we must not lose sight of the fact that a port which afforded access to the galleys of the ancients, thanks to their slight draught of about 4 feet, would now be inaccessible to an ordinary vessel, even were it not choked by sand. Nowhere along the Tunisian coast has there been found any inland building showing traces of having at any time been washed by the waves. On the other hand, several islets and reefs mentioned by the Greek, Roman, and Arab geographers still remain almost flush with the water, as in former times. The ports of Carthage, which Beule has had cleared of sand down to the sea-level, have been found precisely at the same level at which they stood some two thousand years ago. Climate of Tunis. The situation of Tunisia, at the eastern angle of the island of Maghreb, between i the two basins of the Mediterranean, and at one of the approaches to the Sahara, gives two special characteristics to the climate of this countiy. Washed bj'^ the sea on the east and south-east as well as on the north and north-west, Tunis naturally CLIMATE OF TUNIS. 123 enjoys a mucli more equable climate than Algeria. Being, moreover, destitute of lofty mountains or extensive plateaux, whilst its upland regions terminate in wide valleys well exposed to the sea breeze, the temperatm-e far inland is much milder than that of the central regions of the Maghreb. As yet no exact meteoro- logical observations have been made for the inland regions of Timis. [Neverthe- less, from the natui-e of the vegetation it is easy to determine the general charac- teristics of the chmate, and observe the contrasts that it presents with that of the conterminous regions. Thus it is that the east winds, which are hot and dry in the Algerian portion of the Sahara, carry a certain quantity of moisture into the Tunisian part of this desert, and nom-ish plants which are never found in the western solitudes. Although on the average higher than that of Algeria, the temperatui'e of Tunis is at the same time moister and less variable. Nevertheless, the northern and coastland regions are more exposed to the scorching southern winds than the Algerian Tell, and it occasionally happens that, under the fiery breath of the simoom, the thermometer rises to 113" and even to US' F. in the streets of Tunis. On the other hand, the atmospheric ciu'rents which in winter bring down the cold aii- from the Apennines, have occasionally produced weather as cold as any experienced in Southern Europe. Ferrini states that in the month of February, 1854, snow fell in Timis for the space of one whole day. The seasons in Tunis succeed each other with extreme regularity. The winter, which coincides with the rainy season, and which bears the same name of esh-sMa, iisually commences in January and lasts not quite two months. This is followed by the " green " or spring season, which is also very short, whilst the sununer lasts six months, from May to October. The autumn is ushered in by the normal return of the rams, although showers are common throughout the whole year ; on an average the Tunisians calcidate that rain falls on 90 days out of the 36o. The winds usually blow from ofE the sea, i.e. from the north-east to the north-west. The north-east current, which is the normal polar wind, usually prevails during the summer months ; whilst the north-west wind, a continuation of the beneficent " mistral," predominates for the rest of the year. These sea breezes are the most salubrious, and are those which are accompanied by rain ; but they are not so regular as the trade winds, and are often subject to sudden changes. At the period of the equinoxes, violent atmospherical disturbances often arise; towards the middle of September the Gulf of Tunis is almost always thrown into a commotion by a violent gust, which the Christians of the first centuries called "the Cvprian wind," because it generally appeared on the anniversary of the death of C}-prian, bishop of Carthage. The full fury of the winds is usually most to be dreaded around Cape Bon ; several aerial currents meet at this angle of the continent and struggle furiously for the supremacy. Hence the name of " Bon " or "good," which the Carthaginians gave this promontory, with the intention of flattering the genius of the cape, and thus secui-ing his goodwill. The Arabs often call it Eas Ghaddar, or " the Treacherous Promontory," instead of Ras Addar, or '• the Good Cape." The marine currents also meet at the base of this cape, and form as violent a distui'bance below as the winds cause above. So power- k2 124 xoETn-AM::sT afeica. ful and so lashed by the isdnds are the currents of water running from the western waters into the sea of the Sj-rtes, that vessels sailing westwards would be unable to cross it were it not for the south-east winds, which usually blow off the Syrtes towards Malta, and thus assist them to double this dreaded headland. When the Fig. 3S.— Cape Boy a>i) Zembea Islhsd. Scale 1 • 340,000. Liciifhs. OtoSO Feet. SO to IGO Feet. 100 to 320 Feet. 320 Feet .and upw;u(ls. 6 Miles. sky is imobsciu-ed by clouds, a view can occasionally be obtained from this promon- tory of the coast of Sicily, and the horizon has often been seen illiuniued by a ruddy light caused by the eruptions of JMount Etna. It is somewhat remarkable that on the coast of Tunis tempests arc rarely FLORA OP TUNIS. 125 accompanied by lightning. Thander is scarcely ever heard, except on the moun- tains, and Ferrini assures us that there is not a single instance on record of its haA-ing been met with in the plains. At Tunis and in the subui-bs it has been thought unnecessary to protect the buildings by lightning conductors. At Sfakes, however, the case is quite otherwise, and M. Guerin states that a tower in this town was several times struck by lightning in 188"2. Taken altogether, the climate of Tunis is one of the finest throughout the whole ^Mediterranean coastUnc. The niilitarv statistics between the months of August, 1883, and ilarch, 1884, show that fewer soldiers were received into the Tunisian hospitals during that period than in any of the Algerian provinces, or even than in France itself. 31. Bertholon considers that the coast of Tunis can boast of as fine a climate as Australia, but that in the ioland valleys, where the atmosphere is not renewed by the north winds, endemic fevers are justly dreaded. Floea of Trxis. Belonging to the Xlediterraucaii zone by the nature of its geological formations, rocks, and cKmatc, Tunis is also comprised in the same geographical area, thanks to its flora and fauna. Like Algeria, the Iberian coast, Lower Languedoc, and Lower Provence, Italy, and Greece, Tunis forms a part of the olive region, which Colu- mella considers to bo " the first of all trees." The investigations of botanists show that the Flora of Tunis is almost identical in its special characteristics ^^ith that of Algeria ; still, the differences in the relief of the laud and the climate have resulted in a far greater intenningliug of species in the eastern than in the western region. In Algeria the boundary lines arc clearly defined between the flora of the coast and of the uplands of the plateaux, and of the Sahara, whereas in Tunis they inter- mingle in the utmost disorder. The species common to the Sahara, following the coastline along the Gulfs of Cabes and Hammamat, finally reach the maritime dunes close to Tunis and Bizerta. Wherever sand is to be foimd, the botanist is sure to observe ten or twelve varieties which he has seen in the Saharian ergs. Conspicuous amongst these is the drin, or arthraterum puiigeiis. On the other hand, there are foimd south of the Shott-el-Jerid, in the same latitude as the southern- most oasis of the Algerian Suf, some plants belonging to the upland plateaux of Setif. Cabes seems to form the meeting-point of the most diverse floras, comprising varieties fi'om the sea-shore, from the sandhills of the desert, from the clayey beds of the weds and their alluvia, from the argQo-calcareous plain, which skirts the foot of the mountaius, and from those oases characterised by a ilediterranean and almost a European flora. Thanks to its position opposite Sicily, Timis also pos- sesses a certain number of species common to Sicily and Italy, which are nowhere found in Algeria. Cape Bon, the boundary of the eastern and western basins of the ^lediterranean, also forms a barrier between two regions whose respective floras present some points of difference in detail. The entire flora of Timis, which Desfontaines in 126 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. the last century calculated at 300 species, consists, according to M. Cosson, of 1,780 varieties, of which a few only are indigenous. From west to east, i.e. from Tunis to Marocco, the special varieties of plants gradually diminish, a fact due to the gradual lowering of the land. Amongst the oG3 species foimd at Cahes, there are only 25 which are not to be met with in the Algerian Sahara. Some of these plants are so numerous that they impart their colour to the plains, which hence are visible for a distance of several miles. Large tracts covered with bind- weed, and other pale blue flowers, aj^pcar in the distance like extensive lacustrine basins. The mountains of the Mejerda basin, and those which command the Mediter- ranean watershed between Bizerta and Calle, are still covered with vast forests. Thanks to the relative moisture of the climate, here are foimd huge oaks, amongst others the zccii (^qnerctis Mirbeclcii^, whilst the holly flourishes in the midst of the brushwood, and the wild cherry amongst the fruit-trees. If the Mejerda has plenty of water throughout the j-ear, it is due to the woods which clothe its sides. But in central Tunis, and in the vicinity of the Sj'rtcs waters, the countrj- is almost entii'ely deforested. The only trees to bo found in this region are the olive and the fig, which grow round the towns, overtopping the hedges of nopal, as iu Algeria, the plateaux having no other varieties than the wormwood and alfa grass, which is used to manufacture paper. In some spots the groimd is completely naked, and has even lost its superficial humus, the hard rock ringing with a metalHc soimd under the foot of the traveller. However, in these barren regions, at the southern base of the Bu-Hedma mountains, there lies a forest of gum-bearing acacias, which covers a space of some 18 miles long by 7 broad. This is the most northern region of Africa iu which is met one species of these gum-bearing trees, viz., the acacia sayal. But they scarcely amount iu round numbers to 40,000, the trees being so far distant from each other. Thej' are occasionally used in the preparation of food, but the gum is allowed to run waste, and serves as food to wild animals. The gum which exudes from certain varieties of mastics, as in the island of Ohio, is not emploj'ed in the manufacture of mastic or other perfumed essences. The banks of the great shotts, which are separated from the Syrtis Minor only by a narrow isthmus, are covered with the beautiful " groves," as the natives call them, of the Beled-el-Jerid, or " Country of Dates," which contain over a million palms, belonging to more than 150 varieties. The dates vary in taste iu a most astonishing manner, according to the climatic conditions. Whilst the palms at Sfakes and Jerba island are little more than ornamental trees, whose fruit is mostly given as food to the animals, those at Cabcs produce excellent dates ; the fruit yielded by the El-Hamma oasis is excellent, while that obtained in Jerid and Suf is even still better. The cause of this is doubtless due not so much to the difFerence of temi^erature, as to the different proportion of the atmospheric moisture. Amongst all the varieties of dates, a great difference in taste is noticeable according to where thej' are grown. Iu the Jerid the finest is the dcglet-nur or "luminous date," so called on account of its transparent appearance ; the Suf, however, can show dates ^\-hich are preferable to it. The inhabitants of the oases love their FAUNA OF TUNIS. 127 trees as if tlicy were domestic friends. They never " kill," i.e., cut down, a palm for the purpose of making lakbi, the caryptis of the ancients, except on very im- portant occasions, such as the birth of a child, a marriage feast, or on the arrival of a greatly respected guest. Formerly Jerba, the ancient Menins, the "Island of the Lotus-eaters," was famous for the lotus plant, which is not known with certainty to have ever since been found in this region. "NMiat was this fruit, of such an exquisite taste that when travellers had eaten of it they forgot their native land ? Does this Homeric legend refer to some mysterious product symbolical of peace and happiness ? or else does it apply to a veritable finiit which seemed so attractive to the Greek mai-iners ? The descrijDtions given by the ancient writers seem more especially to indicate a variety of the jujube-tree {zizyphm lotus), the seder or sklra, which is still fovmd in Jerba Island, as well as on the neighboiuing coast, and as far inland as the Tuareg countiy. Its berries are made into a very pleasant acidulated diink, although the fruit itself, of an insipid sweetish taste, is no longer much appreciated. Mohammed speaks of the zizyjihus lotus as an accursed shrub, which in the Saba country has taken the place of the delicious fruit-ti-ees which formerly flomished in the gardens of that region. The first Greek explorers, who related to their countrymen the wonders of the distant lands they had visited, may possibly have tasted the fine dates of Beled-el-Jerid, without having seen the tree, and hence they would have attributed this fruit to the jujube- tree; or else the taste of the fruit may have been modified, of which Egypt presents an example in the fruit of the sycamore. El-Bckri relates that tlic ajjple-trees of Jerba were unrivalled for the excellent and beautiful fruit they bore ; but its plantations were destroyed because the Christians used to take the apples without paying the islanders for them. FAtXA OF TUXIS. The fauna of Tunis, like its flora, differs from that of Algeria and Tripoli in but few varieties, being somewhat richer in animal forms than the neighboiu-ing desert lands which skirt the Syrris Major, and not quite so rich as "Western Matu'itania. A gradual increase in the number of species takes place in the direction fi-om east to west. But in Tunis, as in the conterminous regions, the fauna has been con- siderably modified by the great changes which have taken place in historical times. The desh'uction of the forests has caused certain species of animals to disappear, or else has reduced the extent of the zone inhabited by them. On the other hand, domestic animals have been imported, and also probably wild animals, such as deer, for according to the ancient writers, these animals were not to be foimd in this region before the arrival of the Carthaginians, who introduced and kept them in a half domesticated state to oifer them up as sacrifices to Baal-Hammon. At present a few deer are to be seen in the western uplands of Tunisia, notably south of Tabarka, in the Khumii- and Ushtetta hills. The bear, which is beheved to have been very common, judging from the numerous geographical terms in which its name occurs, appears to have become 128 NOETII-A\"EST AFEICA. extinct about the bcgLaning of this ccntuiy. The baboou is no longer to be met with, cxcci^t in that angle of Tunisia bordering on the southern shotts. Lions stiU exist in some of the hills on the frontier of Algeria, and more csiDceially in Khumiria, amongst the Ushtetta tribes, and in the Jebel-Bu-Ghanem. But they are not nearly so numerous as they were in the time of the Carthaginians, when they preyed upon peasants and travellers in the very outskirts of the to\\Tis, and when the roads were lined with gibbets on which these animals were crucified. According to a popular legend, the Bu-Ghanem territory still contained a few thousands of these ferocious beasts some few centuries ago, and the reigning sovereign gave the country to a certain tribe on the condition that they ate no other flesh than that of the lion. Elephants have disappeared with the forests which they devastated, but it is satisfactorily shown that they existed in this country in the early period of local history ; they were probably exterminated during the Roman sway. In Pliny'5 time elejihants were already brought in captivity " from bej-ond the solitudes of the Syrtes;" but a Spanish writer states, on mere hearsay authority, that this pachyderm was seen in Tunis as late as the latter end of the sixteenth century. More fortunate tlian the elephant, the buffalo has not been completely exterminated, a few herds still roaming round Lake Bizerta, and even in the island of Eshkel, in the middle of the lake of the same name ; but they are no longer found in any other part of the country. A few moufflons still survive in the southern hiUs of Tunis, but in no other part of the country. But, as in the rest of North-west Africa, the domestic fauna has been enriched by the acquisition of that most valuable animal, the camel. According to Tissot, this animal has for at least fifteen centuries been indispensable as a beast of burden to the inhabitants of the Barbary States and Sudan. The reader is doubtless familiar with the accounts of the ancient authors concerning the struggle which the army of Regulus had to sustain on the borders of Bagrada against a serpent more than 116 feet long. But at the present day throughout the whole of Timis there is not a snake which attains one-fifth of these proportions. The varieties of the ophidian faniilj' have also decreased in number, although there are probably still many species as yet undiscovered ; while, on the other hand, many of the reptiles which the ancient writers describe as sprung from the blood of the Gorgon, must be classed amongst the fabulous animals. One of the districts most infested by serpents is the mountain region which skirts the Tunisian Sahara ; the natives have even been compelled to quit the Jebcl Telja, north-east of the Shott-el-Gharsa, on account of the multitude of snakes, of the tagarrja family, which swarm in this place. Farther cast, towards Sfakes, the nomads of the steppes have a great dread of the zorrchj (cchis carinata), which twines itself round the branches of the tamarisk-trees growing near the springs, and thence darts down upon its prey. It is probably the same species as ihe Jaeiihts, or " winged serpent," of the Latin authors. A recent expedition, under the direc- tion of M. Doumet Adanson, has resulted in the discovery of a "hooded" snake, called huf'tira, the naja of naturalists. The scorpion, another reptile common in Tunis, is extremely dangerous, much more so than the Algerian or Marocco FAUXA OF TrXIS. 129 varieties. Its sting often proves fatal. According to the natives, a peculiar Idiid of fossUiferons sandstone placed at tlio threshold suffices to prevent scorpions from getting into the houses ; they are said never to be found in the El-Jcm amjjhi- theatre, -nhich is built -with these stones. Clouds of locusts visit the Tunisian Tell, and destroy the harvest ; those which devastated Algeria in 1845 were hatched, according to the statement of Pcllissier, near the Tunisian Jerid. Butterflies are extremely rare in Tunis ; the chief charm of our fields is denied to those of Iforthern Africa, but a few of these graceful insects are to be seen hovering over the flowery slopes of the mountains. This scarcity of lepidoptera is due to the great numbers of birds, which destroy the caterpillars. Tunis possesses a few special varieties of birds, amongst others a sparrow from the Jerid, called the bu-habibi, or "father of friendship," which flies from palm to palm uttering a shrill note like that of the canary. This elegant bird, celebrated ' in all the songs of the covmtry, is looked upon as a sort of good genius, and the natives protect it zealously against foreign sj^ortsmcn ; but all attempts to intro- duce it into the town of Tunis have hitherto failed. The salt lakes are covered with blue and pink-coloured flamingoes, which, from a distance, look like soldiers clad in bright unifonns. Above the fields wheel flocks of starlings, at times dense enough to cloud the skies. The seas which bathe the shores of Tunis swarm with fish. Around Jerba and the Kerkenna Archipelago, which even ancient writings describe as " en^•ironed by stakes," the shallow water is di'vided into irregular compartments formed of palms which rise and fall with the tide, and which enclose channels and chambers into which the fish swim at high water, but from which they are unable to extricate themselves at low water. The i-slanders are thus enabled to capture a great quantity of fish, which they cure and export to the towns on the neighbouring coast, and even to Italy. The cuttle-fish, which are obtained chiefly on a bank situated between Sfakes and the islands, are dried in the sun and nearly all exported to Greece. The Jerba and Kcrkeima islanders also fish for sponges, either in winter by means of long hooked poles which they drag over the rocks, or in summer by wading in the shallows and feeling for them with thou- feet. The shores of Capo Bon, less rich in animal Ufe than those of Kerkenua, are visited by shoals of fish migrating from one basin of the Mediterranean to the other. Enclosures erected along the shore at equal distances entrap the tunny- fish, which are the most highly prized of all these migratory fishes. The Lake of Blzerta, which, according to a legend related by El-EdrisI furnishes exactly twelve varieties of fish, one for each month in the year, is also an important fishing- groimd, chiefly for midlet, which are caught by a very ingenious device, dating pro- bably from the Punic period. From side to side of the channel is stretched a rope, along which runs a ring retaining a female mullet, who swims easily in the water ; the male fish flock roujid this enticing bait, and are thus caught in shoals with nets. Palisades of reeds and willows are erected in the middle of the c\irrent, through which the fish can easily enter, but are imable to retreat. Finally, on the western coast of Tunis, towards Capes Serrat and Xegro, the coral banks stretch from the 130 NOETII-WEST AFRICA. bay of Tabarka westwards along the Algerian coast ; although now somewhat impoverished, these banks were till recently visited by himdreds of vessels from Torre del Greco. The fishing for those shell-fish (the murex) which supplied a purple dye, has been abandoned since the time of the Romans. The enormous heaps of miircx and purpura, similar to those on the beaches of Sidon, still seen on the shores of Jcrba and Lake Biban, are a proof of the great importance of this industry to the old Phoenician colonies along the African seaboard. Inhabitants of Tunisia. Beyond the territories of Tripoli, which are mainly deserts, and offer along the coast but few ports, a narrow cultivated zone, and oases few and far between, Tunis must natm-ally have proved pre-eminently a land of promise to invaders coming either from the sea or from inland. Its fluvial basin, the first occurring in xVfrica west of the Egyptian Nile, from which it is separated by such vast wastes, its fertile plains, its lakes and gulfs teeming with fish, its ports so excellently situated both for commerce and for the military command of the Mediterranean basin, were advantages calculated to attract warlike nations, and convert this region into a battlefield for rival states. Stations covered with the scattered remains of stone implements and weapons, besides megaliths, menhirs, dolmens, cromlechs, rare in certain regions of Tunis but veiy common in others, still recall the presence of peoples having either the same origin or the same religion as the primitive inhabi- tants of Brittany and Andalusia. In the very beginning of written history, the Phoenicians had already estab- lished themselves at the very angle of the continent, whence they could command the waters of Sardinia on one side and those of Crete on the other. Then the Romans, become powerful, desired in their turn to conquer this iVfrican foreland, without which none of their Mediterranean possessions, Sicily, Sardinia, or Italy itself, would have been free from attack. Thus for more than a century the laiown world was shaken by the struggles of these two powerfid rivals, imtil the Phoenician city was levelled with the ground, and succeeded bj- a flourishing Roman settle- ment. The Vandals and the Byzantines afterwards contended for the possession of Tunis, which many successive invasions of the Arabs brought at last within the circle of the Mohammedan world. The Turks merely succeeded in giving governors to the country, and the invasions of the European Christians, under Louis IX. and Charles V., did not last long enough to produce the slightest per- ceptible change in the civilisation of Tunis. But, on the other hand, piracy, by introducing a constant stream of slaves into the country, led undoubtedly to a con- siderable modification of type amongst the urban populations. The Berbers and Arabs. The ancient Carthaginian and Roman masters of this region, both of whom ruled over it for many centuries and covered it with towns, fortresses, and menu- TKE BEEBEES AXD AE.U3S. 131 ments. Lave iuijiaited none of their physical characteristics to the people, as far at least as can now be detected ; nor have any traditions of their former supremacy survived amongst the local commimities. The most careful observers have also failed to detect any traces of Greek or Taudal influences in the outward appearance, languages, or usages of the present inhabitants of Tunisia. The only two ethnical elements represented in the country, apart from the Jews and foreigners who have recently immigrated, are the various groups rightly or wrongly known by the comprehensive term of "Berbers," and the descendants of the i^j-ab invaders. These latter, to judge by their speech, and the ascendancy which they owe to their traditions representing them as the conquerors and reformers of the countrv, apparently compose the largest part of the nation. But those peoples who in the time of the Carthaginians constituted, under various names, the very basis of the population, are in reality still by far the most numerous, however much they have become mixed with those other elements which, by a succession of crossings, have become gi-adually merged in the native type. The ancient language has not yet entirely died out, and the inhabitants of Jcrba Island still speak a Berber dialect, and even wrote it at one time. A book written in Berber is stdl said to be preserved in one of the villages of this island. The ancient Libyan characters were pi'obably employed in its composition, because the Jeraba, as the islanders are called, recog- nise the letters of their own alphabet in the copies of Libyan inscriptions' which have been shown them. The powerfid Urghamma tribe, who are found in those parts of Timis near the frontier of Tripoli, also speak a Berber dialect closely related to that employed by the Jeraba. The motmtaineers of the Jebels Dwirat and ^letmata, who belong to the same '• Kabyle " group as the Tripolitan Berbers of the Jebel Jefrcn, also speak this dialect. But it is not true, as was till recently believed, that the Drid or Derid clan in the northern portion of Timis on both banks of the Mejerda, still speak the Berber language. AM the northern and central Tunisian tribes, even those who liave jealously preserved their Berber traditions and genea- logies, have become assimilated to the Arabs in speech. Besides, these two ethnical elements have become so closely connected during the last thousand years and more, that many a tribe bearing a single collective name consists in reality of dis- tinct fractions, some of their clans being of Berber others of Arab extraction. Thus the Khumirs, who are usually considered as forming a homogeneous group, are divided iuto four secondary tribes, of which one is of pure Berber origin, whilst the three others are said to be of Arabic descent ; but all alike employ the Maugrabin dialect. Still, the traditional descent of a tribe is not a reliable guarantee for the purity of its origin, because from generation to generation the race may have been greatly modified by marriage. It is a recognised fact that, in Northern and Central Tunis, the two races have been almost merged in one by these crossing ; Arabs and Berbers have become mutually assimilated one to the other. The relatively low elevation of the uplands and the breadth of the valleys, which ramify far into the interior of the country, have facilitated this ethnical fusion, and the abinipt contrasts that are met with in Algeria and Marocco between the Kabyles and Arabs, who still dLSer in appearance and customs, are seldom seen 132 XOETn-"\\"EST AFEICA. in Tunis. The pure Berber type is to be found only amongst tlie soutbern bigb- landcrs and in Jcrba Island. Here, as in the Algerian Jurjura, it has been noticed tbat, compared to tbc Arabs, tbo natives bavc sborter and broader featui-es, tbat tbeir skull and facial outline arc less regular, the hair Ugbter, the glance more animated, the expression more frank, and tbat tbey arc altogether of a more cheerful and enterprising disposition. Although the difierence between the two races is very clearly dcfiiicd, that between their several modes of life is much more strongly marked. Both towns- men and nomads, be their origin what it may, present the strongest contrasts, and mutually treat each other as if they belonged to two different nations. According to the latest census, the population of Tunis is equally divided between the " men of the houses" and the "dwellers in the tents." In the noi'thern regions the nomad tribes, surrounded on all sides by towns, villages, and cultivated lands, have a sonic\\hat limited range, whilst in the south they possess the whole extent of the steppes as their free camping-grounds. Besides, families which are but half nomad reside in all parts of Tunis, at one time cultivating the ground in some depression, at another following their herds to the upland pasture lands. Famine, civil strife, and war often break up the friendly relations between the tribes, and the groups comj)osing them often remove to a distance of hundreds of miles from each other. Not a single generation passes without these migrations, which are analogous to those handed down to us by history and by local traditions. Thus it is that the Drids or Dcrids, who for- merly followed in the train of the " Bey of the camp " as taxgatherers, have become scattered throughout various parts of Tunis on both banks of the IMejerda ; while the northern Ulad Sidi-Abid tribe, neighbours of the Bejas, have sent an off- shoot into the Nafta oasis, near the Shott-el- Jerid. According to M. Duveyrier, the Dedmakas, or Tademakkas, one of the tribes composing the Khumir groujD, are closely related to the Kel-Tademaklcct, now incorporated with the confederation of the Tuareg AueKmmiden, on the banks of the Niger, and all the other Khumirs, even those who call themselves Arabs, came from the south and from the west some centuries ago. The Tarabelsi also, who' cidtivate the land in the suburbs of Tunis, are evidently descendants of immigrants from Tripoli, as their name seems to indicate. On the other hand, it is a common tradition in Tunis that the Maltese, those Arab islanders who have become such fervent Catholics, are closely related to the Ulad Said who roam throughout the environs of Susa. At a still recent ■i:)eriod a great many nomads lived by war and pillage, cither as soldiers of the Bey, or as professional brigands. The Urghammas, on the frontiers of Tripoli, number some thirty thousand individuals, representing an armed force of at. least four or five thousand men, and were exempted from all tribute, for the ex- cellent reason that they refused to pay it ; but they were ofEcially entrusted with the defence of the border lands against foreign marauders. Hence, imder pretence of carrying out*the Bey's instructions, they crossed into the neighbouring territories at their pleasure, killing the men and carrying off the women, children, and provisions. The Urghamma warriors, proud of their sanguinary exploits, were accustomed to 9U^^/> '"^f^- KHTJMIR MAN, WOMEN AND CHILD. THE BEEBEES AXD j\JlABS. 133 make a notcli in the stock of their guns for every enemy they had killed, and these weapons are still to be seen covered with notches from the butt-end to the very muzzle of the barrel. The Hanenshas of Kalaa-es-Senam, entrenched within their upland sti-onghold, held the Bey's soldiers in such contempt that, when advancing to collect the taxes, the troops were often received with the present of a dead dog, accompanied by derisive cheers and cries of " There is our tribute to your sove- reign." The Hamamma, who roam over the steppes in the vicinity of Gafsa, claim to be faithfid subjects of the Bey, mainly, however, because they can thus rob with the greater impimity. Every male of this tribe is taken by his father, the very day of Ms birth, placed upon a horse already caparisoned, and welcomed with the following traditional words : " Saddle and bridle, and life on Islam." That is to sav, that the child's only inheritance would be a horse and weapons, and that it would be his dutj- to earn his daily bread by plimdering his 3Iussulman brethren, inhabitants of the vast Mohammedan world. At the present time the sons of these bandits, finding it no longer profitable to gain their living by plvmder, emigrate to the cities, more especially to Bone and Tunis, where they are employed chiefly as porters. Travellers crossing the TJrghamma territory are often surprised to meet members of this tribe familiar with the French language. These are emigrants who have become rich and returned to their native land. Till recently, before the occupation of the country by the French troops had powerfully modified the internal relations, the whole of the Tunisian tribes as well as the other communities, were split up into two sof, or hostile leagues, which frequently changed sides according to the assessment of the taxes or the exactions of the cadis. One of these two great parties, that of the Ahsimiya, claimed to be that of the Bey. In Central Tunis this faction was more especially represented by the great Hamamma tribe, whilst the Beni-Zid were at the head of the Bashiyas, or the party of the independent Arabs. They claim to be the descendants of a French renegade, and on this ground they welcomed the explorer Pcllissier, giving him the title of "cousin." The Ulad-Ayars of the Kef district, the Zlas of Kairwan, the iN'efets of Bu-Hedma, the Urghammas, and the Akkaras of the Tripolitan frontier, were the allies of the Hammamas, whilst the Metalits of Sfakes the Suas of Susa, the Majors, the Frashish of the -:llgerian frontier, and the Ilazems of Cabes, were nimibered amongst those Beduins who recognise no masters. Some years ago, by a skilful stratagem, the Beni-Zid obtained possession of the Kasbah of Sfakes, and did not evacuate it tiU they liberated all the prisoners of theii- faction whom the Bey's government had imprisoned in this citadel. The Mahadebas of the coast, between Sfakes and the Syrtis Minor, are respected by all alike as a tribe of Marabuts or priests. The Bey has exempted them from all taxes, on the condition that they afford protection and hospitality to the cara- vans. The Xefzawa, who occupy the peninsula of the same name between the Shott-el-Jerid and the Shott-el-Fejej, are divided between two hostile, fac- tions. The tribes composing the independent party attempted to resist the French, but after a few desultory skirmishes they fled into Tripolitan territory. These fugitives, estimated at more than thirtv thousand, foimd it extremelv 131 NORTH- WEST AFEICA. difficult to get a living amongst the southern tribes, and the majority returned to sue for peace. The ringleaders of the insurrection belonged to the tribe of the Nefet. Amongst the town Arabs, often spoken of as Moors, like their fellow-coimtrj- Fig. 39. — Xattve Ixhabitaxts of Txtjis. Scale 1 ; 3,800,000. E .of Cr reenwich Depths. Oto 160 Feet. 160 to 320 Feet. S20 Feet and upwards. , COO Miles. men in the towns of Algeria and Marocco, the numerous ethnical elements of which they are composed have become so intimately intermingled that it is no longer possible to recognise them. Even the Jloors who were driven out of Spain, some THE BEEBEES AND AEABS. 135 in the fifteentli, others at the commencement of the seventeenth century, and to whom cultivated hind in the suburbs of the cities was assigned as special quarters, have left in but few towns and villages descendants who can bo distinguished from other Arab to-wnsmen. Some few noble families, however, have preserved their genealogies, or have even retained the keys of their mansions in Seville or Granada ; these are still spoken of as Aiidtilos or Andalos, that is to say, "Andalusians." Moreover, a few towns and villages arc mentioned where workmen of Spanish origin carry on a special industry, and where the traditions of their trade have enabled them to keep alive the memory of their origin. The skilful gardeners of Tcstur and Teburba, on the lower Mejerda, know that their fathers dwelt on the banks of the Jenil and Guadalquivir; at Nebel, on the east coast, the pottery iudustrj- is maintained by these exiles, who have retained the name of Andalusians, and who, from father to sou, have religiously transmitted the fictile vases brought from Malaga by their fugitive ancestors. At the time of Peyssonnel's voyage, a himdrcd years after their expulsion from the Iberian peninsula, they still spoke Sj^auish and dressed in the ancient Andalusian fashion. A certain portion of the " Moorish " population of Tunis is also composed of renegades of all nations, who were brought into the country as slaves at the time of the slave trade. The town peoples, and especially those called Timsi, or Ulad Tunes, i.e. " Childi'cn of Tunis," arc much L'ghter in colour than the nomad tribes ; some few are even of an olive colour, the general hue of the skin resembling that of the Spaniards and Southern Italians. The face is usually olive, the nose long, the eyebi'ows thick, the beard dark and scanty ; they are of middle height, with well- shaped figures, and graceful and dignified in all their movements. Individuals are never seen amongst them with the slight development of the calf so noticeable amongst the Semites of the Arabian peninsula as well as amongst the Hindus ; few also are met who jiresent such an obese appearance as their fellow-citizens, the Spanish Jews. The majority of the Tunisians are religious, but perfectly free from fanaticism. They are staid, dignified, and benevolent in disjsosition ; and however much they may be corrupted by a commercial career, they are, as a rule, far honestcr than their Christian and Jewish rivals. In the days when piracy and the slave trade flourished, the Timisians were noted for the kindness with which they treated their slaves. It is very probable that the " captive maidens of Timis and Bizerta," who passed their time spinning j-aru in the dwellings of the Christian pirates, were less happy by far than the Christian women who became the prisoners of the Tunsi. Except amongst the merchants, there are very few Tunisians who avail themselves of the Prophet's example to espouse more than one wife at a time. In industry, taste, aptitude for business, and finally in educa- tion and literary culture, the Tunisians are considered to be the superiors of all the other Moors, who, however, can claim the palm for better morals. Before the Turkish rule, and when the southern tribes encamped on the commercial routes had not yet become brigands, Tunis was the great market for exporting the goods of all the peojoles of the Sudan. The Negroes of the Niger and Lake Tzad con- sidered all merchandise other than that manufactured by the Tunsi as unworthy 130 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. of their notice. " Tunis invents, Algiers prepares, and Oran destroys," says an Arab proverb quoted by Theopliile Gautier, but for physical energy and love of work the proverb must be read in an inverse way. The Africans of Tripoli are the most indifferent workmen ; those of Tunis are preferable, although inferior to those of Algiers, who, in their turn, have to yield the palm to the natives of ilarocco. The Ti-eks. The Tiu-kish element, formerly represented by the Beys and Janissaries, has for some time past been on the wane in Timis, and now Turks, properly so called, are no lono'er to be seen in this country. The Osmanli, and together with them the reigning family, by intermarrying have aU become Kulugli, and are gradually beino- absorbed in the predominating race of the Ai-ab " Moors." The Malekite religion, to which they belonged, is gradually being replaced by the Hanefite ceremonies, which are practised by the bulk of the Maugrabin Mussulmans. EeUgious heresy has, nevertheless, a large number of followers in the towns of Tunis. The Beni-Mzab, who regularly emigrate to Tunis as charcoal merchants and firemen at the baths, are all Kharejites, or " Dissenters." They are also called Khamsiya or " People of the Fifth," that is to say, that they do not belong to any of the four orthodox sects. Like the Beni-Mzab and the Berbers of the Jebel Xefusa, the Jeraba are also "People of the Fifth," and practise all the rites of the Ibadhite persuasion. They wear the sheshia, the gandura made of cloth embroidered with brilliant coloured designs, look upon the cat as an imclean beast, and hold the chameleon in awe. The rites of theii' religion oblige them to take off their nether garments when they prostrate themselves to say their prayers. The orthodox religious brotherhoods are represented in Tunis more especially by the Tijaniya, the Madaniya, the Aissawa, and in many tribes live holy families composed of Shorfa, or " Sons of the Prophet." As a general rule, more fanatics are found amongst the townsmen than amongst the nomads. According to PeUissier, this is due to the kind of education which prevails in the Mussulman world, where " those who are the most learned are also the most narrow-minded." Besides, many practices anterior to the advent of Mohammedanism arc still extant in this countiy. The natives still tie strands of wool to certain trees pointed out by their traditions ; they have a great di-ead of the evil eye, and protect their dwellings from it by the marks of their five fingers, the numeral 5 — the symbol of the fish — being considered as especially favom-able. The father of a large family contents himself with the remark, "I have five childi'en," so as not to mention other numbers of less propitious or even fatal iuflueuce. In times of drought, the natives have recourse to charms and witchcraft, so as to open " the gates of the clouds." When the rain is very tardy in coining, and their young crops and harvests are in danger, the people occasionally seize hold of their kaid and plimge him into a spring, taking care to let the water trickle through his beard. " This is their fashion of celebrating rogation days," saj-s Beul^. THE JEWS. 137 The Jews. In proportion to the Mohammedan popuhition, the Jews are more numerous in the regency of Tunis than in Algeria. They are grouped together in important communities, not only in the city of Tunis, but also in the other towns of the coast and in Jerba Island. Many of these Israelites are the descendants of Jews settled in the country before the conquest by the Arabs, and it may be asked whether these families, till recently looked on with contempt, do not contain some elements of the ancient Carthaginian masters of the ^^S- 40.— TmnsiAu Jewess. country. The Jews driven out of Spain and Portugal, as well as all those who have immigrated within the last few hundred years, are generally known by the name of Grana, that is to say, natives of Leghorn — Gurna, or Leghorn, having been the principal market of the Jews expelled from the Ibe- rian peninsula. The Grana, most of whom had jDlaced themselves under the pro- tection of the Italian con- sul, or the representatives of other foreign powers, had rarely cause to complain of the Tunisians, whilst the " Old Jews" were denied all rights to appeal against any injustice or extortion they had had to submit to. A great many families were compelled to abjure their faith to avoid persecution ; but although they willingly consort with their ancient co-reKgionists, they have remained Mussulmans. There are also Jews in Tunis whose doctrines have become modified. Such are the Israelites of Jerba Island who worship saints, and show great veneration for the Mussulman marabuts. So recently as 1868, seventeen Tunisian Jews were assassinated, and no one dared to pursue the murderers, who got off with impunity. A special headdress distin- guished the Jews who had no rights from those whom no one dared to molest without the permission of the consuls. By a singular irony of fate, the majority VOL. XI. L f^i^Z' 138 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. of the Spanish Jews in Tunis, remembering that their ancestors came from the Iberian peninsub, have hdd claim to their origin so as to obtain the protection of their ancient persecutors. In the same way, before the annexation of Tunis to France, a number of refugees, who had quitted Algeria to evade submission to the hated conquerors, claimed to be Algerians, with a view to obtaining the support of the French Consul against the Bej''s Government. All the Tunisian Jews, whether of native or extraneous origin, follow the Spanish rite, reading the Pentateuch, and sapng their prayers in Hebrew ; never- theless, one of their invocations is in Arabic, and this, according to Maltzan, is pre- cisely the one most frequently uttered, and indeed the only one that the women use. This ancient prayer of the persecuted people beseeches the Lord to " let loose his wrath upon Spain, as well as on Ismael, Kedar, and Edom," thg' three latter names being figurativol}' applied to the Arabs, Mussulmans of every race, and Christians. In spite of these requests addressed to an avenging Deity, the Tunisian Jews are mild and very paciiic by nature ; nor do they apjjear to merit the reputation for greed which they share in common with all the rest of their brethren ; but they are very adroit in seizing the opportunitj' for developing new industries. They are increasing rapidlj', the number of births being far in advance of the deaths. For some time past thej- have crossed over the boimdaries of the Tunisian ham, or ghetto, to which they were restricted, and have spread throughout all the quarters of the town. In certain parts of the bazaar they have actually driven out the Arabs, gaining ground shop by shop. They are no longer distinguished bj' a special costume, many of them dressing in the European fashion, as the laws which forbade them to clothe themselves like the Mussulmans have been abolished. But they are easily distiaguished by the type of physiognomj-, by their bearing, and often by their obesity, the SjDanish Jews of Tunis having a singular tendency to become corpulent. Till quite recently, young girls M'cre subjected to a special fattening process, art stepping in to assist nature in making them " substantial members of society." These young girls are not considered "presentable" till their arms and legs have become large enough to retain the rings and bracelets which their mothers had worn. Whilst in nearly all other countries of this world the Israelitish race is distinguished by the relative purity of its morals, the Jews of Tunis contrast forcibly with the other inhabitants precisely by their gross immorality ; in fact, they may be looked upon as the chief source of all the vice of this cit}-. The Europeaxs. Like the Jews, the Europeans residing in Tunis form two distinct classes, the famiKes of the merchants settled in the country for several generations, and the immigrants of recent date, who still look upon themselves as foreigners. The class of the " Old Tunisians," which comprises a few hundred French and Italian faini- lies, till recently constituted a kind of nation within a nation, like the Levantines of Constantinople and Smyrna. Their nationality conferred privileges upon them TOPOGRAPHY OF TUNISIA. 139 of which the}' were proud. Grouped round their respective consuls, they escaped the extortions to which the natives were exposed, and this privileged position had naturally the effect of binding them to their native laud. But in spirit and morals they differ strikingly from their fellow-countrymen bej'ond the seas. Below the families of these merchant princes is a restless crowd of hangers-on, mostly im- poverished immigrants. The English consul might surround himself with a veritable army, because the Maltese are much more numerous amongst the Europeans settled in Tunis, if however the name of European can properly be applied to these Arab Catholics. The vicinity of the Maltese archipelago, which is but 20 miles from the port of Tunis, enables the poorest to seek their fortunes on the mainland, where they settle down as porters, watermen, merchants, innkeepers, and gardeners. Certain streets in Tunis are entirely occupied by ^taltese, and even on the most distant routes from the capital these island traders are to be seen tra- versing dangerous highland regions on foot, with their wives and children, and driving before them horses laden with various kinds of merchandise. The Calabrians and Sicilians also form a considerable section of the population, and to these must now be added the ever-increasing colony of the Northern Italians. Although till recently inferior in numbers to the Italians and Anglo-Maltese, the French colony was the most imjoortant, thanks to its umncrous Beni-Mzab and other Algerian allies. The annexation of Tunis to France has naturalh' resulted in a proportionate increase of French immigrants, and they are settling, not only in the capital, but also in the commercial towns along the coast. The railway which crosses the whole country from east to west, the telegraph stations scattered throughout the territory, the camps and fortresses occupying the strategical positions, and the tracts of land bought up for cultivating vines and olives, all attract to the interior a continually increasing stream of French clerks, merchants, speculators, and workmen of every description, as well as the Kabyles who call themselves Frenchmen, and who come to offer themselves as reapers and harvesters. The social and economic possession of Tunis was much more rapidly accomplished than that of Algeria. This country, after having been so long sc23arated from Europe, and by its history become connected with the Asiatic world, is evidently resuming in the western basin of the Mediterranean the position which it should hold from the nature and relief of the land, its flora, and its climate. Tol'OGR.VI'llY OF TvXISIA. EI-Bih(in, the frontier town near the Tripolitan coast, would be of some strate- gical and commercial importance were the two straits, which it overlooks at the entrance of the Bahiret-el-Bibau, or "Lake of the Gates," of sufficient depth to permit vessels of large size to enter this vast basin. As it is, there is scarcely waterway for the iishing-boats to anchor before the fort. Besides, its export and import trade, at any time but slight, has been transferred north-westwards to the har- bour of Zarzis, or Jerjis, a town consisting of five distinct villages, which are scattered amongst cornfields, palm and oHve groves. This region was at one time so fertile no NORTH- WEST APBICA. that, according to a local tradition, a canal, excavated in the plains of Zieai, or Medinet-Zian, an inland town now in ruins, carried doAvn to the port of Zarzis a stream of olive-oil which the natives collected in barrels and exported. But the plundering hordes of the Akkara and Urghamma Beduins have eifectuaUy dried up this river of oil by cutting down the olive groves. Statues, Roman inscriptions, and other valuable antiquities have recently been discovered at Zian. According to Barth, the Copts had at one time very nmnerous colonies on this part of the coast between Tripoli and Jerba Island. Westwards are the towns of Metamer and Kasr-el-Mudenin, inhabited by tribal groups of the Urghammas, built on fortified mounds in the midst of the plain. Fig. 41. — Houses at Kasb El-IIudeotn. I Before the occupation of Tunis by the French, the Kasr or Castle of El-Mudenin sustained a siege against the bey's army. In these towns may be seen the gradual transition from the cave architecture to that of houses, properly so called. Buildings are erected in such a manner as to resemble cliffs, in which oval apertures made at various heights represent the openings of caves and grottoes. The natives reach these artificial caves, some of which are five or six stories high, by means of ladders or steps roughly hewn in the face of the wall. In the neighbouring mountains, and more especially in the Metmata range, many such dwellings liollowed out in these beds of soft chalk are very similar to those of the Tripolitan troglodytes. I TOPOGEAPHY OF TUNISIA. 141 The caves, which serve as dwellings for men and enclosures for domestic animals, are hollowed out laterally at the bottom of a kind of pit open to the sky, and with vertical sides. A slightly inclined passage, defended by a closed gate, leads from below to the surface of the earth. In the surrounding plains there are also larger excavations to be seen, similar to those made by the Gauls, and which are still used in the country of the northern Gallas. They were doubtless used by the natives as places of refuge when their country was overrim by hostile tribes. Sepulchral monimients in the shape of truncated pyramids have also been found in this region of Tunis : they are encircled by an enclosure of stakes, menhirs, or other megaliths. Jerba Island, some 160,000 acres in extent, is the most populous part of Tunis; proportionately speaking, it was nearly as densely peopled as France, until, a few years ago, many families were swept away by the cholera. Its forty thousand inhabitants look u^jon their island as a kind of large town, and all its numerous groups of houses, protected by forts of Spanish construction, are termed humts, or "quarters." ^lost of the Jerabas dwell in little hamlets, or else in isolated cottages standing in their separate enclosures. The whole island is under cultiva- tion, and although all the water for irrigating purposes comes from wells and cisterns, it is extremely productive, thanks to the ceaseless labours of the patient Beduins who till the land. Jerba Island of all other Tunisian regions possesses the finest olive-trees, the oQ from which is greatly preferred to that of the main- land. The other fruits obtained from the orchards — apricots, pomegranates, figs, and almonds — are also excellent ; while the vine, cultivated mainly by the Jews, }*ields a golden wine which is compared with those of Sanios and Santorin. Clumps of palm-trees, dispersed in the midst of the gardens, are protected by law and }*ield dates which, although better than those of Kerkenna, are far inferior to those of Beled-el-Jerid. These trees are often used for the manufacture of pakn-wine, which is obtained by means of incisions made at the base of the trunk. The agriculture to which the Jerabas pay such great attention is, however, insufficient to give employment to all the inhabitants. The seaside communities are engaged in the capture of fish, octopuses, and sponges, while the potters manu- facture a peculiar vessel, which acquires its white tint by being immersed in the sea. Numbers of weavers, each working in his own ' hut, manufacture those coverlets and materials of silk, wool, and cotton which are so greatly admired in the bazaar of Tunis, and which are exported to considerable distances, even as far as the markets of Bornu. The Jeraba men emigrate in crowds to the large towns of Timis and Tripoli, and, like their co-religionists, the Beni-Mzab, they are found everywhere, even in the remote inland markets of the continent, as well as in Constantinojjle and Egypt. Nevertheless, the Maltese are beginning to compete with them in Jerba itself. In 1860, as manj- as three hundred had ali-eady settled in the principal town of Jerba. The ancient capital, which like the entire island bore the name of Meninr, was situated on the shore of the eastern strait, at the head of the bridge which connected the island with the mainland. The still remaining ramparts of this great city are 3 miles in circimiference. In all parts of the island, which in the time of 142 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. tlic Romans was a healtli-rcsort for the rich merchants of Byzncoup, arc found 6 I "f , J»?.^i^^i''-^t li^'#''^ other ruins of towns and villas, but no traces of anj- buildings remarkable for their architecture. On the site of Meninx all that is now to be s?eu is one of TOPOGEArHY OF TUNISIA. 143 those half-ruined horj\ or old strongholds, which are dotted round the whole island. The only humt on the southern shore which merits the name of town, is the Humt Ajiin, standing close to the western strait, which is practicable to ships. The present capital of Jerba stands on the northern side, in a position very tmfavourable to trade, for large vessels are obliged to anchor some miles from the shore. This town, or rather this collection of scattered houses, is merelv known by the name of the " market ; " it is, in fact, the Humt Suk, or Suk-el-Kchir, the rendezvous of all the Jeraba merchants. The Jews, who are very numerous, and are the only persons grouped together in a compact community, inhabit dirty, imsavoury, and dUajiidated houses. They claim to have arrived in the island at the time of the Babylonian capti-\-ity. In the centre of the Catholic cemetery, a column perpetuates the memorv of the ancient BorJ Miiis, or " Castle of the Heads," a pyramid of bones which the Turks erected in 1560, by heaping up the skulls of the vanquished Spaniards. About the year I80O, the Tunisian Government caused this ghastly monument to be demolished, as a mark of international courtesy. On the side of the Syrtis Minor facing the continent, the largest group of houses is that to which the name of Cabes has been given. It is not a town, but a collection of villages and hamlets scattered in the midst of the palm-trees. Viewed from the sea, the oasis looks like an island of verdure through which glare the white walls of the buildings here and there ; a streamlet, whose upper bed is occasionally diy and nearly always blocked by sands at low tide, winds between the villages, ramifying in all directions like canals of irrigation. Xear the mouth of the wed stands the BorJ Jet/id, or " New Castle," siuTOimded by the wooden huts of a village of " Mercanti," to which the soldiers have given the name of " CoquinvQle." Many a great city has, nevertheless, sprung from a much humbler beginning than this. Farther up, both banks are covered by the houses of Jara, the principal town of the oasis. By the very course of the irrigating trenches, disposed in broken lines, like the ramparts of a citadel, it is at once evident that this was formerly the site of a fortified city. It was doubtless the citadel of the ancient Carthaginian town of Ta-Capa, which was successively occupied bj^ the Eomaus, Byzantines and Arabs, and whose name may still be traced in its present form of Cahcs, Gabes, or Gahs. The ruins of Roman buildings have been employed in constructing the tillages of Jara and Menzcl, the latter situated over half a mile farther south, on the right bank of the wed, in the central jDart of the oasis, where the market is held. Still farther west are many other villages dispersed amongst the palm groves. Altogether the various villages of the oasis have a collective population of about ten thousand souls, amongst whom are included a few himdred Jews. The small European colony has been recently increased by a French garrison, Cabes having been selected as the capital of a military circle ; a Franco-Ai-ab school has also been opened here. Before the arri\-al of the French, feuds were of constant 144 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. occurrence between Jara and Menzel : hence, as has been jocularly remarked, the name of Arad, or "Discord," which has been given to the pro^^nce. Thanks to their orchards and fields, the jjeojjle of Cabes may be looked upon as the most highly favoured of all other Tunisian communities. The land, rendered fruitful bj' the irrigating works, is divided into countless plots, separated from each other by hedges of cactus, earth walls, and thickset palms. Fig, almond, orange, and other fruit-trees grow in \^•ild profusion beneath the fan-Kke leaves of the palms swaying in the breeze above them ; the vine twines its slender tendrils around the branches of the trees, and barley ripens in the shade of the overhanging foliage. But neither the banana nor the sugar-cane, which composed the wealth of Cabes in the eleventh century, are any longer cultivated, and of its ancient forests of mulberry- trees but a few specimens now remain. The fertility of the surround- ing lands has made Cabes the most important port of call along this portion of the coast ; it also exj)orts the alfa grass coming from Central Tunis, and it is, moreover, of considerable strategical importance. Situated at the eastern extremity of the depression which, through the Shott-el-Jerid, penetrates far inland, Cabes enables caravans and expeditions, by journeying from oasis to oasis, to skirt the southern foot of the mountains and plateaux of Tunis and Algeria. During the Algerian insurrections, it was through this town that weapons and supplies were obtained. A large smuggling trade thus sprang up along this route, which threatened to become extremely dangerous to the security of French power on the Saharian frontier. By taking possession of Cabes, the French have thus secured one of the gates of Algeria. But Cabes has, unfortunately, no port. The ancient creek of Tacapa, which, however, was only available to small vessels, has been choked up by the sands, and depths sufficient for vessels of heavy tonnage must be sought at some distance from the shore. The creation of an arti- ficial port by means of jetties and dredgings has recently been proposed ; its I^robable site has already been selected, near the mouth of the Wed Melah, or " Salt River," which receives the waters of the mineral springs of Ain Udi'cf. An artesian well recently sunk near the Wed Melah, about half a mile from the Mediterranean, is over 400 feet deep, and supplies an abundant stream of water, which rises 13 feet above the ground. This projected harbour is to be completed by a railway which will be connected with the Algerian system through Gafsa, Tebessa, and Suk-Ahras. Bona and Cabes would thus become two corresponding ports, the traffic between which would be directly conducted overland, and the merchants would be no longer compelled to skirt the Tunisian promontories to the north. ^Tien Cabes is able to receive vessels of heavy tonnage, no otlier town of all the French possessions will present greater advantages as a terminus on the coast for a railway crossing the Sahara to Lake Tsad. From the same place will also start the longitudinal line rimning from sea to sea south of the island of Maghreb. The new town already enjoys a considerable trade, exporting alfa, dates, and henna by a regular service of steamboats. West of Cabes, and near the southern shore of the Shott-el-Fejej, several TOPOGEAPHY OF TUNISIA. 146 villages, scattered in the midst of plantations like those of Cabes, constitute a centre of population known collectively as El-Hamma, or the " Hot Springs." These spriugs are the Aquae Tacapitanse of the ancients. The four hot springs, which have given theii- name to the oasis, have a temperature of from 93° to 113° F., and are still used by the natives, who have re-erected an establishment on the site of the ancient hot baths. Beyond the El-Hamma oasis, which is environed by sands and steppes overrun by the Beni-Zid Berbers, the traveller must pursue his way between the escarp- ments of the Jebel Tebaga and the shores of the great sebkha before reaching the pahn groves of Nefzawa, about 36 miles distant. These palm groves, some forty in number, standing in the midst of the sands or encircled by rocks, occupj' the lower portions of the triangular peninsula which stretches north-westwards between the Shott-el-Fejej and the Shott-el-Jerid. The most numerous follow in succession along the shore of the great shott on the southern slope of the chain of hills and dunes. In many j^laces they form a continuous forest of palms, very picturesque in appearance but very dangerous to Live in, on account of the miasmas arising from the suiTounding lagoons. In Nefzawa it is by no means rare to see ten or twelve date-trees springing obliquely from the same root, in such a way as to form a vast framework of verdui-e encircled by gracefid clusters of pendent fruit. Most of the villages are enclosed by walls and ditches, which would be sufficient to protect them from the attacks of the Beduins, but not against those of an organised force. KehiUi, near the north-east extremity of the Shott-el-Jerid, is the principal village of Nefzawa, and in a neighbouring hamlet, to the west, are to be seen some inscriptions which afford grounds for believing that, in the time of Hadrian, the chief Roman station stood on this spot. The settled pojDulation of the Nefzawa oasis, now assimilated to the Arabs in religion and speech, belong to two jDrimitive races merged in a common nationality of half-breeds. One of these elements was a tribe of Negro agriculturists, the other the Nefzawa Berbers, a branch of the great Luata tribe, originally from Marmaridis. Around these inhabitants of the oasis are the encampments of the Arab tribes, most of whom are of a peaceful disposition. Amongst them are the Merazigs, who feed their flocks to the south of Nefzawa and frequent the market of Duz ; they occasionally push on their trading expeditions as far as Ghadames. Farther south, in the few oases and around the wells skirting the southern part of the Shott-el-Jerid, is the powerful Ghorib tribe, which is allied to the Algerian peoples of the Wed Suf, from whom it is separated bj' the region of sandhills. A much smaller tribe, but still very dangerous on account of their plundering habits, is that of the Ulad Yakub, or "Sons of Jacob," who are not to be confused with another of the same name, encamped in the mountains south of the Mejerda. These Ulad Yakub of the desert wander to the south-east oi' Nefzawa over upland steppes, whence they com- mand the routes between Tunis and Ghadames. These are the nomads who have stopped the direct caravan trade between Tunis and Nigritia. Like the Tuaregs, the peoj)le of the oases, both nomad and settled, wear the Ufzam, or veil, which 140 XORTII-WEST AFEICA. conceals the face from below the root of the nose. In the Nefzawa district M. Teisserenc de Bort has found numerous polished stone implements. "West of Nefzawa, on the other side of the Sebkha-el-Faraun, rise the hills of the narrow isthmus which is knoAvn Ly the special name of Belad-el-Jerid, " Country of Palms," or merely as Jerid, i.e. " The Palm Grove," a designation often extended to the whole region of the southern oases. The Jerid is, in fact, pre-eminently the date country. Surrounded as it is by shotts and sands, and l^rotected from the north wind by the mountains which rise to the north-east, the Jerid undoubtedly possesses that " fierj- air " which is so essential to the life of the pahu. ThaiJvs to its abimdant springs, it can supply these trees with all the moisture they rc(j[uire ; while the water, sHghtly warmer in temperature than the atmosphere, Tig. 43.— PE^^^•s^^LA of Xefzawa. Scale 1 : 600,000. 54 SA o it el- Bazina Ti^^^'.l 34- 8'50' L . or Ureenwicr, g^io — Track. 12 Miles. forms vciiitable thermal rivers which stimulate the growth of the trees. The oases of the Jerid are, as M. Duvcyrier expresses it, " natural hothouses," in which tropical plants such as flourish in the West Indies and the Sunda islands might be cultivated ; but the natives are content with their exquisite dates— the best of which were formerly reserved for the bey's own table— their no less highly appreciated oranges, fruits of all kinds, vegetables and cereals. Their existence would be one of perfect ease and comfort were they not weighed down by the heavy taxes. The Jerid has nearly a million palm-trees in a superficial area not exceeding 5,000 acres ; 20,000 camels visit this oasis annually, and depart laden with fruit. The women also employ themselves in weaving and making burnous, haiks, and coverlets, which are greatly sought after throughout the whole of West Africa. But the inhabitants of Jerid no longer enjoy the profitable direct trade which they TOPOGEAPHY OF TUNISIA. 147 carried on with the seaports and with the towns of the Sahara during meiiceval times, when they were the purveyors of slaves for the Barbary States. Agents and brokers who have settled in the country, more especially the Jews and the Mzabites, now export the products of the oases far and wide. The Naffa oasis has been named ilarsat-es-Sahara, or the " Port of the Desert," and the place is still shown whence the vessels are said to have set sail, and where the remains of a ship are even stated to have been found. Throughout the whole of the " Palm Country," the Arab towns have been pre- ceded by those of the Eoman period, the remains of which are still to be seen in many places, although the greater part of the materials have been utilised in buUding convents, mosques, and defensive works. In the oasis of Tozer, the distri- bution of the water is still regulated by Roman dykes. As in most of the other Fig. 44.— J'eeid. Scale 1 : 600,000. — Track. 12 lliles. oases, the towns are not compactly built, but consist of quarters scattered amid the surrounding plantations. The western oasis of Nafta, which enjoj's a sort of religious pre-eminence, a certain number of its inhabitants being " Sons of the Prophet," comprises nine distinct villages and four convents. Tozer, the largest and most populous of all the oases, is divided into nine quarters, and serves as the political capital of the Jerid ; El-Udian, the eastern group of oases, consists of many villages, amongst others, Dgash, Kriz, and Seddada, which are some distance from each other ; lastly, an oasis called El-Hamma, or the " Baths," like that in the vicinity of Cabes, comprises four groups of cottages, sheltered by the pabns. The copious hot spring (96-8^ F.), fi-om which it has received its name, falls into a basin of Eoman construction ; it is slightly sulphm-eous, and the natives endow it with astonishing virtues, due to the merits of a saint buried in a neighbouring tomb. A rock, standing north of Kriz in the El-Udian oasis, is pierced with ancient 148 NORTH-WEST .iFEICA. quarries, and with a cavern called the grotto of the " Seven Sleepers." From the summit of this hill, commanding the narrowest isthmus between the Shott-el- Jerid and the Shott Garsa, an admirable view can be obtained of the chain of oases and of the two vast basins of lacustrine origin, which stretch away to the east and west beyond the horizon. In the north rise the mountains whence the Hamamma spies signaled the approach of caravans or of solitary travellers to the marauders lying in ambush by the roadside. Not far from Kriz, on the north margin of the Shott- el- Jerid, there is to be seen a round figure surmounted by a crescent, carved on the face of a rock. According to Tissot this device, representing the moon, is a remnant of the old Libyan religion. In some resjiects the inhabitants of the Jerid differ in their manners and customs from the siuTOunding tribes, who accuse them of eating the flesh of the dog. In the valley of the wed which, under the name of Tarfawi, or " Eiver of the Tamarisks," ultimately runs dry in the sands at the eastern extremity of the Shott Garsa, follow in succession a few oases, between which intervene wild solitudes. Towards the source of the wed, here called Bu-Haya, occurs the first oasis, that of Feriana, whose two distinct hamlets constitute a zawya or religious establishment for the nomads in the vicinity, who belong to the Ulad Sidi-Abid tribe, and who form a kind of brotherhood. The wretched buildings of Feriana are a poor substitute for the monuments of the Roman city, probably Thelepte, which formerly stood in the vicinity. The ruins explored by M. Guerin occupy a space of at least three miles in circimiference, and nearly all the blocks of stone used in erecting the public buildings, baths, theatres, and even private hoiises, are of enormous size. The mountain whence this stone was obtained has been quarried to a vast depth ; entire strata have disappeared, and the summit is now crowned by an ancient castle. Besides the ruins of Medinet-el-Kadiniah, or the " Old Citj-," numerous Eoman remains, especially tombs, are also found on both banks of the wed, now almost uninhabited. South of Feriana is a rock which has been blackened as if by fire, whence its name of Hajar Soda, or " Black Rock." Another rock of similar appearance has been discovered near the El-Hamma oasis by M. Guerin, who supposes that these " Black Rocks " are aerolites. The Gafsa oasis, occasionally looked upon as belonging to the Jerid, although it is separated from the isthmus of Kriz bj^ a waterless desert zone of a day's march in extent, is situated on the princijjal bend of the Wed Beyash, which is a continuation of the upper course of the Bu-Haj^a and becomes the Tarfawi farther down. The town, which of all those in southern Tunis has the largest number of inhabitants li\Tng in a compact group of houses, stands on a terrace surrounded by a circle of rocks and mountains a few miles distant. One of these mountains is pierced by deep quarries, which branch off into labyrinthine j)assages. Founded by Melkart, or the Libyan Hercules, the Kafas, or "Walled Town" of the Phoenicians, and the Roman Capsa, whose name has hardlj' changed during the course of centuries, is, according to Mannert, sjTionjinous with the city of HecatompylaD, where Hanno gained his famous victory during the second Pimic war. The strategical importance of an oasis situated on the extreme verge of ill l„ I llllllll III 1 1 II II I ' Vi I lllll lllll I l' I I ,1,. 'nil I I f'li 1,1 ,1 I SFAKES. 149 the cultivable region, at tbe outlet of the moim tains, between the sandy plain of Aamra and tbe approacbes to tbe desert, was never at any time lost sight of ; it forms the converging point of two zones, differing from each other both in appear- ance and populations. A kasbab, defended by guns, protects this frontier town against tbe incursions of tbe Hamamma tribe ; but tbe Timisian soldiers are now replaced by those of France, and Gafsa has become the capital of a military subdivision. Tbe i)eople of this town are well educated and, as in the Jerid, speak a much purer language than that employed on tbe coast. Columns, inscriptions, and ramparts recall the ancient Roman Capsa, and many a modern structure contains blocks of stone obtained from these ruins. South of the town stretches a planta- tion of over a hundred thousand palms, whose dense foliage overshadows an undergrowth of fruit-trees. These palms are loftier than those of Nafta, and yield a no less exquisite fruit. The water which nourishes the plantation yields a constant and copious supply, so that the people of the oasis have no need to fight for the possession of this precious stream. The three principal springs, ranging in temperature from 84° to 89° F., fall into basins of Eoman construction, still known by the name of termil, and frequented by the Arabs, who bathe in its tepid waters, utilising the chambers excavated in tbe surrounding walls. These thermal waters contain a large quantity of fish of the chromis species, which by their characteristics are apparently related to exclusively marine varieties. Tortoises and black serpents, of the newly discovered tropidonotus family, are also found in the basins and streamlets of Gafsa. Like the other oases of southern Tunis, Gafsa is a busy centre of the weaving industry, and its linen and silken baiks, which are exported by the local Jewish traders, are justly admired in tbe Tunis market. The flocks of the Hamamma tribe supply the people with the raw matei'ial from which they manufacture rugs and burnous. A Roman road, rediscovered by Messrs. Rebatel and Tirant, connects Gafsa with tbe shores of tbe Syrtis Minor, traversing tbe fountains and tbe small oasis of El-Gwettar, the country of gum-trees, and the mineral springs of Bu-Hedma. Along the coast north of Cabes, follow in succession at long intervals camping- grounds and hamlets, in the territory of the Mehadebas, who are tbe " peaceful descendants of a venerated marabut." The most important village on the coast is the now neglected little jjort of Mahrez, whose inhabitants, scarcely a thousand in number, are mostly engaged in making esparto grass into mats and brooms. Beyond this j)oint stands tbe village of Boyniva, in the midst of the ruins of tbe Punico-Roman city of Gicthis. Sfakes. Tbe second largest town of Tunis is Sfakes {Sfaks, Sfai), situated on the margin of the strait, about 30 miles broad, which separates the Kerkenna Archipelago from the mainland. Its population, which Pellissier calculated at eight thousand souls in 1848, appears to have more than tripled since that time. The people are crowded together in the lofty houses which skirt tbe narrow streets of the city. 150 XOETH-WE>T AFEICA. and overflow into the new quarter which has been built along the beach outside the south-western ramparts. Yiewed from afar, all that is visible of Sfakes are the white walls of its quadrangular enclosure and the tall minarets of its mosques. The towers, battlements, and angular bastions give the whole more of a mediaeval aspect than is presented by anj' of the other fortified Tunisian towns. At the southern angle of the ramparts stands a citadel said to have been built by Christian sla^•cs. Situated as it is, at a considerable elevation on a sloping ground, Sfakes has no permanent streams, nor even springs or wells, and all the water used in the to-mi is drawn from niunerous cisterns within and without the fortifications. A few Roman remains are to be seen in the suburbs, but no inscription has yet been found which enables this town to be identified with any of the Roman stations mentioned by classical writers, although it most probably stands on the site of the ancient T(q)h)'ura. Some 12 miles to the south-west, on the shores of the gulf, is the ruined town of Thine, e-\-identl}* identical with the Tliinw of the Romans. This place stood at the extreme point of the ditch which Scipio the younger had excavated in the soiith of the Roman territory, in order to separate it from the countr}- of the Numidians. Some two or three thousand Jews and EuroiDeaus (]\raltese, Italians, and French), dwell ia Sfakes, nearly all in Rahat, or the lower town, where the trading interests are chieflj- concentrated ; a recently planted boulevard now connects this quarter with the camp situated north of the town. The Mussulmans live in the upper town, within the ramparts. The " Sfaksika," or people of Sfakes, differ in some respects from theu" Tunisian co-reUgionists, with whom they arc unwilling to be identified. Hence they may be at once recognised \>\ a special costume, although the chief difference lies ia their mental characteristics. They are more enterpris- iug, fonder of work, much more intelligent, and altogether more active and solid than their neighbours. They are said to be zealous Mussulmans, the verj' children frequenting the mosques, and the women never, as elsewhere, neglecting their prayers. At the time of the occupation of Timis by the French troops in 1881, the Sfaksikas also gave proof of their patriotic spirit : almost single-handed they resisted the invasion, and fought desperately during the bombardment, which they might have easily avoided. Many of the institutions of Sfakes show the extent of the public spirit of the people ; not only have they founded mosques and convents, but also a hospital, which is well supported. Outside the walls a central reservoir, called the " Help," is due to the munificence of one citizen. The " 365 " secondary cisterns which surround it, disposed like the ciypts of a necropolis, also bear witness to the brotherly feeling by which the rich are animated towards their poorer Mussubnan brethren. Other vast reservoirs have been constructed in the suburbs of the town, and some houses are provided with an apparatus which enables the wayfarer to quench his thirst by drawing through an open pipe the water of a hidden cistern. A project is now in hand to construct an aqueduct some 36 miles long, which is intended to supply the town with water from the Bu-IIedma heights. The people of Sfakes show their love of work by their SF.IKES. 131 agricultural labours, ■\vliicli, beyond a zone of sand surrounding the town like a circular road, have brought under cultivation an extent of land varj-ing in breadth from 4 to 12 miles. Some years ago over 1,000,000 olive trees wei'e planted round the tOTvn, and in 1874 the total yield of oil in the Sfakes district was estimated at upwards of 5,500,000 gallons. In the outskirts there are said to be from eight to ten thousand enclosures, all separated from each other by cactus hedges, above which rise fruit-trees and a borj, or square tower, in which the proprietor keeps his implements, and which is strong enough to resist the attacks of marauders. The plain, bristling with thousands of these little forts, resembles the cidtivated districts in North Persia, which arc kept in a state of defence against the raids of the Turcomans. In summer nearly all these landowners dwell in their respective enclosures, leaving the town almost deserted. Sfakes lies on the natural boundary between the oUve and palm regions. These two trees are not found here in such great nimibers as they are in the north and south respcctivch'. But there are all the more fruit-trees of other varieties, such as the almond, fig, apricot, peach, pistachio nut, and vine ; however, for some j^ears past the culture of the olive, more profitable than all the others, has been on the increase. The zone of the olive plantations is yearly extended by several hundred yards, and if the same rate of progress continues, the Sfaksika will soon absorb in their gardens all the isolated clumps of olives which, having no recog- nised masters, are known as the " Bey's trees." Their plantations will then reach as far as El-Jem. Owing to the freqvient rains, the fruit of the palms seldom ripens thoroughly, hence is mostly used as food for the animals. The vegetable most generally cultivated in the gardens of Sfakes is the fakus, or cucumber, a word from which the name of the town is supposed to be derived. According to Shaw, Sfakes is equivalent to the " City of Cucimibers." Besides agriculture, the Sfaksika are also very activeh' engaged in industrial and commercial pursuits. Thcj' do not despise anj' description of work, like the Mussulmans of so many other cities. The market of Sfakes is as well supplied with provisions as that of Tunis itself. The chief imports are wool, leather, and European merchandise, taken in exchange for oil, fruits of all kinds — grapes, figs, and ahnonds — sponges and dried fish, obtained from, the Kerkenna fishermen. Of late years English vessels also visit this port to take in cargoes of alfa grass, ■(vhich is gathered in the western plains and vallej-s inhabited by the peaceful ^Metalit and Nefet Arab tribes. Unfortunatcl}-, Sfakes has no port in which to receive vessels of any size. Hence ships of large draught are compelled to anchor at a distance of nearly 2 miles from the shore. Smaller craft are able to approach close to the town with the rising tide, which at ebb leaves them high and dry on the mud. The harbour, however, is perfectly safe, being well protected from the east winds by shallows and the Kerkenna Archipelago. This group has no centres of population bej^ond a few villages and hamlets inhabited by fishermen. Hannibal and Marius found a temporary refuge in these islands, which were used as places of exile under the Roman Grovernmcnt, and 152 NOETH-'S\'EST AFRICA. until recently by that of the Bey. For some time past the natives of Kerkenna have cultivated the vine, and freely drink of its fruit, notwithstanding the jjrecepts of the Koran. "While the coastland route runs north-eastwards, skirting the Has Kapudiah, the most easterly promontory of Tunis, the route from Sfakes to Susa — that is, the ancient Roman road — pursues a northerly direction across the territory of the MetaHt tribe. Towards the middle of this route stood the two important towns of Bararus and Thysdnis, which have now become the hen>shir or "farm" of Ruga, and the wretched village of El- Jem. The ruins of Bararus cover a space of about 3 miles in circumference, and comprise the remains of a theatre, a triumphal arch, and other edifices, whilst Thysdrus still possesses one of the finest monuments in the whole of Africa, the best-preserved amphitheatre which has been left us by the ancient world, not even excepting that of Pompeii itself. AVhen this region of Tunis, at j)resent almost uninhabited, supported a numerous population, the central position of Thysdi-us rendered it one of the best sites for celebrating public feasts and games. From all parts visitors flocked to its great amphitheatre, which is supposed to have been, if not built, at least founded by Gordian the elder, in return for having been proclaimed emperor in the city of Thysdrus. The amjihi- theatre was also the spot where the chiefs and delegates of the southern Tunisian tribes met in 1881 and decided on a general rising against the French. Visible for a distance of 6 miles from all points of the compass, this vast pile towers above a broad isolated emiaence itself rising 615 feet above the surrounding plaia. Looking at a distance like a mountain of stone, on a nearer approach it dis- appears behind the thickets of tail Barbary fig-trees, between which the path winds. According to the measurements of M. Pascal Coste, the Coliseum of Thysdrus, one of the vastest of the Roman world, has a total length of 500 feet in its longer axis, and 430 feet in its shorter axis, which is disposed nearly due north and south. It was probably modelled after the Flavian amphitheatre in Rome. The elliptical facjade, formerlj" composed of sixty-eight arcades, supported three stories ornamented with Corinthian columns, and presents in its general design a great unity of style. But it is no longer complete. In 1710, after an Ai-ab insurrection, Mohammed, Bey of Tunis, blew up five arcades on the east side, and since then the breach has been incessantly widened by the MetaHt tribe of El-Jem, who use the materials of the amphitheatre in the construction of their wretched dwellings, besides seUing them to the builders of the surrounding district. Inside, the rows of seats have mostly disappeared, and their remains have fallen in confused heaps on the arena. This havoc has been attributed to the transfonnation to which it was subjected by the famous Kahiiia, ov " Priestess, " who converted it into a stronghold against the Arab invaders in the year 689. The traditions of the neighbouring tribes, which commemorate the glories of the Priestess, although she was hostile to the Arabs, relate that this heroine, probably a Jewess, like so many other Berbers of that period, placed herself at the head of her fellow-coimtrj-men and of their Greek allies. Forced to shut herself up in the amphitheatre, which from her took the name of Kasr-el-Kahina, she here sustained a siege of three 8FAKES-VIEW TAKEN IN THE LEONEC STREET. SFAKF>! 153 years. A subterranean passage by which the arena was flooded for the naval engagements of the Roman games is pointed out by the Arabs as the remains of a secret gallery by which the garrison communicated with the coast and received its supi^Hes. The town itself has left but few ruins, but escarations have brought to light columns of vast size, and deep cisterns. According to M. Eouire, the nomads of this region are gradually displacing the settled populations. Every village deserted by its inhabitants is immediately seized by the native Eeduins, who make it their chief market and remove thither the shrines of their saints. According to the MetaHt people, the sandstone employed in the construction of Fig. 45. — The AvpHmrRATEE of El-Jem. vhtwhd PEOit the Rueoh) Side. the amphitheatre was obtained from the quarries of Bn-Rcjid, situated on the sea- shore, not far south of Muhdiya (^Jla/idici, Jilrliedia'), the " City of the Mahdi," so called after its founder or restorer, Obeid Allah, in the year 912. Mahdiya soon became an important place, thanks to its strong military position. The Christian seafarers for a long time called it Afi-ika, regarding it as pre-eminently the stronghold of the continent. Hence it was subjected to frequent attacks. In 1147 the Xorman, Eoger of Sicily, obtained possession of it, but it was retaken by the Slohammedans thirteen years later. In loo7 Charles Y. captured the place after several sanguinary assaults, and caused the ramparts to be dismantled. From that time forward the walls have never been repau-ed and the breaches have VOL, XI. JI 151 XOETII-WEST AFRICA. grov.n wider. The fort, -wliich defeuded tlic narrow isthmus connecting the peninsula with the mainland, is now a mere ruin. The two inlets are said to have been formerly united by a canal. The ancient port, excavated by human hands, like those of Utica and Carthage, is now choked with rubbish, and the vessels which come to take in cargoes of oil, fruits, and sponges are obliged to anchor in the roadstead. A foreign colony, composed, as in all the other coastland towns, of Maltese, Italians, and Frenchmen, has been established at Mahdiya, and is engaged in the export trade and the sardine fishery. Over two hundred boats are now occasionally crowded in the harbour. From May to July the sea on this coast teems with fish to such an extent that each boat takes on an average from two to three hundred kilogrammes of sardines in a single night. In order to fish in the day, the native sailors spread mats of alfa grass on the water, beneath the shadow of which the fish flock in shoals. The fishermen then cautiously approach and cast their nets round the space covered by the mats and the fish concealed beneath them. To the south-west, in a well-cultivated district, some distance from the sea, stands llie village of ICur-cs-Si'/, which is a larger place than Mahdiya. At tliis port is shipped nearly all the produce exported by the merchants of the ancient " Afrika." A few miles west of Mahdij-a, covering a space of several square miles, stands an ancient necropolis, whose tombs, hollowed out of the rock, have been comj^ared by M. Renan to those of Arad in Syria ; nor can there be any doubt that aPhcc- nician town once stood on this spot. The surroimding region is one of those in which ruined cities arc found crowded in the closest proximitj- together. Some twu miles to the south the HcnsJiir Selclda occupies the site of Si/Ilccfam, and farther on, near the Eas Kapudiah, the Caput Vada of the Romans, a borj now stands where was formerly the Bj'zantine city of JtidinianopoUs. To the north, on the promontory of Ras Dinias, where there is a port protected by the remains of a jetty, ancient stone ramparts, cisterns, and the elliptical wall of an amphitheatre, whose arena is now cultivated, indicate, near BohuUa, the site of the Carthaginian citj' of T/iapsiis, celebrated for the victory which Caesar here gained over Scipio and King Juba. Beyond this point, on that part of the coast which faces the Km-iatein Islands, the villages of Tcbuiha and Molaiin, surrounded by secular olive-trees, also occupj- the sites of ancient cities. The coastland route then passes on to Lcmta, a village which has succeeded to Leptk Minor, or " Little Leptis," so called in contra- distinction to the " Great Leptis" of Tripoli. Still, Leptis Minor was once a con- siderable city : its ruins stretch along the sea-shore for nearly three miles, and here are still to bo seen remains of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, quays, and jetties. The ancient port is now a mere wed, known as the "Wed-es-Sak, or " Yallej' of the Market." The most populous town of this district at present is Jemal, built farther inland, to the south-west of Lemta. Monadir, or Mistlr, by its name recalls, perhaps, what ^^•as once a Christian monastery ; but it luul also been a Carthaginian and Roman town, probably Rmpina, i.e. " the Head of the Promontory." Like Sfakes, it is surrounded by an SFAKES. 155 embattled -wall flanked witli towers ; above the ramparts appear tlie domes and minarets of numerous mosques, surrounded by a magnificent olive grove. It was also till rcccntl}' peopled by ^lussulman fanatics, who would not tolerate any other religion in their toAMi but their own ; but, being now visited by a regular service Fig. 46. — MinDiYA. Scale 1 : 2-10,000. I0°?J. Depths. 0to32 Feet. 32 to SO reet. SO Feet and upwards. = C JlUes. of .steamboats, its colony of Europeans is slowly increasing. It is the cleanest and best reo-ulated town in the whole of Tunis. j Not far from the promontory, of which Monastir occupies the western angle, is a small group of islands, one of which is pierced with some fifty artificial grottoes, , m2 156 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. probablj' of Phoonician origin. They recently served as places of slielter to the tunny-fishers, and have occasionally been used as places for keeping sailors and travellers in quarantine. Farther cast, the group of Kui'iatein Islands, which is connected with Cape Dimas by a submarine bank, is, according to Tissot, the remnant of a considerable tract of land, which was still in existence at the Punic period; however, the documents on which this hj-pothesis is founded are not definite enough to lend much value to the statement. SiisA, Kairwax. Susci, the principal city of the Tunisian Sahcl, is considered to be the second town of Tunis, if not for the muuber of its inhabitants, being in this respect sui-- Fig. 47. — MoxASTm iSB StsA. Scale 1 : 320,000. I0°57' O"-*?' L V oT breenwicb' Oto32 Feet. Depths. 82 to 80 Feet. 80 to 160 Foot. 160 Feet and upwards. C Jlilea. passed by Sfakes, at least for its strategical imiDortance. A large part of the surrounding territory is under cultivation, and nearly all the natives dwell in fixed abodes. Susa, which is of Phoenician origin, is the port of Kairwan, the principal city and military centre of the interior, and was itself, at one time, also a capital city. Under the name of Ilaclruincfum, it was in the time of the Romans the chief town of the pro\ince of Byzaceuif, and its wealth and military position exposed it SUSA. 157 to frequent attacks from foreign invaders. Yandals, Arabs, Spaniards, and French successiTely assaulted, destroyed, or bombarded it, and the ruins of different periods have thus been piled up in successive heaps. Blocks, and other remains, covered with carvings and inscriptions, have been used in building modern houses ; but there are no traces to be found of the great edifices, such as the amphitheatre spoken of by the Arab authors of the Middle Ages. The Hajar Maklubah, or " Overturned Stone," once a magnificent temple, is now a mere heap of rubbish, while the "cothon," or cii'cular port of the Carthaginians, •which was similar to those of Carthage and Utica, can be recognised only by the remains of its two extreme Fig-. 48.— EjjEWis. EcJe 1 : 20,00?. uc Q-p Sieii Okba 55' 43 50- E. r cf .Green-.vich 10°6'SO I0°7-20- — 530 Yards. sluice-gates — huge blocks of masonrj- which at a distance look like rocks. The greater part of these works has been pulled down and turned into an esplanade. As in nearly all the ancient towns of Timis, the cisterns, more precious than all other structures, have been always either kept up or repaired imdcr every change of Government. The necropoli of various periods form an almost complete circle roimd the town. The most ancient, in which sepulchral chambers are still to be seen hollowed out of the soft limestone, are similar in the internal arrangements of their galleries to the caves used as tombs in Phoenicia and Palestine. The city was supplied with water by a Roman cistern. 158 NOETII-WEST AFEICA. Like other towns of Eastern Tunis, modern Susa is surrounded bj- huge quadi'i- lateral ramparts, flanked with towers, and commanded at one of its angles by a kasbah. Altogether, the city is about one mile in circumference ; but outside the enclosure, comprising a network of winding streets, is a newly ojieued quarter in the north-east, near the beach, which, however, lacks the pictm-esquc appearance of the old town. Here are the depots of the Jewish and Euroi^ean merchants, with their reservoirs of oil, which is exported to Marseilles for the manufacture of soap. Olive-trees can be counted by the million in the Sahel of Susa, and the planta- tions could even be still farther increased, although in some places the sand is allowed to encroach on the cultivated districts. Till recently, the casks of oil Fisr. 40. — Kasbah of Si"sa, -saEWED fkoji the Fbench Consulate. which the Siisa merchants supplied to the vessels in the roadstead were floated, and towed down by flat boats in long convoys. On the return voyage the casks were throwTi overboard, washed ashore by the surf, and recovered by their owTiers. Now, ho-wever, a small jetty I'cceives the travellers and merchandise landed from the boats or rafts. Sicilian sloops fish for sardines off the coast of Susa, and the produce, as abundant as in the waters of IMahdij^a, is exported to Greece and Dalmatia. Italians and Maltese, always verj' ntunerous at Susa, till recently constituted nearly all the European population of the town ; but the majoritj^ of the non-lSIussul- mans were Jews, who numbered some two thousand, and who enjoyed a monopoly of the inland trade. Hundreds of Negroes, the sons of fornier slaves, carry on the TCAIRTVAy. 159 trades of masons, joiners, and liouse-painters. Since the French occupation, former Algerian riflemen, Kabyles and Ai-abs, have also come to seek their fortunes at Susa, -n-here, thanks to their knowledge of French, they readily find emplo\Tnent as interpreters and foremen. The Susa Mussulmans, amongst -whom fair types ^rith blue eyes are by no means rare, vehemently declare that they are not Arabs, but natives of Susa. Amongst the flourishing towns of the environs there are some which contain, in their scattered quarters, a population equal or but slightly inferior to that of Susa itself. One of these places is Kelaa Kehira, some 8 miles to the north- west ; another is Msdkeii, about 6 miles to the south-west, and surrounded by a dense forest of olives. This latter was, till quite recently, a holy place, which Jews and Christians were forbidden to enter. A tramway on the Decauville system, laid over rugged wastes, hills, valleys and sebkhas, connects the shores of Susa with Kairwan, the religious capital of Tunis, which stands on a terrace commanding an extensive view of a slightlj' imdulated treeless district. Fotmded by the conqueror Okbah in the year 671, at the period of the first Arab invasion of Maghreb, the city of the '• Double Yictorv " has retained a great prestige in the eyes of the Mussulmans, and pilgrimages made to the pretended tomb of its founder are considered to have a special efiicacy in purifying the souls of the Faithful. Kairwan is one of the four " Gates of Para- dise,"' and " seven days' stay at Kairwan are equivalent to one day at Mecca," entitling the pilgrim to be called a haji. The legend relates that, before founding the town, Sidi-el-Okbah proclaimed to all the beasts of the field that a sacred city was about to rise on this spot, and for three days the lions, panthers, wild boars, and other wild animals, both great and smaU, quitted the place in troops, leading it free to the followers of the Prophet. The legend also says that impure men cannot live in this holy city, the spirits of the blessed would destroj- them if they ventured near the mosques. The Jews being forbidden to reside in the town, their /lara, or quarter, stood at a distance of over a mile from the walls. A certain nmnber of Christians, however, protected by a letter fi'om the Bey, were admitted into Kairwan and politely received by the sheikhs, but they were never allowed to enter the sacred edifices. While all the cities of the Tunisian coast had been successively visited by victorious foreign armies, Kairwan was captured for the fii'st time in 18S1 by the French. On this occasion, however, the town threw open its gates without attempting a useless resistance. Since then it has become the capital of a militarj- government, and its ramparts, commanded by a kasbah, have been com- pleted bv new bastions. Christians now freely enter its mosques. Of all Tunisian cities, Kairwan, surrounded by ruins, barren tracts, and saline depressions, is one of those which nature has favoiu-ed the least ; it has neither rtmning waters nor springs, all the water coming from cisterns, some of which are flushed at the period of continuous rains by the "^'ed Merg-cl-Lil, whoso cui-rent becomes clearer from basin to basin. The city has no shady gardens, being sur- rounded bv more cemeteries than cultivated lands. Thanks to its central position, it nevertheless presents at first sight an imposing and even pleasing appearance. 160 NUllTH-WEST AFEICA. Viewed from afai-, it commands the surrounding space -with its lofty walls, the numerous cupolas of its mosques, and the superb tliree-storied miuarct which stands north-cast of the town, above the mosque of ISidi-Okbah. Tunis itself does not boast of such wealthy mosques and convents as this holy city, which possesses over eighty of these religious edifices. Amongst them is the Jemaa-el-Kebir, or " Great j Mosque," which has no less than seventeen double parallel naves, and more than 400 columns of onyx, jwrphyry, marble, and other precious materials. Still more famous than the Great Mosque is that of the " Companion," so called because it contains, in a recess ornamented with marvellous arabesques, the tomb of a corn- Fig'. 50. — Kaikwajt : The MosQtrE op the Swoeds. panion of Mohammed, his barber, and also a still more precious relic— three hairs from the Prophet's beard. The most powerful brotherhoo'ls at Xairwan are those of the A'lssawa, the Tijaiiiya, and llie Ghilaniya. Like so many other " holy places," Kairwan is also one of the most corrupt, and the class of the Tunisian dancing girls is mainly recruited from this city ot mosques and religious confraternities. The inhabitants of tho city of Okbah glory in living, as parasites, at the expense of the Faithful ; they have consequ(>ntly greatly degenerated, and are mostly afflicted by zymotic diseases. Cancer, scrofula, and infirmities of every description give the people a 1 KASEIX. 161 repulsive appearance ; they hare no strength for work, just as they had no energy to resist the French. However, the town has a few industries, more especially manufactories of embroidered saddles, chased copper vases, and attar of roses ; its bazaars are amongst the best stocked in Tunis. But provisions of all kinds have to be brought fi-om a great distance ; vegetables and cereals being imported from Hammamet, some 60 miles distant. There are no other towns in the district of Kairwan, and all that remains of the ancient Sabra, which stood about a mile to the south, are two pink columns, which " shed blood " under the saws of the workmen. The traveller passes, without transi- tion, from the scenes of cit^- to those of rmal life. All the surroimding peoples are partially or completely nomads, either of Ai-ab or Berber stock. Amongst the latter is the powerful Zlas tribe, south and west of Kairwan, who are said to number thirty thousand, and who occupy the western suburb of that place. The Susa Arabs live to the east, around the depressions in which are collected the waters of the Sidi-el-Hani sebkha, whence they extract large quantities of salt. This is piled up in great heaps, on the top of which they burn brushwood, in order by the fusion of the upper layers to form a solid crust, which prevents the salt from being dissolved by the rains. To the north-west are the camping-grounds of the Ulad Yahiya, and to the west, near the sources of the rivers falling into lake Kelbia, those of the ilajer tribe. The region now traversed by these semi- Arab Berber nomads is one of those most densely inhabited by settled communities some two thousand years ago. The upper basin of the ^ed-el-Fekka, a watercourse which changes its name at each successive confluence, lies in a district of Tunis where Eoman remains occur in the greatest abundance. The huge cities and their sumptuous monuments have every- where left ruins which, throughout eastern Maghreb, are called Itemhirs, a term equally applied to all lands under cultivation. Kasrin, the ancient Sojlllum, whose remains cover several hills, still preserves a three-storied mausoleum with Corinthian pilasters, besides a triumphal arch and many other buildings, which have not been so well preserved. Xear this spot the railway from Cabes to Tcbessa will pass under two ancient triumphal arches. East of Kasrin the Sbcitla henshir, commanded by the Jebel of the same name, and traversed by the Wed Menasser, an affluent of the Fekka, has also preserved some magnificent monuments of the Roman period. "When M. Guerin visited this henshir it was inhabited by a soHtary priest, who, to the traveller's siirprise, proved to be a Frenchman I Several thermal springs which rise in a dried-up bed near Sbeitla, are sufiiciently copious to form a clear streamlet, as large in volume as the springs of Zaghwan. The water yielded by it suffices for a considerable population, and everything, in fact, tends to prove that this now deserted region was very populous some two or three thousand years ago. The ancient Suffctula, that is, in Carthaginian, " the town of the Suffetes," was an important city and the seat of the government of the province till the Ai-ab invasions. The temples, colonnades, triumphal arches, ramparts, towers, and tombs with inscriptions have enabled archaeologists to discover the ground-plan of the town. An imposing temple, with 162 NORTH-^\'EST AFRICA. two projecting wings surrounded by elegant columns, crowns a neighbouring eminence. The space before the triple sanctuary was approached through a triumphal arch ornamented, like the temple, with beautiful scidptui-es, similar to the decorations of the temples of Baalbek. The whole of this region, covered with Roman ruins, appears to have been a vast forest of olives ; near each building are also still visible cisterns and fortalices, whither the settlers took refuge at any sudden alarm. At the present time this olive country, over which roam the Frashish tribe, yields no other produce except the wool of its sheep, which, how- ever, is the most valued in all Tunis. North of Susa the coast route, confined between the lagoons and the sea, traverses the village of Herrjla, which now shows no traces of the Roman period, except in its ancient name of Horrea C(jeU(i, and some shapeless ruins. The surface of a neighboiu'ing plain is covered with dolmens for a space of about one square mile. Beyond this spot, near the peak of Tahruna, on which stands the village of the same name, lies the farm of Dur-cl-Beij, or " the Bey's Palace," centre of the vast Enfida domain belonging to the Ulad-Said tribe, which was so long disputed by rival specidating companies, backed up by their respective govern- ments. The annexation of Tunis to France terminated the contest to the advantage of a societj- from Marseilles, to which other domains have also been conceded. This immense tract, which although not yet surveyed, can scarcely comprise less than 300,000 acres, includes lands of a very varied nature, some arid, others fertile, but on the whole constituting one of the most favoured regions of Tunis. Under the Roman government, this portion of Bj'zacena; is said to have contained no less than seventeen towns, whose ruins are still met scattered amid the surround- ing brushwood. At present not more than three hamlets, peopled Avith Berber peasantry, occupy the crests of the hills, and a Maltese ■village has been recently established (i miles to the north of Dar-el-Bej'. Certain parts of this region are planted with olive groves stretching away beyond the horizon; and other ti-acts, abundantly watered, might be utilised as gardens. Extensive plains are here covered with cereals ; forests of pines and thuya clothe the slopes of Slount Zaghwan, and the pasture lands are pre-eminently fitted for sheep-breeding. The greatest efforts have recently been made to promote this industry, bj' introducing Algerian stock, and also to increase the vine plantations ; but unfortunately this work of improvement has its drawbacks, due to the interference of managers and foreign capitaUsts, which have not failed to arise in tliis region of Timis as well as in all the other lat if undid. The interest exacted by money-lenders, the expenses of commission, the employment of useless middlemen, the dearness of laboiu-, and the hostility of the injured natives, alwaj's ruin enterprises of this description, or at least prevent them from producing in a proportion equal to that of small properties cultivated by the owner himself. To prevent the failure of their specu- lation, the grantees of the Enfida estate have been obliged to give up personally directing the work of cultivation ; like the Arab suzerains, they content themselves with letting their lands to the surroimding jDeasants and shepherds. The rent of these lands is little more than Is. 8d. per acre, a deduction being made for tracts EXFIDA— SBEITLA. 16S covered vrith scrub. Tlic work, which had been hailed as the commencement of a EC at o I new era in the civihsation of Timis, is now confined to signing leases and collecting the rent. Euiida is very rich in mineral and thermal springs. 164 XOETH-WEST AFEICxl. The little village of Uammamet, called " the City of Pigeons " on account of the innumerable ring-doves which nest in the rocks of the neighbouring moun- tains, has given its name to the broad gulf between the Cape Bon peninsula and Monastir Point. It owes this honour neither to its antiquity, since it was founded Fig. 52.— SusA ASB Enfida. Scale 1 : 330,000. L . of b reen wich I0°i0' lO'SO' Depths. to 33 Feet. S2 to 80 Feet. 30 Feet and upwards. = GlOiles. only in the fifteenth centiuy, nor to its wealth, for it has but a small population, while the surrounding district is badly cultivated, but rather to the effect produced by its white walls flanked with square towers partly built into the masomy, and to its position, exactly at the southern extremity of the route which traverses the XABEL— KELIBL\.. 165 neck of the north-eastern peninsula of Tunis. These advantages have endowed it with a certain strategical importance, and made it an indispensable station for traders and travellers. At this point travellers coming from Tunis reach the shores of the eastern sea, and they have naturally named the bay after the place where the inland route terminates. But industrial and commercial life has moved farther east to the town of Nahel, which dates fi-om pre- Arab times, as is indicated by its slightly modified Greek name of JS'eapoli-'i. Xotwithstandiug this designation of "Xew Town," it is a place of vast antiquity. In the niins of Xahel-cl-Kcdim, or " Old Kabel," are stm found traces of Carthaginian structures, and the Periplus of Scylax already mentions this African " Xaples." The soil of the plain, where a "new town" constantly sprang up on the ruins of its predecessor, is strewn with potsherds and broken vases, and at the present time numerous workshops are still surroimded with broken utensils, similar to those rejected by the old potters of Xeapolis, showing that the local industry has imdergone no change for the last two thousand years. From Xabel more especially come the waterbottles, pitchers, jars, flower- pots, perfume-vases, and terra-cotta lamps which are sold in the markets of Timis, and which even find their way to Algeria and TripoK. Isabel also manufactiu-es textile fabrics, while the flowers of its gardens are used in the preparation of essences. Of late years Xabel has acquired a certain reputation as a " winter retreat " for consumptive patients, ^ell protected from the northern winds by the hills of the north-eastern peninsula, it faces the Gulf of Hammamet, which is seldom tempest-tossed like the waters on the northern .side of the headland. Hence the streets are seldom exposed to the furious blasts which raise clouds of dust on the highroads of Tunis. ISTorth of Hammamet, the Yandal kings had a " Paradise ; " but where once stood those magnificent pleasure grounds, scarcely a tree is now to be seen. The sand daily encroaches more and more upon the surrounding plantations and cemeteries. One of the most popiilous regions of Tunis is the Dakhelat-el-llahuin, as the peninsula terminating the Eas Addar is called. Small towns and large villages surrounded by gardens, orchards, and oHve groves, follow in succession along the high cliffs, at some distance from the eastern coast. The shore route traverses Beni-Khriar, Kttrha, KursJiu), Menzel-Tcmin, and Kelihia, this latter the successor of the ancient Chjjjcea, in Greek Aspis, so called from the shield-shaped hill on which stood the acropolis. Situated near a cape, at the point where the coast curves to the south-west, thus offering a refuge for vessels against the north winds, Kelibia was always of some maritime imjDortance, and, although its two ports are now choked up, small craft overtaken bj' tempests still seek shelter under its walls. The north side of the jDcninsula washed by the waters of the Gulf of Tunis is less densely peopled than the opposite side, owing to the narrowness of the cultivable zone comprised between the hills and the sea. Soliman, and the menzel or " station " called Menzel-Bu-Zalfa, the largest centres of population, are situated in the northern part of the plain which connects the shores of the Gulf of Tunis 1G6 NOETII-WEST AFEIfA. with those of the Gulf of Hammamet. The iBhabitauts of Sollman are of Andu- lusian origin, like those of several other to'mis of Dakhelat-cl-^Mahiiin, aud, according to Grcnville Temple, many still retain the names of Spanish families. The plague of 1819 swept away more than two-thirds of the population of Solinian. The seven thermal springs of Ilammam Kurhcs {Gorbus), whose temperature (from 77° to 138° F.) is higher than any others in Tunis, rise on the coast not far from the promontory called Has Fortas, exactly opposite Cape Carthage. About a dozen other boiling springs, visible from afar by the columns of steam arising from them, also bubble up from the sea not far from the shore. On the beach forming the extreme concave curve of the gulf, at the base of the escarp- ments of the " Two-horned " Mountain, flow other hot springs (104° F.), those of Ilammam Lif or Hammam-el-Enf, which are used in an ancient palace of the Bey, soon to bo replaced by a modern establishment, replete with every luxurj' and comfort. Autumn is more especially the season in which strangers, chiefly Jews, visit these waters. Hamman Lif is already included in the extensive municipal jurisdiction of Tunis. Both places will ere long be connected by a railway, which is to be continued to Tlammamet, and a small port is soon to be constructed at Hammam Lif. The Mountain of the Two Horns contains beds of argentiferous lead, which are not being worked; but the Jebel Ressas, or "Mountain of Lead," which rises a little farther south, is being honeycombed by hundreds of miners, nearly all of whom are Italians. The basin of the Wed McHan discharges into the Gulf of Tunis near Hades, an ancient village which faces Carthage from the top of the hiU on which it stands. Zaghtcan, the onlj^ town in this basin, may, like Hammam Lif, also be considered as a dependenc}' of the neighbouring capital. Situated directly south of Tunis, between the heights of 530 and 780 feet, Zaghwan is the health-resort of the Tunisians, thanks to its pure air, its running waters, gardens, and groves of trees, amongst which are many European species. From this place the capital obtains its supply of water. Li the near future it will become the outpost of Tunis, from a strategical and commercial point of view, by means of a railway which will com- mand the towns of the cast and south, such as Susa, Kairwan, and-Gafsa. The newly opened routes have already transformed Zaghwan into a provisioning station and a centre ot traffic. A well-preserved triumphal arch and some inscrij)tions prove that this to'nii had been occupied by the Eomans. At the time of the immigration of the Audalusian Moors, a colony of these fugitives was established at Zaghwan, which is still pcoiiled by the descendants of these industrious artisans ; they are more especially engaged in cultivating the gardens, dyeing caps, or s/ie^/iins, and dressing skins. The water of Zaghwan is said to have peculiar properties for contracting tissues and preparing them to take the colours ; hence the caps of Tunis are preferred throughout the Levant to those of France and other countries. From the summits of the rus:sed motmtain which commands Zaghwan, a splendid view can be had over the whole of north-eastern Tunis, from the coast of Susa to the headlands of Carthage. On one of the ZAGHWAX. 167 Fia-. oS.. -AaUEDUCTS OF Caethaoe. Scale 1 : 733,000. advanced spiirs of this eminence, MJI. Rebafel and Tirant have discovered a prehistoric necropolis, comprising nearly three hundred dolmens, all disposed in the direction from east to west. In a defile near Mount Zaghwan is the pass of the "Saw," in which the mercen- aries were massacred at the close of that atrocious war which threatened the existence of Carthage. Imposing or pleasant views follow iu succession along the skirts of this moimtainous mass ; but the most charming- prospect is presented by the district which surrounds the nj-mjjhceiim of the great foun- tain whence the aqueduct of Carthage drew its chief suj)- ply. This temple, standing on a terrace over a mile south of Zaghwan, and half-way np the mountain's side, is built on the solid rock, and is finished with peristyles, steps, and basins, whose dazzling white- ness contrasts vi\'idlj' with the green trees and the various colours of the boulders scat- tered over the slojje of the mountain. The aqueduct of Zaghwan is connected with that of Jebel Jughar, which carries a less copious stream, and the two currents unite in the now re- stored Roman aqueduct, which stretches northwards iu the direction of Tunis and Goletta for a total distance, including its branches, of 80 miles. The subterranean parts of the aqueduct have been to a large extent utilised for the new canal, but wherever the depressions of the ground were crossed by long rows of arcades, the arches have been replaced by underground pipes disposed on the principle of the siphon. South of the jDassage of the "Wed ilelian, a section of the ancient aqueduct can be followed uninterruptedly for more than a mile, some Depths. 0to32 Feet. 80 Feet and upwards. 12 Jliles. 1G8 NOETH-WEST ^VFEICA. of its arcades rising to over 80 feet iu height ; but almost everywhere the ruins of the aqueduct present little more than short detached fragments, utilised as quarries by the local builders, and stri^jped of their angular stone facing. The very engineers who repaired the aqueduct have destroyed the finest fragment that still remained of the monument raised by Adrian and Septimius Severus : they have pulled down the bridge over the Wed ilelian to form the foundations of their modern aqueduct, which it would have been easy to have carried in another direction without increase of expenditure. The I'emains of the aqueduct, as well as those of the ancient Eoman city of Udna {Udina), have been used to build the walls of farms, the huts, and now abandoned palaces of Jlu/uinimcdici. Huge megaliths are scattered around the ruins of Udina, and the cisterns have been converted into dwellings and refuges for cattle. The mean discharge of the s^jrings still utiEsed was in 1885, 175,000 cubic feet daily, and this quantity ^vill soon be increased onc-haH by enlarging the area of supply. "WTien these works are completed it is expected that the greatest daily discharge will bo 4"25,000 cubic feet, the mean ranging from 250,000 to 275,000 cubic feet. Tuxis. Tunis, capital of the Regency and one of the largest cities of the continent, was second to Cairo alone in population at the beginning of this century. Now, however, it is surpassed by Alexandria, and jjrobably bj' Algiers, if the total population within and without the ramparts be taken into consideration. Although more advantageously situated in many respects than the capital of Algeria, it has been, if not outstripped, at least equalled, in consequence of the political, military, administrative, and economical centralisation which more than half a century of French occupation has effected in the town of Algiers. Viewed from a general geographical standpoint, Tunis still possesses a few of those great advantages which Carthage enjoj-ed ; it is situated near the pi'ojecting angle of the Maghreb, between the two basins of the Mediterranean, and lies also near the mouth of the great vaUcy of the river Mejei'da, which with its numerous ramifications penetrates into the heart of the Mauritanian moimtains and plateaux. Moreover, it has a very healthy climate, thanks to the free circidation of the north winds. Some three thousand j'ears ago, or even at the possibly still more remote period of its founda- tion, certain local features in the relief of the land, offeiiug commercial advantages and facilitating its defence against attack, must necessarily have had a decided influence in the choice of this site for a new Pha?nician settlement. At this point a chain of low limestone hills cuts off the great plain facing westwards iu the direction of the Mejerda ; and this strategical position is all the stronger, that both sides of the rocky ridge are enclosed by vast lacustrine depressions. These are the Sebkha-el-Scljum to the south-west, which increases and decreases ^vith the rainy and dry seasons, and the Bahira, or "Little Sea," to the north-east, whose level never changes, thanks to the " channel " connecting this lagoon ^\-ith the Mediter- TUNIS. 1G9 rauean. Thus the to\vu of the Tunisian isthmus was almost impregnable on two of its sides, while it also commanded the valley which connected the valleys of the ]ilejerda and the "Wed Melian. JMoreover " the Little Sea," although not ver}' deep, was sufficiently so to receive vessels of light draught. Sheltered from rough weather, they could safely discharge their cargoes on the beach of Timis. At the same time, certain conditions which were at one time favourable have, during the com'se of centuries, become the reverse. The low-lying lagoon of the Bahira, into which our modern vessels of heavy tonnage cannot penetrate, has changed into a vast open drain flooded with foul stagnant water. Thus Tunis now enjoj's but a small share of the advantages usually associated with a maritime situation ; it has •become an inland town, endeavoui-iug, by an artificial port, to regaia the privileges with which nature had formerly endowed it. Probably of an origia anterior to Carthage, Tunis, or Tunes, had its periods of great prosperity. When mention is made of it for the first time, it had already been eclipsed bj- its powerful neighbour, Carthage ; but, after the destruction of its rival, Tunis became for a short time the most populous city of that region. Carthage, however, was soon rebuilt by the Romans, and again took its place as mistress of the country. At the end of the seventh centmy of the vulgar era, Carthage, again overthrown, ceased to exist, and since that period Tunis, one of the centres of the Jlussulman power, has remained the capital, in spite of constant civil dissensions and foreign wars. Throughout a period of twelve centui'ies it once alone fell into the hands of the Christians. In 1270 Louis IX. succeeded only in gaining possession of the " castle " of Carthage, dying on his bed of ashes before Abu Mohammed, King of Timis, was forced to sue for peace. But in 1535 Charles V., assisted by twenty thousand slaves, who had revolted against Khe'ir-ed-Din, entered Tunis, which he gave to a vassal priuce, at the same time erectiug the fort of Goletta, so as to command the communications between the capital and the sea. But before the year had dra^^m to a close it was retaken by Kheir-ed-Diu, and from that time it remained imder the government of bej's, vassals of the Tm'k, till 1881, when the official suzerainty ceased to belong to the Sublime Porte, and passed into the hands of the French. Before the Turkish rule, Tunis, " the white, the odorous, the flowery, the bride of the west," was looked upon bj- the Mussulman world as a city without equal. It was the " rendezvous of travellers from the east and the west, and it contaiaed all the advantages that man could desire. Whatsoever the whim of man might fancy could be obtained in Tunis. Its power and glory placed it as a sovereign above its rivals, the capitals of the east and west." Tunis might well have said, " I am the ladder of the temple, by which the faithfid mount up to heaven." At the present day Tunis is still considered by aU the North African Mussulmans, except those of Egypt and Marocco, the city of good taste, literature, and fashion — in short, a kind of African Paris. Covering a sui^erficial area of over one square mile, and yearly increasing in size, Tunis slopes eastwards on the gentle incUue of the hills commanding the western bank of the Bahira. It extends about a mile and a half from north to VOL. XT. A^ 170 KOETH-WEST AFEICA. south, with a mean breadth from cast to west of over half a mile. The central quarter, which the jDeople still designate as Medina, the " Town," in a pre-eminent sense, is of an irregidar oval shape, its long axis running due north and south throughout nearly the whole of its circumference ; it is stiU surrounded by an ancient wall connected with the fortifications of the kasbah. The northern suburb of Bab-es-Suika and the southern quarter of Bab-el-Jezira (Bab-ez-Zirah) are also surrounded by an enclosure consisting of a broken line of ramparts, which, from the quadrilateral kasbah standing on the hill, stretches from bastion to bastion; but to the east — that is, on the side of the Bahira — these walls have disappeared, yielding as it were to the pressure of the population, which overflows its limits, and quite a new quarter has sprung up along both sides of the central avenue. The Marina,, as this quarter is called, runs in the direction of the platform, skirted by jetties, where begins the navigable channel of the lagoon. Since the first years of this centurj-, the border zone of the Bahira has increased by at least 2,330 feet; it daily grows larger, thanks to the alluvia brought down bj' the drains, and excavations made in the lands covered with buildings. The low level of the soil renders this " New Timis " the most unhealthy quarter of the town ; but this place, where stand the tv.'o railway stations and the port, and where one day will rise the town hall, the law courts, theatre, and exchange, has the advantage of presenting to the builders an unlimited space, and already long rectilinear perspectives have been developed at right angles between the white houses of the European quarter. This perspective will no doubt be one day prolonged across the network of the thirteen hundred streets of the old town. In the vicinity of the kasbah the work of demolition has ali'cady begun, leaving open avenues between the public monuments. The circular boulevard, which is now being made round the " Medina," projJorly so called, is the forerunner of a system of thoroughfares planned in the European style. As in so many other towns, this change, it is to be feared, will be accomplished in a somewhat recldess fashion. Few of the picturesque Moorish houses will gain the benefits of fresh air, light, and comfort, without sacrificing their characteristic features, such as arcades and arabesques, and thus becoming mere formless blocks of stone. However, the exquisite art of the house decorator has not yet been quite lost, and it would be deplorable to allow it to perish. The streets of Old Tunis arc naturally much more picturesque and less formal than the regular thoroughfares of the European quarter. None of them are laid down on straight lines, but ever)rwhere present gables, angles, projections and curves, radiating in all directions. The streets are crossed overhead by roofed arches of various heights, some mere arcades uniting two houses facing each other, others bearing two or three stages on their interlaced groiuings. Some of these arches are long enough to form veritable galleries, like those of the Berber towns in the oases. Columns of marble, brought from Carthage, support these arcades, or else enframe the doors of the houses with their endlessly varied capitals. Wild flowers grow in the crevices of the arches, while trees have sjDrung up at the corners of the streets, overshadowing some shop, or the seats of a restam-ant. TUNIS. 171 To-svards the upper eud of tlie to^vn, below the kasbah and the Dar-el-Bev, or " Bey's Palace," are the labyrinthine ramifications of the " Suks," each street of which, vaulted or sunnouiited by woodwork, is inhabited by people of the same trade, such as saddlers, linen-drapers, coppersmiths, jewellers, and perfumers. In many an alley the workshop adjoins the booth where the wares are exposed for sale; the Hnen is woven, the wool carded, the sheshias dyed, the copj)er hammered, in full view of the purchasers and passers-by. Here and there is seen a flight of stairs, and through a half-open door a glimpse can be had of an almost deserted court, encircled by arcades — a religious school it may be, or a mosque, or some other tranquil retreat in the midst of the sui-roimding tm-moil. Few animals except some asses are to be seen in the quarter of the bazaai-s ; but in the suburbs the streets leading to the gates of the town are blocked with horses, mules, and camels, through which the carriages, jolting over the stones and ruts, make their way with difficidty. The types of different nationalities predominate according to their respective quarters. In the upper town live the Tunisians, properly so called, with whom are intermingled, in the suburb of Bab-es-Suika, the descendants of the Andalusian Moors. Proud of their ancient reputation as the leaders of fashion in Mauritania, the elegant Tunisians excel in the choice of the stuffs of which are made theii- garments, in which bright hues always predominate. The haik, light blue, delicate pink, peach, or cream-coloured, flows in graceful folds over the shoulders. But the women, amongst whom stoutness is greatly admired, contrast unfavourably with the men as regards the style of their costumes. In spite of the beauty of the striped silks, it is difficult to suppress a feeling of disgust at the sight of those imgainly figures swaying heavily in their broad and short blouses, showing the narrow drawers and the loose stockings. The black veil, with nothing but a slit for the eyes, gives them at a distance the appearance of negresses, who, however, have at least the redeeming features of a glossy skin and white teeth. Side by side of the richly dressed Moors are the more numerous poor Mussul- mans, clothed with their simple burnous of grey wool or with coarse brown caped cloaks embroidered in white. It is only by long observation that amongst all these tj-pes the stranger is able to identify the Jarabas, or merchants from the island of Jerba, the Suafas or immigrants from Suf, the Mzabites, the northern Algerians, and the natives of Marocco, who have become very nimierous since the arrival of the French. The Jews, who are grouped together more especially in the eastern part of the Bab-es-Suika quarter, are divided into two classes, according to their origin. The Italian Jews, or " Grana," that is to say, the people of Gurna, or Leghorn, wear the European costmne, whilst the others are dressed verj' similarly to the Moors ; their women, however, who. are as stout as the Moorish ladies, go unveiled, and wear a gold-embroidered peaked bonnet. The Maltese, who have given their name to one of the busiest streets of the city, form, both by their language and customs, the link between the Arabs and Sicilians, who represent a large portion of the local Italian proletariat. The Tuscans are now represented only by the Jews, >- 2 172 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. although Leghorn formerly disputed with Marseilles for the commercial supremacy in Timis, at a time when the whole of the Mediterranean was even known to the Timisians as the " Sea of Gurna." The French, whose nmnbers have more than tripled since the events of 1881, almost exclusively occupy the new town, near the " Marina," a promenade where meet people of all nations and costxmies : Mussul- mans with hats, and Christians with turbans, hybrid beings produced by the contact of two civilisations. The transformation of Tunis into a Eui-opean city is much less advanced in sanitary respects. Most of the streets having no di'ains, the refuse from the houses is collected in open ditches, and removed by scavengers at stated times. It often happens that for several days the streets are obstructed bj' heaps of earth and sand, on which all manner of filth is thrown, so as to harden it by exposiu'e to the air, and thus render it easier to be carried away. The drains of the town, sloping towards the Bahira, run into seven open kaiidaks, or canals, which discharge into the neighbouring lake. These trenches, never being cleaned, emit an imbearable stench, to which the natives formerly attributed the exceeding healthiness of Timis, which, however, is probably due to the north winds. But the districts watered by these foetid streams are precisely those on which the new quarters are to be buUt. Hence the lu-gent necessity of a main drainage system for the collection of the sewage, and its chemical treatment at some distance from the town. Although there is not yet a suificient supply of water for all requirements, there is still enough to put an end to the abominable smells which, no less than the perfumes of its flowers, have procured for Tunis the sui-name of " the odorous." The question of rendering Tunis, and more especially the French quarter, healthy, is connected with that of the new port, which it is proposed to construct in the neighbourhood of the present "Marina." On the solution of this problem depend the future prospects of Timis. Large ships are at present obliged to anchor off Goletta, about half a mile from the shore, and passengers and merchandise have to be landed in steamboats or rafts, which penetrate up the narrow canal, either discharging their cargo on the quays of Goletta, or proceeding to Tunis across the shallow lagoon. In rough weather, the passage from the vessel to the shore is not without danger, and the cargoes are very often damaged by the sea water. Masts rising above the water mark the sites of sunken vessels, whose keels obstruct the api^roaches to the coast. The heavy charges for passengers and goods between the port and the offing are also a great obstacle to the development of trade. Since Timis has been connected with Bona by a direct Kne of railway, and a double stream of traffic established with the interior through the custom-house station of Ghar- dimau, the commercial movement has been largely diverted to Algeria, thanks especially to the superior advantages of the port of Bona. Even from Tunis itself goods have been forwarded direct to Europe through this port. Hence the urgent importance of re-establishing the natm-al balance by creating a well-sheltered and commodious harbour at this place. For this purpose it is proposed to form a deep entry in the roadstead b}- means of jetties, and to continue this channel by a cutting south of the town, and of the narrow jDassage now followed by the boats, which is TUNIS, STREET IN THE SUK DISTRICT. TUNIS. 173 itself probably the work of man. In tbc middle of the Baliira a navigable way is to be formed by dredging to a depth of about 20 feet, which would .suffice for the yessels now frequenting the port of Goletta. The future basin would have an area of about 25 acres. Fishing is very productive in the Bahu-a of Tunis, the thii'ty boats employed in this industry yielding a yearly supply valued at fifteen himdred tons. Some speculators have proposed to drain the Bahira ; but in any case it mil be necessary to empty the Sebkha of Seljum, which during the floods covers a space Fig. 54.— Tunis. Scale 1 : CO.OOO. I0°a' L w oT breenwich I0°n' Underground Conduit. _____—» 2,300 Vardd. of 6,250 acres south-east of the capital. Standing about 20 feet above sea-level, this malarious slough might easily be drained by a simple cutting south to the neighbouring gulf. Tunis does not rank as a " learned town," and much will have to be done before it can again merit the praises bestowed upon it in the Middle Ages, when the title of El-Tunsi, or " the Tunisian," was synonymous with a man of science and letters. 174 NORTH- WEST AFRICA. Ko doubt, of tlie five hundred scliools in the regency one hundred and thirteen are " Koranic," and the large schools or medrcsse attached to the mosques are always frequented by students from far and near, who recite the Koran, learn the " sciences of traditions," and, like the students of the University of Cairo, repeat grammatical rules, medical formulas, astrological spells, and magical incantations. The Jemaa Zituna, or " Mosque of Olives," the finest religious edifice in Tunis, is frequented by six hundred students, Tunisians and foreigners. Those who come from the interior of the regency nearly all become students so as to evade military sei-vice and escape the poll-tax. The Tunisian scholars study more especially law and grammar, so as to obtain a diploma which will enable them to become either pro- fessors or notaries. The mosque possesses two libraries of ancient Arabic com- mentaries, much venerated works, which can onlj- be borrowed by those authorised by the Sheikh-el-Islam, the head of the University. But the movement that is to give renewed life to science must come from abroad, and this extraneous influence is, fortunate!}', not wanting. Besides the primary Italian and French schools and establishments founded with religious motives, such as the Jewish schools and the Catholic College of Saint Charles, there are also institutions where the Mussulmans can study the French language and the rudiments of science. The Sadiki College, foimded in the reign of Sadok, has a hundred and fifty pupils, many of whom have already been sufficiently advanced to enter the .Alawi College, a normal school of recent foundation, where the pupils are trained as masters for the future schools of the regency, and where the young Mussulmans and Europeans are seated on the same forms. In 1885 the nimaber of Mussuhnau children who were receiving a French education was calculated at six hundred; while the Franco- Jewish schools, founded by the Israelitish Alliance, were instructing over twelve hundred childi-cn in the same language. But, although possessing valuable private collections of books, Tunis has as yet no public library or museum, and the works which have been presented or left to the town still (1885) repose in the packing-cases. The historian Ibn- Khaldun was a native of Tunis. Outside the fortifications there are no straggling suburbs, and the desert begins at the very city gates ; the bluffs of the chain separating the Bahira from Lake Seljum alone bear a few dilapidated forts and two Mussulman convents. The palace of the Bardo, which stands in the plain, north of the Seljum depression, is not an isolated structure, but quite a separate quarter, with ramparts and towers, set apart not only for the prince but also for the whole court, garrison troops, and a large popidation of provision-dealers and artisans. The royal apartments, covered with ornaments, hangings, embroideries, painted flowers, alabasters, marbles, offend the eye with, their tasteless mixture of forms and colours, and all this sham luxury appears aU the more repulsive in association with the torn tapestries, the crumbling walls, warped timber and furniture, revealing the povertj- of the place. Some country houses, which stand farther west in the Manuba olive groves, or else north of Tunis in the Ariana and Belvedere districts, and on the sea-shore in the Marsa valley, without being so showy as the Bardo are in reality much finer i MAESA. 175 buiidiugs, more gracefully decorated, and surrounded with more luxuriant vegeta- tion. The Bey's usual residence is at Marsa, and near his palace are grouped the Pig. 55.— La Goletta. Scale 1 : 74,000. n Aouina L-_ t or. breenwicn lO'lS 10'l3- repflis. oioia Feet. 10 Feet and upwards. 3,000 Tarda. houses of the French minister, the EuglLsh consul, and other dignitaries. In summer the beach at Marsa Is crowded with bathers from Tunis. 176 NOETH-AVEST AFEICA. THs rural retreat is diroctlj^ connected by a short railway -with Timis and with Goletta, a small town of Italian appearance, occupying the western bank of the canal by which vessels enter the Lake of Tunis. On the eastern bank the only bmldings are the barracks, a mosque, a manufactory, and the gate leading to Eades. The new houses, wliich already form a distinct quarter, are buUt farther west, at the narrowest point of the sandy spit of land known to the ancients as the ligula. Still farther on the military hospital of Kram, or the " Fig-trees," forms the nucleus of a new district at the foot of the Carthage hills. On these heights Malka occupies the very site of the ancient Carthaginian suburb of the same name, and its houses, like those of Sidi Daud and Duar-esh-Shott, are built with the remains of the old cisterns, ramparts, amphitheatre, and circus. Finally, on the highest point of Cape Carthage, the wliite houses of Sidi Bu-Sdid are visible amid the surrounding oHve groves. This town was formerly a sacred place, which Christians were forbidden to enter, but it is now much frequented by all classes of Tunisians. It is commanded, from an elevation of about 430 feet, by a lighthouse, and diu-ing the hot season it enjoys a fresh sea breeze blo-ning above the stagnant atmosphere of the plains. Carthage. The first Phoenician colony was probably built at the extremity of the cape, between the sea and the lake, at the spot where now stand the Kram hospital and the half-choked-up basias of the port. But Komheli (Kambi or Kaccabi), the town of the Sidonian immigrants and, together with Hippone, the oldest colony on the coast, does not appear to have floiu-ished imtil the arrival of the Tyrian immigrants, when a new city was fotmded imder the name of Kiryath-Hadeshat or Kartadash, whence the Roman form Carthago. The plateau on which the first Tvrian colonists excavated their tombs, outside the city, and where they afterwards built the citadel of Bijrm, has been clearly identified by archaeologists. Situated to the south in the Carthaginian hills, it stands at a lower elevation than the Sidi Bu-Said headland, but it offers a much more advantageous and regular site for extensive buildings. The work of nature also appears to have been perfected by the hand of man, by a levelling process similar to that which the Athenians executed on the summit of the Acropolis. In the centre of this platform stood the temple of Eshmunj and, under the Roman sway, Esculapius was worshipped here, representing the same divine force under a different name. Since 184'2 this tract of land, presented to France, is commanded bj- a chapel dedicated by Louis Philippe to St. Louis. According to the local tradition, the French king embraced Islam before his death, and the Arabs still worship him imder the name of Bu-Said, ■ or the " Father Lord." A bcautifid garden surrounds the chapel, in whose walls are embedded thousands of old remains — Punic, Roman, and Christian inscriptions, busts, bas-reliefs, fragments of sculptures, idols, statues of saints and martyrs, altars and tombstones. The buildings of the great college which skirts one of the sides of the Byrsa terrace contain, on the groimd-floor, the most valuable inscriptions of the collection, urns, sculptured stones, glass and metal objects. ''.it' IllSiillil', Jljlr?'^'' ,;■, 1 ^ -, ,. ^ ■»■' M: 1' ■' p h fa o <1 W ■< o o H rt o Pi n >-] o V'l- CAETH-A.GE. 177 This museum, mainly of local origin, is rendered all the more valuable by the marvellous panorama which unfolds itself to the view of the observer from the lofty terrace of Byrsa. At his feet lie the lake, the shimmering sea, the town of Goletta, Mount Bu-Kurnein recalling the outlines of Vesuvius, the distant Fig. 56. — Caethaqe. Scale 1 : 96,000. Dtol6 Feet. Depths. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. ■2i Y. ids. Zaghwan peak, and, in the immediate vicinity of the plateau, the sparkling and winding waters of the fonner Carthaginian ports. On the steepest side of the rock of Byrsa, now covered with vegetable mould, Beule has brought to light the nemains of walls in some places still 16 feet in height, and similar in construction to the so-called Cyclopean •n'alls. A bed of cinders, filled with metal fragments, pieces of glass, and potsherds, is probably a remnant of the fire which preceded the captiu-e of Bj-rsa by Scipio. The wall 178 NOETH-'S\-EST AFRICA. which has been laid hare is no less than 0:3 feet thick, aifording roopi for five or six chariots to jxiss abreast on its flat top. Eecesses were hollowed out in the thickness of the wall, which doubtless served as magazines and retreats for the warrison. The whole of this structure is as hard as the most compact rocks ; the Roman walls erected on Punic foundations are much less solid, and are easily blo\\'n up by gimpowder. The other relics of those days, even those hidden under heaps of more recent ruins, have also been destroyed or converted into shapeless masses. In fact, " Timis and its environs have no other quarry than Carthage. The Arabs arc as industrious as moles in undermining the ground ; they proceed beneath it by subterranean passages, and follow along the walls which they demolish and carry away without thinking of what thej' are destroying." There still existed quite recently a corporation of "stone-seekers." In the Middle Ages the Italian republics caused the ruins of Carthage to be systematically excavated to provide building materials for their own edifices. According to a tradition the city of Pisa was built entirelj- of marbles brought from this Punic city. The materials now used in building the surromiding towns and villages are procured from the vast brickfields of Carthage, which lie at the foot of the Bu-Said hill. East of the Byrsa terrace, on the gentle incline of the hill, are the best pre- served of all those cisterns which served as reservoirs for the water brought down by Adrian's aqueduct. Unfortunately deprived at their eastern extremity of the earth embankment which protected them from the inclemency of the weather, thej' are on this side partly choked up by the remains of vaidts, but to the east they are still quite perfect. The rain water which percolates through the soil is here preserved perfectly pure, and from this source the Arabs still draw their supplies. The project of repairing the cisterns of Carthage has often been mooted, with a view to provide Goletta and Marsa with water, and this work, of such urgent necessity, will doubtless be undertaken in the near future. The whole of the Byrsa reservoirs would hold 750,000 cubic feet of water, more than the combined capacity of all the others situated along the Zaghwan aqueduct. The cisterns of Mallca have been changed into dwellings and caves by the Arab troglodytes. The old Carthaginian ports, constructed on the site of the first Punic colony, are also easily recognised, although the entrance is obliterated and the militarj' port no longer commimicates with the commercial basins. Archccologists have discovered in the alluvial soil walls and quays, by which their original form may be conjectured, and the island on which the admiral resided is still to be seen in the centre of the northern basin. But it would be quite useless to attempt to restore the port of Carthage, because modern shipping needs basins with wider entrances and far greater depth than the old galleys. Hence, were Carthage ever rebuilt, as has often been proposed, a new port would have to be constructed, not inland, but in the open sea. A jetty, based on the last spur of the rocky hills at Goletta, would stretch directly southwards to depths of over 30 feet, in such a way as to enclose a vast sheet of water, which, even without artificial shelter, would be always calm, thanks to the protection afforded by the Eu-Said headland from CARTHAGE. 179 the west and north -winds. At the time of the French occupation, it might have been possible to have transferred the capital to Carthage by a bold stroke ; the plan of the Eoman town still shows the streets cutting each other at right angles, so that the modern houses might be raised on old foundations. In healthiness, pictiu'esque beauty, and commercial advantages, no less than in the glory of its Fig. 57. — Ancient Poets of CatiTtiage. Scale 1 : 9,000. IO'19-iC 1,000 Feei. name, the new Carthage might have been far superior to Tunis ; but no one has ventured to interfere with vested interests, or modify the trade routes. Moreover, the greater part of Carthage ha^-ing, like the hill of Eyrsa, become the property of the Church, its acquisition for secular purposes would haV3 been attended with great difficulty, The total circumference of the enclosure is said to exceed 16 miles, 180 KOETH-TMiST ATEICA. including, to the north, the hill of Kamart, or Jebel Khawi, at once the quarry and the necropolis of Carthage. The soft limestone of which it is composed is pierced with hundreds of thousands of Punic, Eomau, and Christian tombs. At the foot of the hill stretch the Bukhara lagoons, the ancient anchorage of the Pimic fleet. Although very badly worked, the saline lakes of Bukhara nevertheless yield more salt than any other in the regency. Although the present capital, Tunis, like the ancient Carthage, lies at the natural issue of the plains and upland valleys of the Mejerda, the basin, properly so called, of this river has no towns whose population can be compared to that of the coastland cities, such as S/akcs and Susa. On the banks of the tributaries of the Wed Meleg, which is the longest river of the basin, nothing occurs except i\jab encampments nestling amidst the ruins of vast cities. This region, which at first sight seems to be completely deserted, because the dwellings of the people are almost merged with the ground on which they stand, was in the time of the Romans one of the most populous countries of civlHsed Africa. As on the upper affluents of the Wed Gafsa and of the rivers flowing east to Lake Kelbia, the traveller here also meets with imposing ruins covering vast extents of land. One of these ancient towns, situated near the Algerian frontier, some 24 miles north-east of Tebessa, appears to be the Ammcedara of Ptolemy. These ruins, known to the Arabs by the name of Ha'idra, are about 3 miles in circumference, and include a citadel, a triimajDhal arch of the time of Septimlus Severus, a theatre, and several Christian basilicas. About 12 miles to the north-east, on the bank of an affluent of the Meleg, stands the still inhabited town of Thala, surrounded by the extensive remains of the opulent citj- of the same name, where Jugurtha vainly sought a refuge for his family and treasures. After forty days of repeated assaults the town succumbed, but its defenders withdrew to the royal palace, to which they set fire, and perished with all their effects, thus def j'iug the anger of the Romans and baffling their cupidity. Is ot far from Thala are the remains of another town, whose thermal waters are still visited by the surrounding tribe of Majer Arabs, who apply the name of El-Ham- mam, or " the Warm Bath," to these remains. El-Kcf, the chief town in the Meleg basin and in Western Tunisia, is likewise a place of great antiquity. It was already famous at the Phoenician epoch, and had a sanctuary dedicated to Astarte, whither people came from all parts to worship this goddess. This worship was continued under the Roman government, pilgrims for centuries still visiting the temple of Yenus, whence the name of Sicca Vcneria, long preserved under the corrupted forms of Shihlca Bcnaria or Shakhanaria. This was turned by the Arabs into Shok-bcn-Nahr, or " Fiery Thorn," which gave rise to the imfoimded belief in the existence of volcanoes in this district. At the present time the town is known merely as El-Kcf, or " the Rock." Built in the shape of an amphitheatre on the slope of Jebel Dir, at a mean height of 2,GoO feet, El-Kef owes its importance to its strategical and commercial position, at the converging point of nearly all the main routes of Western Tunisia south of the Sfejerda. It is extremely rich in springs, a feature of paramount importance in these arid regions. One of the springs issues from a cavern decorated ■n'ith Roman n I EL-KEF— SHEMTTT. 181 arcades, •whicli cau be followed for some distance into the interior of the rock. Some splendid Roman cisterns have also been preserved. The French have chosen El-Kef as their mi litary centre, from -which to command the whole region comprised between Kairwan, Tcbessa, and Suk Ahras, and the garrison they have stationed has greatly increased the local trade. El-Kef is connected with the Tmiis railway by two rough carriage roads which pass through Nehcr, a small hamlet surrounded by gardens. A geographical and archaeological society has been recently foimdcd at Kef. In the Mejerda valley, the rising village of Ghardimau, the present frontier military station and custom-house, stands at the mouth of the gorges thi'ough Fig. .58. — Plain of Ghaeddiau. Scale 1 : 285,000. 6 ?a ,0 E cf Gr eenv/ T : C :.Iile3. which the river emerges fi-om the Algerian plateau on the rich central Tunisian plains. In spite of the natiu-al importance of this position, which is defended by a fortress, Ghardimau is still a mere collection of wretched hovels. Far different was the Roman colony of Simittu, whose ruins lie north-east of Ghardimau, between two rocky blufPs commanding the plain. Simittu, the Shcmtu of the present day, -was one of the principal stations on the route fi-om Carthage to Hippo ; its' site is indicated by the ruins of its amphitheatre and of the bridge -which here spanned the Mejerda, continuing the route from Sicca Veneria to the port of Tabarca. The cliffs which tower above Shemtu are composed of beautiful pink, yellow, green, and purple-veined marbles, which the Roman emperors 182 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. largely used in decorating their palaces. The quarrying works have been resumed for some years past, and quite a colony of Italian workmen has been established amid the ruins. The mass of marble which projects above the soil is calculated to contain about 875,000,000 cubic feet. The blocks of marble are taken on a branch line to the main railway, and transported to the port of Tunis. In Eoman times they were conveyed directly to Tabarca, across the mountains of Khumiria. Below Ghardimau, and connected with it by rail, is the market-to^-n of Siili--el- Arha, or " the Wednesday Fair," on the right bank of the Mejerda, and in the centre of the extensive corn-growing Dakhla plain. From a strategical point of view Sulc-ol-Arba is also of capital importance, being traversed by the route which engineering skill has constructed between El-Kef and Ain Draham in Khumiria. A small fortified camp has been established at this place to command the passage of the river, which has not yet been bridged. The future value of this position is so well understood that the railway company have made it the central station of the service between Timis and Suk-Ahras ; yet Suk-el-Arba itseK stiU remains a mere collection of miserable huts in the midst of large encampments, almost hidden from eight by the surrounding vegetation. On Wednesdays an immense crowd of buyers and sellers swarm on the roads which radiate around Suk-cl-Arba, and the following day this commercial movement is directed north-eastwards to another station on the plain, called Suk-el-Khmis or " Thursday Market." The old Roman city of Bulla Regia, where the traffic of this fertile African region was centered, lay north-west of Suk-el-Arba, on the western spur of a little chain of hiUs, now known as Jebel Larbeah. All that remains of this town are the ruins of its fortresses, of a triumphal arch, a theatre, and a bridge. Its hot baths were supplied by a copious stream which has been recently diverted towards (he camp of Suk- el-Arba. BeJA TJtICA — BiZERT.V. Beja, the largest inland town in the district boimded south by the coui'se of the Mejerda, is also of ancient origin. But of the old Roman Vacca or Vaga, whence it takes its name, scarcelj' any remains have survived. Beja is built in the shape of an amphitheatre on the eastern slope of a hill, above a verdant valley through which winds the wed of the same name ; from all parts towards its gates converge broad roads, here and there enclosing small patches of verdiu-e, and scored throughout with blackish ruts formed b}- the Eoman chariot wheels. Beja is surrounded by crumbling walls and commanded by a grey and red kasbah, now occupied by a small French garrison. The lower part of the town, whose appear- ance is still unchanged by the introduction of European buildiags, presents nothing to the view except the irregular terraced roofs of its white houses. The principal mosque, consecrated to Sidi Aissa, i.e. " the Lord Jesus," is an ancient basilica, as appears from an inscription on the waU, discovered by M. Guerin. According to the natives, it is the most ancient religious moniunent in the whole of Timisia. Except a few dozen Maltese, there are scarcclj^ any foreigners to be met in the streets of Beja, and Europeans rarely visit the bazaar. Nevertheless this town will BEJA— DUGGA. 183 soon be connected witli the main Timiai.ui railway system by a brancli line, which wiU tap a rich and extensive agricultural district. During the fairs it is visited by dealers from all parts, and its population is then nearly doubled. The surround- ing district has retained the special name of Frikia, formerly a^jplied to the whole Roman province ; thus by a curious contrast this term of " Africa " is on the one hand restricted to a small rural district, whilst on the other it has been extended to the whole continent. The numerous mines, situated in the hills north of Beja, wiU soon be traversed by the railway running to Cape Serrat and Tabarka. The basin of the TTed Khallad, which falls into the Mejerda at the mouth of the gorges, is one of those Tunisian districts which most aboimd in the finest Eoman remains. In the upper valley of the tributary are Zenfur, the ancient Assuras, and JTest, formerly Jfusii, with their remains of temples, theatres, triumphal arches, and mausoleums. Farther down Bitgga, the ancient Phoenician and Roman Thugga, is still more interesting from an archaeological point of view, for here are still to be seen nearly the whole series of public monuments which usually ornamented the great cities under the Eoman Empire. The famous bilingual (Punic and Libyan) inscription, discovered in 1631 by Thomas d'Arcos, and the study of which led to the reconstruction of the Berber alphabet, has been detached from the superb mausoleum, of which it fonned one of the faces, and deposited in the British iluseum. But the Arabs employed by Read to carry out this work have unfortunately demolished a large portion of the building, and the entrance of the sepidchral chambers is now obstructed by heaps of overtui-ned blocks. About 3 miles north of Dugga Kes the little modern town of Tthiirsuk, in the midst of olive-trees which yield the best oil of this region. Here also stood a Phoenician city, restored by the Romans, and many ancient ruins are stUl to be seen, more especially around the copious spring near which stood the town of Thihitrsicum Biire. West of Tebursuk rise the escarpments of the Jebel Gorrha, said to be one of the richest in veins of argentiferous lead ; but these mines, pierced with many himdred galleries by the Romans and Carthaginians, are no longer worked, although they could be easily connected with the main Timis railway by a branch line. The fluvial basin of the "Wed SiHana, which falls into the Mejerda north-east of Tebursuk, is scarcely less rich in old ruined cities than that of the Wed Kliallad. The site formerly occupied by the " mysterious Zaina " is sought for in this basin as well as in those of the Meleg and of the Wed Khallad. Xot far from the Kessera plateau, which is covered with numerous dolmens, are the still imposing ruins of the oppidum MactarHamim, the Makter of the present day. The camp of Suk-el-Jemaa, situated on a neighbouring plateau, has been selected as an inter- mediate station between Kef and Kairwan. This spot is the strategical centre of the whole of Tunisia south of the Slejerda. Below the confluence of the Wed SiUana, Testui; a small town of great anti- quity, standing on the right banl-c of the Mejerda, is mainly peopled by "^Vnda- lusian" iloors, whose industry has sm-roundcd it with well- cultivated gardens and fields. Farther down on the same bank the hamlet of Slughia is peopled with 184 NOETH-T\'EST iVPEICA. merchants and guides ^\lio jjoint out the fords over the river and assist the passage of the caravans. Still lower down McJcz-cI-Bah, also on the right bank, guards the entrance to the lower vaUey of the Mejerda ; it takes its name of " Ford," or "Passage of the Gate," from a triumphal arch which formerly stood at the northern extremity of a Roman bridge, but of which nothing remains except a few blocks scattered over an old river bed. A modern bridge spans the new channel excavated by the Mejerda. The little villages of Tchurha and Jedeida, which next succeed along the banks of the river, already belong to the outskirts of Tunis, which their inhabitants, many of whom claim to be of Andalusian origin, supply with vegetables and fruit, They have both a bridge over the river, a railway Fig. 59. — EuiNS OF UncA. Scale 1 : 23,000. h; I oT oreenvivich 650 Yards. station, and a few small industrial estabHshmeuts. Teburba is the modern form of the ancient Roman Tuhurho Minus, and here are still to be seen the remains of an amphitheatre whose arena is now overgro^Ti with brushwood. But the town has changed its site, as the Roman colony stood farther west on the slopes of a hill. North of Jedeida, the Mejerda, which winds through the lowlands and marshes, has no more towns upon its banks. The city of Uiica, the elder sister of Carthage, which commands its mouth, is now indicated merely by a kubba, the " marabut " of Bu-Shater, a name meauiag the "Father of Skill" or the "Wise Man," BIZEETA. 185 possibly in reference to the famous Cato of Utica, so renowned for Lis high virtues and cahnuess in the presence of death. A thorough examination of the ground has brought to light the acropolis, aqueduct, cisterns, amphitheatre, theatre, hot baths, quays, and military port of Utica. By examining the relief of the land, the plan of the town, with its ramparts and buildings, has almost been reconstructed, and manj' objects of value have been found amongst the ruins, none of which are now visible above the ground. At the extremity of the rock of Utica flows a mineral spring whose waters are exceptionally rich in arsenical salts. East of the headland, on the opposite side of the plain now watered by the Mejerda, rises the cape on which stood the Castra Cornelia, or winter quarters of Scipio during his campaign against Carthage. The town of Rhar-el-Melah, called Porio Farina by the Italians, is no longer a port, the alluvia brought down by the Mejerda having almost comjjletely closed the passage by which its lake formerly communicated with the high sea. Bizcrta, or rather Bcnzert, the corrupted form of the ancient Phoenician Mqipo- Zaryte {Hippo-Diarrhytus), lies mainly on the western bank of the shallow canal whence the town took its name of Diarrhytus, or the " Pierced." The houses of the European quarter stand on an islet between the two branches of the canal, and a castle to the south of the bank is called BorJ-el-Zenzela, or "Castle of the Chain," from the chain which formerly barred the passage at this point. Bizerta presents a fairly imposing appearance, thanks to its walls flanked with towers and its quadrangular kasbah, which stands at the very mouth of the canal. Should its aspirations ever be realised, it will become a considerable city, and the chief arsenal of the French possessions in Africa. Except the strait of Messina, no other harbour could be more advantageously situated than its lake both for sheltering the navy and for guarding the most frequented passage of the Mediterranean. Vessels of more than twenty tons burden are now obliged to anchor in the oflttng of Bizerta. The coral fisheries, which were conceded to the French Government long before the annexation of Tunisia, formerly gave employment to some twenty Sicilian barks trading under the French flag. There are now scarcely a dozen boats engaged in this pursuit ; but fishing, especially for midlet, and the preparation of botargo, gives employment to a great many sailors. The fisheries are monopolised by a Marseillaise company, who rent it annually. The Andalusian Moors, who occupy a separate quarter outside the waUs, and the Maltese immigrants, impart a certain animation to the to^\•n, which, however, is not yet of sufiicient importance to justify France in laying the railway which was conceded to them in the first year of the conquest. Some of the villages near Bizerta are surrounded with well- cultivated lands ; amongst them is the charming Mcnzel-et-Jemil, or the " Pleasant Retreat," situated on an escarped hiU north-west of the lake. The Tunisian shores west of Bizerta are an "iron-bound coast," shunned by mariners. With the exception of .Beja, there are no inland towns ; the Mogod, Amdum, and Nefza populations were still nearly independent some years ago, and the Khumirs had frequently repulsed the troops which came to collect the taxes. Taharht, the Tabraca of the Eomans, a few miles from the Algerian frontier, is VOL. XI. O 186 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. visited by a few coasting vessels, and, tHanks to its position midway between Bona I &0 '& &m^i'mmi , 1 1 LMiiiJ.ii:iu;!iiiiiiiiii;iii:: iMiiiii]MiiiiiiftaKi!aiiiJ^^ and Bizcrta, bids fair to become a busy port when its jetties and quays offer the tababk:^.. 187 necessary accommodation, and when the routes running inland are bordered by towns and villages. During the inA-asion of Khumiria, the operations of the French fleet commenced in the roadstead of Tabarka, where the plan of a new town has been traced out near the shore, at the south-east base of the steep Borj Jedid hills, and south of the islet where stiU stands the castle occupied by the Genoese Lomellini Tig. 61.— Tabakka. Scale 1 : 300,000. I L 31 Lreen ch Depths. OtoSO Feet. » to 160 Feet. leO to 320 Feet. 320 Feet and upwards. C Miles. family from 1540 to 1742. A fe^ ruins of Eoraan buildings attest the importance which this place enjoyed at the time when it was connected by broad roads with the marble quarries of Simittu, and along the coast with Hippo and Hippo-Zarytus. Two modern routes now lead into the interior : one running from Tabarka to Calle, o -i 188 NOETH-TVEST APRICA. by the Um-Tebul mines, the other penetrating to the camp oi Ain-Dntham, in the very heart of Khuniiria. A single line of railway will soon bring down to the quays of Tabarka, tauniu, cork, tiaiber from the neighbouring forests, and the iron, lead, zinc, and silver ores from the Nefza highlands. A second line, starting from the same mining region, which is one of the richest in the world, will run to a small port, well sheltered by the rocks of Cape Serrat. Ancient shafts and piles of rubbish, called " hills of iron " and " mounds of steel," show that many of these mines were probably worked in the time of the Romans. A number of families, who escaped captivity at the time of the capture of Tabarka by the Tunisians in Kg. 62. — Coek-Teee of Febnana. 1742, have settled in various parts of the coast, where they are still known as Tabarkans ; nearly five hundred fugitives also succeeded in reaching the island of San-Pietro, near the coast of Sardinia. About nine hundred persons were reduced to slavery, and even tiU quite recently this trade in Tabarkan men and women is said to have been carried on. At Tunis these refugees remained for nearly- a century, deprived of the rights conferred upon Europeans, until, in 1816, the Sardinian consul took them imder his protection. To the south rise the metalliferous and well-wooded mountains, whose products must one day prove a source of wealth to Tabarka, although large tracts of forest have already been wasted, and have disappeared altogether to the south of SOCIAL AXD POLITICAL CONDITION OF TUNIS. 189 Khuniiria. On the slope of Fernana, a place much frequented on market days, stands a splendid cork-tree, an isolated giant, whose broad spreading branches cover a circumference of 333 feet. This trysting-place of the surrounding tribes, under whose shade the delegates of the Khumirs formerly assembled to discuss questions of peace or war, is the last survivor of a vanished forest. Ain-Draham, capital of this district, derives its chief importance from the presence of the French garrison troops. But even were the soldiers withdrawn, it may still survive as a convenient market to-mi for the tribes of north-western Tunisia. Near this spot stands the famous shrine of Sidi Abdallah Ben-Jemal, which continues to be visited by thousands of Khumirs on the feast-day of the patron saint. SoriAL AND Political Coxdition of Trxis. Tunisia is at present in a state of transition between two irreconcilable political and social systems. Although officially a ilohammedan power, it is in reality a province of the French colonial empire, and those wlio are called the masters of the country are really subjects, upon whom the burden of subjection weighs most heavily. Decrees are still dated according to the Mussulman era, and are preceded by antiquated Oriental foiTnulas ; but a new era has dawned upon the country, and the vital force and j)0wer come now from the West. Everything changes ^■isibly under foreign influence : the populations, the appearance of the towns and country the roads, trade, and the industries are all being raj)idly modified. The tide of immigration is almost entirely composed of Mediterranean peoples, because those Frenchmen themselves who emigrate to this regencj^ belong mostlj' to the watershed of this inland sea. Italians were by far the most numerous of all foreigners before the French occupation, and since then they have retained, and even increased, their numerical superiority, thanks to the proximity of their coimtrj'', and to the advantages which long-established currents of trade give to new-comers. In 1885 these Italian immigrants were numbered at about twelve thousand. The ranks of those engaged on the public works, agriculture, and the smaller industries are of necessity recruited fi-om amongst these Italian proletariats. The French immigrants look for better-paid occupations, which are much more difficult to obtain. The Maltese, however, who are relatively very nimierous, soon break up into two distinct nationalities. Nearly all their jJoor are devout Catholics, zealously obeying the orders of the French primate of Tunisia, whilst the middle class Maltese, who habitually speak Italian, are naturally connected with Italy in customs and political sympathy. It cannot be disguised that very hostile feelings are harboured towards each other by the local French and Italian colonies. The latter have not yet resigned themselves to the present state of affairs ; they look upon themselves as the natural inheritors of the land, because of its geographical situation, and of the interests which they have here created for themselves, and feel aggrieved that it has been wrested from them by the French. Even in Tunis itself, the struggle for supremacy between these two foreign elements has assumed the character of national animositj'. Two railways, the Italian line from Goletta, and 190 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. that of the French from Bona-Guelma, both stop short in the European quarter, and remain unconnected even by a lateral branch running towards the Marina. Nevertheless, the occupation of Tunisia, as a complement to the Algerian terri- tory, has tended to modify the situation to the advantage of the French element. Till quite recently the predominating European language was Italian ; even in the French families the children, accustomed to converse with young playmates from Sicily or Naples, ended by speaking Italian in preference to their own mother tongue. Now, by the reverse process, French is predominating in the European and Maltese circles. In the civil and religious schools, as well as in all public places, both Jews and Mussulmans learn to converse in French, which, after Arabic, has become the language of the coimtry. Regular schools have already been founded in most of the large towns, and Tunis, Cabes, Sfakes, Monastir, Susa, Kairwan, Bizerta, and El-Kef, aU possess normal schools for the training of native teachers. The preponderance of the commerce with Marseilles also contributes to assimilate the countrj^ more and more to France. Finally the garrisons, and numerous employes scattered through the territory and joui'neying from place to place, diffuse the use of the French language around Ain-Draham, El-Kef, Kairwan, Susa, Cabes, and other military and administrative centres. The land is sold almost exclusively to the profit of the French speculators. There can be Httle doubt that, from the side of the western plateaux, a considerable tide of inmiigra- tion must set in, and thus introduce French elements, such as those already developed in Algerian territory. Great changes are also taking place in the Mussulman world of Timisia. The place of those tribes who, accustomed to independence, quit the countrj' in order to evade the rule of the hated " Rumi," is filled by the Algerians who come in great numbers, nearly all with the hope of making their fortimes in the service of the new masters. In every town they are to be met with in the position of coachmen, porters, and servants. During the harvest the Kabyles also arrive in shiploads of hundreds at a time, and from them the Tunisians have learnt the art of mowing their meadows. The natives of Marocco, who are much more vigorous and energetic workmen than the local Arabs, are also strongly represented, and together with the Sicilians they clear the ground and plant vines on the various properties which the French have recently acquired. The Mussulman population of Tunisia, hitherto kept down by civil wars, the raids of plundering tribes, and ojjpressive taxation, will probably begin to increase under the new administration. But, judging from the experience of Algerian towns, where the death-rate of the Arabs normally exceeds that of the births, it is to be feared that in the long run the same result may be produced in the Tunisian towns, in consequence of the ver}' intimate relations of the Europeans with the Moors. The social state, so intermingled with vices, which we call civilisation, would seem under such conditions to develop its worst features, by placing the elements of corruption within easy reach of the weak, without at the same time giving them the power of resistance. The property around the to^\^ls and railway stations is continually changing hands. Since 1861 many foreigners have purchased land from the Mussulmans, SOCL\X AND POLITIC.VL CONDITION OF TUNIS. 191 notwithstanding the uncertainty of the titles and the risks of lawsuits. A great many fresh purchases will probably be made in the near future, when by the adoption of the " Torrens " Act, introduced from the Australian colonies, the formalities for the transfer of land will be greath' simplified. The begiunin" of the French occupation of Tunisia presents a remarkable contrast to that of Algeria, by the rapidity with which the French obtained possession of the agricidtural domains. The total area of the land which, in Tunisia, yearly passes into the hands of French proprietors, is already greater than ia the whole of Algeria. The cause of this difference between these two conterminous countries is due to the fact that in Tunisia the purchasers buy the land directly from the native proprietors, whilst iu Algeria it is assigned to the colonists by the Government after tedious administra- tive formalities. But although the French property has increased much more rapidly iu Tunisia than in Algeria, it is much less democratic in its essential characteristics. In Algeria there are veritable colonists, that is to say, men who themselves handle the spade, bring up their cluldi-en in the furrows, and mount guard over their crops. They form, even more than the soldiers, the real strength of French Algeria, for they have settled there of their own free-will, and made it their second home. Instead of these sturdy colonists and small landed proprietors, the European purchasers in Tunisia are chieflj- representatives of financial com- panies, agents of absentee capitalists, or else, in the most favourable cases, enterprisiag men who are in charge of vast tracts of land cultivated bj^ foreign hands. The work of colonisation, properly so-called, by the French peasantry has no chance of success except on the western plateaux, where the similarity of the physical conditions on both sides of the frontier tends to produce analogous social conditions. The important work of replanting the country has been coromenced only in the Jerid dunes and along the railway from Bona to Guelma. In the Jerid the object has mainly been to solidify the shifting sand-hUls, whilst the railway company is engaged in the acclimatisation of new plants. Of the four hundred thousand trees which they have had planted in their domains, the majoritj- are Australian acacias, which yield an excellent tannin, and also a species of eucah-jjtus known as the "blue gum-tree." A new oasis is being developed near the Wed Melah, in the Cabes district, thanks to the artesian wells sunk by the explorer Landas. But on the other hand, the disafforesting of the country still continues, and the work of destruction by far exceeds that of restoration. Entire pine forests, near the hamada of El-Kessera, have been destroyed solely for the sake of the bark. The contrast between the two kinds of property in Tunisia and Algeria, is equally striking in the methods of cultivation. "WTiilst at the commencement of the colonisation, and up to a recent period, the Algerian farmers followed in the steps of the French peasants, endeavouring to obtain fijom their land the various kinds of products necessary for the support of maij and beast, such as corn, roots, ■fruit, and fodder, the Tunisian planters deyote their attention abnost exclusively to vinictdture. Agriculture has thus changed its character and become mainlj- an industrial pursuit, and the evolution which has taken place in the economic world, in consequence of the concenti;ation of the capital, is shown in Tunisia by agricul- 102 NOBTH-AVEST AFRICA. tural methods different from those of the first half century of the French occupation of Algeria. Slavery was abolished since 1842, even before it was officially done away with in Algeria ; but the many native day labourers, the Khanimcs, or "^ Fig. 63.— Railways and Highways of Ttwis. Scale 1 : 3,500,000. Caixiage Road. Railway. ISO Miles. colonists of the poorest class, who cultivate the domains of large landed proprietors, ai'c veritable slaves — serfs bound down by the advances made to them by their masters, and which they repay at exorbitant interest from the share of the harvest GOVEENMEXT OF TUNIS. 103 allotted to them. Heuce it is not surprising that, notwithstanding the great fertility of the land, the populations of Tunisia have often been decimated by famine. The industries, properly so called, have hardly changed since the foreign colony has attained such great importance in this country. The result of the commercial annexation has been more especially to diminish the productiveness of the Tunisian workshops to the profit of foreign industries. Although the Jacquard looms have been introduced, the Lyons textiles are gradualh- dri^-ing the local products from the markets of the regency. The large steamship companies, especially those assisted by the State, maintain a regular service along the coast, shipping the produce of the interior in exchange for European wares. France enjoys the largest share of the foreign trade, which is rapidly increasing. The railways are producing in the interior of the country changes similar to those effected by the substitution of steamships for sailing vessels. They are abolishing the old method of transport by caravan and changing the direction of the trade routes. The line from Tunis to Bona and Guelma, which traverses the gorges of the Upper Mejerda, formerly avoided by the Roman highways, has diverted to Bona part of the trade of the capital. In the same way the projected line across Northern Tunisia, rid Beja, terminating at the port of Tabarka, will open a new route for commercial enterprise. Another and more important Hne, from Suk-Ahras to Cabes, via Tebessa, will skirt the whole of the peninsular region of Tunisia, running directly from the Algerian ports to the Jerid district and the oases of Tripoli. At present the construction of railways is proceeding slowly ; nor is the traffic of much importance, the company, which is guaranteed a return of 6 per cent, by the State, having no interest in developing a local trade by which it woidd be in no way benefitted. The railways most likely to be first con- structed are the northern Hne, from Jedeida to Mater, and later on to Bizerta ; the eastern Hne, continuing that of Hammam-Lif to Hammamet across the neck of the Dakhelat-el-Mahuin peninsula ; and the southern line to Zaghwan and Kairwaii, with a branch to Susa. In 1847, long before the annexation, the French Government had estabHshed a postal ser\-ice in the regency, and later on introduced the telegraph system. The chief towns are regularly visited by postmen, and in every direction the country is traversed by telegraph wires, connecting those of iUgeria with TripoH. The Arabs scrupulously respect the wires and posts, which are useful to them as land- marks and signposts. GoVERSMEXT OF TuNlS. The government of Tunisia is divided between two centres of authority, those of the Bey and of the French. .According to the Bardo Convention, the Bey still nUes, and even exercises absolute control over all affairs of the interior; but France, who has converted Tunisia into a protectorate, undertakes the defence of the country and administers its finances through a " resident general ; " in other 194 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. words, she disposes of the capital and military resources of the regencj'. The power is therefore really in the hands of the French, the Bey and his agents being invested with the mere semblance of authority. Nevertheless, in certain respects, Tunisia may be said to have remained a distinct state. It has a political individu- ality mth its own administration, special legislation, and interests now opposed to those of the neighbouring territory of Algeria. In the small towns the relations between the French and the natives are regulated by consuls and "ci-vil controllers," in the same way as those between two foreign peoples. Objections are even raised to the " Bey's subjects " being made naturalised Frenchmen. Both French and Algerian merchandise is examined by the custom-house with the same rigour as if it came from England or Italy, and is charged with an ad valorem duty of 8 per cent. The weights and measures are even different, and the French metrical system, already adopted by some five hundred millions of people in the two hemi- spheres, has not yet been oiBcially introduced into Tunisia. The civil tribunal of the capital and the six justices recently instituted in Tunis, Goletta, Bizerta, Susa, Sfakes, and El-Kef, decide cases between Europeans and natives according to the French laws. Since 1885 the magistrates are even paid by the Tunisian budget as officers of the Bey's Government ; but they are under the jurisdiction of the Algerian court of appeal. The consular tribunals of the various nations have been suppressed, and in the rural districts the administration of justice is entrusted to the kaids, assisted by the local khalifas and sheiks. The degrading pxmishment of the bastinado, which was always inflicted by the despised Jews, is no longer applied. The press, which in 1885 consisted of nine papers, is subject to official control. There are no forms of parliamentarj' representation, but the absolute power of the Bey is held in check by the supreme authority of the resident general, who has alone the right to correspond with the French Government through the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The officers of the army and navy and all the higher officials are under his orders. The general in command of the troops occupjang the country, as well as the archbishop, who is the head of a small army of priests and nuns, and spiritual guide of the whole Maltese community, also enjoy considerable influ- ence in virtue of their respective fimctions. At the same time an appearance of authority is left to the Tunisian ministrj', which superintends the finances, the press, the administration of justice, the public works, the array and navy. But the French governor presides over foreign affairs as the representative of the sovereign power. According to established usage, the office of Bey is inherited by the eldest male of the familj% whatsoever may be the degree of his relationship. The present heir presumptive is the Bey's brother. His official title is "the Bey of the Camp," and till quite recently he commanded the forces which are sent from province to province to collect the taxes. The financial difficulties of the Bey were one of the chief causes which led to the occupation of the country by the French troops. The French and other bankers, who had readily advanced him large sums at heavy interest, and who held mortgages over his property, at last assumed the collection of the taxes, and sought farther security in the indirect possession of the political power. Thus arose the GOVEEXMEXT OF TtTNTIS. 195 intrigues and struggles of all kinds which, together with political complications, culminated in the events of 1881. Accordingly, one of the principal clauses of the treaty -which put an end to the independence of Tunisia, stipulated for a financial reorganisation of the regency, " assuring the administration of the public debt and guaranteeing the rights of the creditors of Tunisia." The revenues of the country were divided into two portions : one for the ordinary expenses of administration, the other and larger portion in security for the public debt of £•3,500,000. A financial committee was appointed to represent the creditors, with power to supply any deficit from the State revenues, which for this purpose were placed under their control. The Government was even forbidden to make anv reforms, create or change any taxes, issue new loans, or estabhsh any public serA-ice without their consent ; and although this committee no longer exists, the interests of the creditors are none the less well protected. The chief revenues assigned to them are the custom-house duties, the tobacco, fisheries, and salt monopolies, the market dues in most of the towns, and the taxes on the olive-trees in the Sahel and other districts. To the State is left the unpopular mejda, or poll-tax of twenty-two shillings a head, which falls chiefly on. the poor, most of the rich having found means to evade it. Another burdensome tax is the hanun, which is charged on olive-trees, in addition to a tithe. In bad seasons the farmers have often cut do-mi their trees to prevent the officers from claiming a tax they were unable to pay. The considerable recent increase of trade, the suppression of smuggling, the dismissal of over four thousand useless officials, and the strict enforcement of the custom-house duties, have all combined to restore order in the financial chaos ; and it is even pretended that the receipts now more than cover the expenses, although the cost of the army of occupation and other claims of the French budget, represent nearly the whole value of the public income. The hahbus. or church property, said to comprise one- third of the soil, is almost exempt from taxation, paying into the treasury little more than £4,000 a year. In 1885 the French invading force, considerably diminished by the reinforcements sent to Tonkin, numbered eleven thousand men distributed throughout the strategical ports of the country. The three military centres are Tunis, Susa, and Cabes, and in the interior the chief garrison towns are, Ain-Draham, El-Kef, Kairwan, and Gafsa. The conscription is in force in Tunisia, but the native army, modelled on that of France, is employed chiefly in parade service at the palaces of Marsa, the Bardo, and Goletta. In 1884 this army, which on paper consisted of several thousand, numbered in reality only 500 infantry, 25 cavalry, and 100 artillery ; officers on the retired list are even more numerous than privates in active service. But the regular army is supplemented by bodies of makhzen, spahis, and hambas, who act as policemen. In 1884 the Kulugli, or Hanefiya irregulars, of Turkish origin, and the Zuawa (Zouaves), mostly Kabyles, were disbanded to the number of 4,000. The natural di\-isious of Tunisia are so clearly traced, that there has been little difficulty in selecting the chief strategical points. The whole of the lower Mejerda 196 XORTH-WEST AFRICA. Yallcj-, the basin of tlic A\'cd Mclian, and the Dakhelat-el-ilahuin peninsula, are included within the military circle of Tunis. The quadrilateral group of mountains and hills bounded south by the cour.se of the ^[ejerda, has the town of Beja for its capital, and the Camp of ^Vin-Draham has been established in the centre of this region to overawe the Khumir tribes. The mountainous districts which separate the Jilejerda from the affluents of Lake Kelbia have the town of El-Kef as a military centre, while the rugged hamada region is commanded by the camp of Suk- el-Jemaa. Kairwan is the natural capital of the plains and yallc^ys which slope towards Lake Kelbia,. and the Sahel at Ras Kapudiah is divided into two sections, one depending upon Susa, the other on Sfakes. The natural centre of the steppes and isolated highlands of Northern Tunisia, as far as the depression of the shotts, is Gafsa, and the whole of the southern region as far as the Tripolitana frontier and the desert, forms the military district of Cabes, in some respects the most impor- tant of all, because it commands the entrance of the Saharian regions, and would enable an enemy to invade Algerian territory by the southern face of the Auros mountains. The regency is divided administratively into utans, or departments of varying extent, each governed by a kaid, assisted by one or more khalifas, or " lieutenants," according to the importance of the province. The towns, villages, and tribal com- munities are ruled by sheikhs, who levy their fees directly on their subjects. Such fees are known euphemistically as the "price of slijDpers," the boots worn out in the public service being looked upon by these officials as a justification of their extor- tions. The municipal commissions which sit in a few communes, such as Goletta, El- Kef, Bizerta, Susa, and Sfakes, are composed of resident Europeans, nominated hy the Government, and of Mussulmans elected by the notables. The utans have been frequently changed in number. At the time of the French annexation, there were more than twenty, not including those of special tribes, nomad or half-settled, which were administered separately. CHAPTER IX. ALGERIA. TIE central portion of Mauritania, this " Island of the West," whicli by its geology, as well as its climate aud products, formerly belonged to the European continent, has been again politically detached from Africa, and connected with the opposite shores of the Mediterranean. Even from the beginning of history, the rela- tions of this country, whether peacefid or warlike, have always been, not so much with the African lands from which it is separated by the Sahara, as with regions lying to the north or west beyond the sea. Archaeology reveals even in prehistoric times, the builders of the dolmens migrating from Gaul across Spain to Mauritania ; then, at the verj' dawn of history, we find the Sidonians and Tyriaus founding their marts on the coast of Mauritania. To the influence of the Phoenicians succeeded that of the Romans and Greeks ; even during the interregnum caused by the migra- tions of the barbaric peoples from the north, the conquering Vandals, advancing from the shores of the Baltic, penetrated to these southern regions, where they finally became extinct without leaving any distinct traces of their presence amongst the North African nations. Then the Arabs, mixed with Syrians and Egyptians, spread rapidly throughout Mauritania, followed in their turn by the Turks, who here established a chief seat of their maritime power. Historic Retrospect. But even when the shores of Maghreb were being overrun by invaders from the east, its relations, mostly of a hostile character, were still mainly with the opposite side of the Mediterranean. For over ten centui-ies pirates from the south, at first known as Moors or Saracens, afterwards as Barbary corsairs, maintained a state of continual warfare against commercial Europe, and even extended their depredations beyond the Strait of Gibraltar. In order to escape these sudden attacks, the towns and villages along the Mediterranean seaboard were built on hills, at some distance from the shore, and surrounded by walls. In the warfare which continued from century to century between the ISIussulmans and Christians, the former at first had tlie upper hand ; they seized Spain and Sicily, 198 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. and even for a considerable time occupied the " iloorish. " mountains on the French coast, while their expeditions penetrated into the valleys of the Garonne, the Loire, and the Rhone, to the verj' heart of the Alps. Yet in the Middle Ages the war had already been transferred to Africa during the Crusade of St. Louis, and although it ended in disaster, the Spaniards followed up the conquest of Grenada by seizing Oran, Bougie, Mostaganem, and Algiers ; the inland town of Tlemcen even became tributary to them, and it seemed as if Spain, after being so long in the power of the Arabs and Berbers, were about to vanquish them in its turn. But the tide of victory was again arrested, and notwithstanding his assumed title of Africanus, Charles V. proved less successful in Mauritania than his ancestor Ferdinand. His fleet was destroyed by a tempest, and from that time most of the European powers paid a tax to the Turks of Algiers to protect their trade ; and when they refused this shameful tribute, they found it necessary to blockade and bombard the coastlaud towns of Algeria, or else to pay heavy ransoms to liberate the captives of their respective nations. The war was continued between the Barbary states, and Europe and its outport of Malta, under a thousand different forms. In the end the advantage remained in the hands of the European nations, for the Turks failed to acquire any footing on the northern shores, whilst on the coast of Africa many a trading place, such as Tabarka and Calle, fell into the hands of the Christians, and several islets and fortified peninsulas, such as the presidios of the coast of Marocco, and even the town of Oran, were occupied by Spanish garrisons till the j'ear 1791. The decisive blow was delivered in 1830. The town of Algiers, in which were amassed all the treasures of the corsairs, fell into the power of the French ; then other places on the coast were successively occupied and, by the very force of circumstances, in .spite of the uncertain plans, political changes, and temporary checks, the conquest of the interior was gradually accompKshed. The whole of Algeria, which is much larger than France, has been annexed as far as the border land between the settled districts and the domain of the nomad tribes. Tunisia has experienced the same fate ; and if Marocco, separated from the province of Oran by a badly defined frontier, has not yet become European territory, the cause is due to the jealousy of the rival Powers. However Spain, after a long period of inaction, has again assumed an aggressive attitude, occupying a strip of territory on the Atlantic seaboard ; while the French troops have often crossed, at Uja, the Shott Tigri and Figuig, the conventional line of the Moorish frontier, in order to curb the hostile border tribes. Marocco may already perhaps be considered as politically annexed to Europe, and the people themselves are the first to recognise their inevitable destiny. Henceforth connected with Europe, Northern Africa has acquired considerable importance in contemporaneous historj', and Algeria especially participates in the intense life which now animates civilised society. After Egypt, Algeria of all other African regions has been the theatre of events whose influence has been most far-reaching. Next to Cape Colony, Algeria is the largest centre of Euro- pean populations, and in spite of thirtj' years of almost incessant wars, it has, HISTORIC RETROSPECT. 199 relatively speaking, even been more rapidlj- peopled by European immigrants than the English possessions in South Africa. It is not an industrial field or an immense farm like Java, or British India, which are often wrongly spoken of as " colonies," and too often also held up as examples to the military powers of Europe. Like Canada, although under other political conditions, it has become a second France beyond the seas. Taken altogether, the work of the conquering nation, mixed with good and ill and very complicated in its effects, like all human works, has not had the general result of diminishing and debasing the natives. There are doubtless men who demand that the historical law of an eye for an eve Fig. 64. — Geadttal CosarEsr of Axxjehia. Scale 1 : 12,000,000. IS IXj 1830—35. 1835—10. lS-40— 45. 1845—50. 1850—55. 1855—60. 1860—80. 1880—85. The underlined names indicate places where the Marseilles traders had factories. .^^—^^^^^^ 150 Miles. should be meted out to the Arabs, and that they should be " driven " towards the desert, as they formerly drove the Berbers towards the mountains. In many parts of the Tell and the outskirts of the towns these processes have already been even put in practice, in an indirect but legal way, " by means of expropriation for the public benefit." But most of the Arabs are still in possession of their lands, and what remains to them would be quite sufiicient to support them if it belonged to the peasantry themselves, and not to great chiefs who reaUy own it in the name of the tribe. In spite of the injustice and cruelties which accompany every act of 200 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. sudden invasion, the situation of the Arabs has not grown worse, while that of the Kubylos, Biskri, and Mzabites has cA-en improved, thanks to the stimulus given to their trade industries. Algeria has received much more from France than she has returned, and the people of the country, though not treated as equals, have in many respects gained more liberty since the period of Turkish rule. Many of the European settlers themselves have endeavoured to vindicate their right to fcllow- citizonship with the Arabs and Kabyles by their industrious habits and jierseverance in founding new homes under the most adverse circumstances, in the midst of fanatical and hostile populations. Thanks to their indomitable energy and patience, the land mav be said to have been subdued far more by the plough than by the sword. In this peaceful, though none the less arduous, conquest of the soil, the non- French colonists took at first the largest share, and even still scarcely yield to the French settlers in agricultural enterjjrise. With the Proven9als, and others from the south of France, they have helloed to solve the vexed question of the acclimatisa- tion of Europeans in the Barbary States. Immigrants from the north of France and Central Europe are less capable of resisting the unfavourable climatic influences, and amongst them the mortality is normally higher than the birth-rate. If the settlements were recruited exclusively from these som-ces, the work of colonisation would have to be incessantly renewed. But the Catalonians, Pro- ven<;als, Genoese, and other southern peoiDles find little inconvenience in migrating to the regions south of the Mediterranean, where they still meet the same flora and fauna, and in some respects even the same ethnical elements, as in their native land. As in the time of the Iberians and Ligurians, kindred races continue to settle on the north coast of Africa, where the difference of latitude is largely compensated by the greater elevation of the land. The work of assimilation is thus being effected by the Mediterranean races, and to them will mainly be due the development of the New Algeria, with its cities, highways, industries, and general European culture. At the same time the work of civilisation has hitherto been carried out in a desultory and perfunctory manner. The country might even have been aban- doned altogether, if the monarchy, threatened in the streets of Paris by the Republicans, had not found it convenient to get rid of its enemies by banishing them to the Algerian border-lands. Even before the Jidy revolution, the conquest of Algeria seemed to offer a career for these unruly elements, and in the year 1831, the Government succeeded in enlisting as "volimteers" for this service some four thousand five hundred Parisian malcontents. Thus the new conquest became a place of exile before it developed into a colonial settlement. The conquest itself continued to tax the resources of the mother countr}', and its settlement has already cost at least £240,000,000, besides the lives of several hundred thousand soldiers and colonists. It may even be asked whether this constant drain of men and treasure maj^ not have been the jjrimary cause of the late disastrous war with Germany, followed by a rectification of frontier to the advantage of that Power. ALGI ERS .A° ?" r S7 1, *"***i< T' 'Nekiwafia ^■' H^ T, p M*towna^ ^_^ Or!ean5vil!f .. ., „. loM4ilCMtM /'''^M.!..off 36 A.n-Abou'Dmar . -*-^^--, ^^ ^ p;i;=sier. "''°'""' :,'^""_ ^ — S *■_ ». . V laSen.a •., , . ■$ y • « ■ u - ■■■•"•.• Lo — .l'«. •*■'*' S!0.n-.,"d„S-,|/f * F.r,.„. ^""";Ho».Vn,(i. . » , . 1 ■/ JJ.».mamBo:.Gl.ar. \ ^Lamorioiin, ^ 'All bar, YoubliSlbul.a) j| 35 ^ ^^ ./r.p.,./„^ ■Rs5.i-M5 Jtta&lli ' 1 •1-A-l.ha ^ ^ 1 i ■>. *' \ I 4 '"• V ^ ^ .*» TKheVJ.r ^ " "^ / U^ J lJ%^ r jTBi r l 1 StWan i ^;/ / ^ G.;ryv;ile- ; -. . Mesh«r;» d / j..r '■^^ ' /'■ . " ' * ► . Sh«ii.ij.t-Dai,--a«: ,,.»'*• «'-f«'0^"; 5 ' :vi . , <^ ■.*■'. , <»• ^ J- ^ ' . j' .SXatrfi^: « y _f,J^-''' , r' "' . "tlAblod S;d, Shaikh 1 ! >i Ifindiaiiaf CS-eeawidv. 1° 6° 1° xavdjer 5000 in 5 to TO, OOP in. 70 to ZO.OOOTn. aver 20,000 zrv . D ORAN m.t«l-HMd Bo|h.r SeJl'^'^ „!''' {t" X \ suotr''--ff'"fr. •^ 'A >^^ J, ietfa 3 aou Sad* ^•■ 3 y hfii '*>• j: ToI|« ; trJ"""" ■ Jfitoio-oir ATnSuJfar, ■iN mout -^ *r^ i5« ^? a ;;^ « J)eptfis. ZI EZJ PHYSICAL FEATUEES. . 201 The expressions " Xew France " and " African France," often applied to Algeria, are in many respects fully justified. The French have undoubtedly already acquired a firm footing in this part of the continent, where they have introduced their language and their culture. French towns and villages have spnmg up, not only along the seaboard, but m every part of the country, which is now intersected in all directions by highways ru nnin g to the verge of the desert. The work accomplished by the French iu half a centmy may be compared with that which resulted from seven centuries of Roman occupation. Thanks to the railway, telegraph, and other appliances of modern science, they have rapidly spread over the whole land, penetrating southwards to the oasis of El-Golea, 180 miles beyond Jelfa, apparently the last outpost of the Romans towards the Sahara. The political annexation of the country to Europe may already be regarded as an accomplished fact. The native elements, broken iato fragments, differing in speech and ori'CTioN OF the Geodetio Lines between Aloeeia and Spain. Scale 1 : 2,500.000. Meridian of Gi to 320 Feet. Depths. 320 to 1,600 1,600 to 3,200 3,200 to 6,400 6,400 Feet and Feet. Feet. Feet. upwards. CO MUes. range, and Msabiha in the neighbouring Oran group. The chain of triangles is now continuous from the northernmost islet in Shetland to the 34th parallel of latitude in Algeria, and will soon be extended far into the Sahara, forming the largest arc of the meridian that Tias hitherto been astronomically measured on the surface of the globe. 206 NOBTH-WEST APEICA. South of the Great Sebkha, at the foot of the Oran coast range, stretches the cretaceous Tessale range, terminating in the Jcbel Tafarawi (3,540 feet), which is skirled north and south by the railwaj' between Oran and Sidi-Bel- Abbes. Farther east the coast chain, intermitted by the extensive bay sweeping round from Arzen to Mostaganem, reai^pears east of the Shelif river in the hilly Dahra plateau, with a mean elevation of 1,600 to 2,000 feet. The Dahra system, rising gradually east- wards, culminates in the two Mounts Zakkar (5,000 and 5,200 feet.) Farther on, these uplands faU abruptly towards the Mitija valley, but are continued east of the Shenua headland (3,000 feet) by a narrow ridge, which is separated eastwards by the winding Mazafran river valley from the Suhel, or terminal heights of the Algerian coast range. The Southern Ranges. South of the coast range, the first important heights on the Marocco frontier are those of Tlemcen, one of the most regular orographic sj'stems in Algeria. Here the highest point is Mount Tenushfi (6,120 feet) ; but several other crests exceed 6,000 feet, and the route from Tlemcen to Sebdu, although following the lowest level, maintains an elevation of 4,800 feet. Far to the south rise the crests of the Arisha chain, dominated by the pyramidal limestone peak of the Mekaidu, 4,900 feet high. The valley of the Sig, east of the Sidi-Bel- Abbes, is limited southwards by the Beni-Shugran mountains, forming a prolongation of the Tlemcen Atlas, and cul- minating in the Daya and Beguira j)eaks, 4,630 and 4,660 feet respectively. This system is continued eastwards by the Warsenis (Wansherish, Warensenis), one of the loftiest ranges in Algeria, whose chief crest, terminating in a double peak, rises to a height of 6,600 feet. These highlands, which are pierced by streams flowing northwards, and skirted on the east by the deep valley of the Shelif, present a less symmetrical outline than the western groups. Abd-el-Kader had established his chief strongholds amid their inaccessible recesses, and in their turn the French have erected fortresses to command the lofty plateaux and passes leading to the TeU. Still less uniformity of relief is presented by the border ranges of the " Little Atlas " stretching south of the Mitija Valley. These uplands are broken by ravines, plains, and broad transverse fissures into several distinct groups, all dis- posed in a line with the main axis of the Atlas system. Here the Gontas, Muzaia, Zima, Bu-Zegza and other rugged masses are approached by military routes winding through narrow gorges like those of the Shiffa, or ascending their steep slopes in zigzag Uncs, like those of the highway between Algiers and Amnale, which attains a height of 3,300 feet at the culminating point of the road leading to the territory of the Beni-Muca tribe. The famous Tenia, or " Pass " in a pre-eminent sense, which was the scene of so many conflicts in the earlj^ j'ears of the conquest, traverses the Muzaia hills at an altitude of 3,470 feet. For the whole of this orographic system M. Niox has proposed the collective name of the " Titteri THE SOUTHERN EANGES. 207 Mountains," the old pro\-mce of wliicli they form a part having been so called before the French occupation. One of the best-defined ranges in Algeria is that of Jurjura, the Mons Tcrratus of the Romans, which runs east and north-east of the Titteri hills. Although its highest point is only 7,680 feet, or somewhat less than the Sheliya of Aures, it rises to a greater relative height above the plains than any other range in the country. Seen from the north it presents an imposing apjjearance, being here skirted throughout its whole length by a deep wooded and cultivated valley, which forms a pleasant foreground to its rugged and snowy peaks. In this direction the snows are more abundant than on the opposite slope, and in the depressions traces Fig. 67. — Anctent Glactees of the Haizeb MonuTAius. Scale 1 : 1-22,000. . 3 Miles. are even seen of avalanches. At some former geological epoch glaciers fiUed the gorges of the Haizer and Lalla-Khedrija slopes, and a large terminal moraine is still \isible in the upper valley of the Wed Aissi. Elsewhere also are seen indica- tions of the lakes which once flooded the depressions, but which have since run diy. Of aU the Algerian uplands the Jurjura highlands abound most in running waters, rich vegetation, cool and healthy valleys sheltered at once from parching southern and cold northern winds. The mountains of Upper KabyHa are disposed in such a way as to form a regular semicircle round the border of this region. Coast ranges, such as the 208 NOETH-WEST APEICA. basaltic promontory of Jiuct, the limestone Dcllys chain, and the crests of Azeffun, complete this extensive orograjihic system, which is broken only by difficult passes and the route opened in the north-west between the Lower Seban and Isser river valleys. While Great Kabyha from Bougie to Meuerville is completely encircled Fig. 68.— GoBOES OP the Wed Ageiun. Scale 1 ■ 86,5(10. "W ' Bai-dj K.iiJ .Hai 5"eo' . 3,300 Yards. by a good road, which will soon be supplemented by a railway, the heart of the country is pierced only by a single carriage route, constructed in the year 1885. East of the Sahcl '\''alley begins the partly volcanic Babor range, a continuation of the Jurjura system, over 180 miles in length, with peaks covered with snow till THE SOUTHEEN EAXGES. 209 the begi nnin g of summer. Such are the Tababor (6,550), the Great Babor (6,560 Fio-. 69. — View iaxes is the Shabet-el-Akka Route. feet), and farther north the Jebel Adrar (6,740). Immediately to the west of the 210 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. last named lies the deep gorge of Sliabct-el-Akra, excavated by the -waters of the Wed Agriun to a depth of manj' hundred feet, and utilised by one of two carriage routes which cross the Babor range in the direction of the coast. The hilly region stretchiag thence northwards to JijeU and CoUo is one of the least accessible in Algeria. South of the Jurjura and Babor systems, the Jcbcl Dira is continued by the Biban, or " Gates," a name due to the breaks through which, during the rainy season, the Biirface -waters of the plateau find an outlet to the plains. Amongst these breaks noteworthy are the " Iron Gates," known respectively as the Great and the Little Gate, the former of -which is now traversed by the route and the railway between Algiers and Constantine. The Little Gate, lying nearly 3 miles farther east, also forms an easy road-way, and here the geologist may conveni- ently study the black limestone rocks, -which assume the appearance of colossal oro-ans, buttresses, ramparts, and other fantastic shapes. East of the Gates rises the Jebel Sattera, an extinct volcano, -whose crater is still strewn with scoriae and pimiice. The highlands lying south of the Biban range have been broken by erosive action into numerous distinct groups encircled by almost horizontal depressions. Here the loftiest summit is the Jebel Maadhid (1,630 feet), beyond which point the heights gradually fall, -while the intervening depressions merge in plains extending towards Constantine. In the neighbourhood of this town the hills reapjjear, but seldom attain an elevation of much over 3,000 feet. Towards the north-east the northern border ranges terminate in the bold headland of Edugh (3,350 feet), on -whose last spur stands the citadel of Bona. Cape Garde, -which encloses the road- stead, takes the normal direction from south-west to north-east, -while the Cape de Fer headland projects farther -west in the contrary direction. But Hke the CoUo hills, this bluS is of volcanic origin, forming no part of the general orographic system. The ranges skirting the upland plateaux on the south begin on the Marocco frontier, some 200 miles from the coast. North of Figuig, the highlands separating the plateaux from the Sahara form a series of small grouj)s falling graduaU}^ towards the north-east, and collectively known as the Ksur range, from the now jDartly destroyed strongholds guarding their passes. But each group, called by the Arabs Eisn ("Fort"), or Kclaa ("Castle"), has its special designation, and in fact several present the appearance of fortifications. The chief summits are the Maiz (6,170 feet), north-west of Figuig; Beni-Smir (6,600) north of the same oasis; Jebel Mzi (7,320) south of Ain-Sfissifa, all commanding a view of the sandy wastes of the Sahara. Beyond the Ksur groups several parallel ridges, such as the Bu-Derga, Ksel, and Tarf, form the western section of the Jebel Amur, or " Mountain " in a pre- eminent sense, both terms having the same sense, the first in Arabic, the second in Berber. Viewed as a whole, the Amur forms a plateau cut up hj torrents flowing some to the Algerian shotts, others to those of the Sahara. It thus constitutes a true waterparting between the Mediterranean basin and those of the Jeddi and THE SOUTHERN RANGES. 211 Ighargliar. Its central division is occupied by the so-called gada, largo stone tables with steep vertical cHii's flanlied by long taluses. Round these great chalk masses wind deep gorges communicating with each other by fissures in the plateau. The Tuila Makna, their cuhninating point, connecting the Amur with the Gcryville highlands, has an elevation of 6,330 feet. But, if not the highest, the most impos- ing crests are those rising in the south above the terminal spur known as the Kef- Guebli. East of the Amur system the highlands fall gradually in elevation and contract in width, being reduced north-west of Biskra to a narrow ridge, which scarcely separates the Hodna depression on the north from that of Ziban on the south. Here Fig. 70. — Cape be Fee. Scale 1 : 110,000. L . ctf Greenwich Depths. to 320 Teet. S20 Feet and upwards. — 3,300 Yards. the railway from Batna to Biskra is able to cross the hills without tunnelling, by following the gorge of the Wcd-el-Kantara down to the southern plains. But this line has to describe a great bend round the western extremity of the Jebel Aures, the loftiest range in Algeria. This system, however, lacks the symmetry of outline characteristic of most other Algerian uplands. The highest northern crests deviate somewhat from the normal direction, being gradually inclined from west to east, and on the whole presenting the form of a slightly opened fan. In the northern range towers Mount Sheliya, the giant of the Algerian highlands, whose supreme peak, the Kelthum (7,760 feet) exceeds by some yards the Lalla-Khedija, in the 212 N'OETH-^'EST AFRICA. Jurjura range. From its easily ascended summit a vast prospect is commanded of the northern plateaux and shotts between Batna and Am-Beida, while on the southern horizon is visible a long blue streak marking the skirt of the Sahara. Eastward the Aures system is continued by the Jebel Sheshar and the Nememsha mountains, which, like the isolated ridges of the Tebessa plateau and Timisian frontier, are noted for their natural fastnesses, often transformed into places of refuge by the natives. These south-eastern highlands of Algeria have a mean .elevation of from 4,000 to 4,500 feet, the Sheshar range culminating in the Ali- en- Nas, 6,250 feet high. South of the Algerian border chains the u])lands terminate abrujitly in extensive plains covered with Quaternary alluvia, and forming a sort of strait between Mauritania and the Sahara highlands. Southwards the ground rises almost imperceptibly towards the Ras Shaab heights, which run south-west and north-east, parallel with the Atlas system, and which in their highest peak attain an elevation of 2,830 feet above the Laghwat oasis. Beyond this point stretches the Sahara, which here consists mainly of Pliocene formations, originally deposited as alluvia by tlie running waters, and afterwards, doubtless, distributed by the winds, Kke the yellow earth of North China. In some places the beds of this friable soil have a thickness, according to M. Rolland, of 1,000 feet. Nevertheless, they are here and there broken by isolated masses of cretaceous rocks, some of which occupy a considerable space. The most extensive is the so-called Mzab plateau, which, although separated from the Algerian uplands by a tract of Quaternary allu\-ia, may be regarded as a sort of isthmus connecting the Mauritaniau highlands with the Devonian plateaux of the interior of the Sahara, and \\ith the crystalline rocks of the Jebel Ahaggar. Rivers of Algeria. Although it receives from the rain-bearing clouds a quantity of water at least equal to that carried off by such a river as the Nile, Algeria does not possess a single navigable stream. Its internal navigation is limited to a few skiffs and rowing-boats on the Seybouse. The development of large fluvial basins is prevented by the very relief of the land, the coastlands forming a narrow strip between the plateaux and the Mediterranean, while towards the south most of the streams flowing to the Sahara have their source on the inland slopes of the border chains. The total area of Mediterranean drainage may be approximately estimated at 80,000 square miles. All the rest of Algeria is distributed over closed basins, where the water either evaporates in saline lagoons, or else runs out even before reaching the central depression. In fact, nearly all the Algerian streams are dry for a great part of the year, their beds presenting in the uplands nothing but bare rock or pebbly channels, in the lowlands strips of sand lashed by every breeze into whirlwinds of dust. The rivers, which retain a little moisture in summer, are closed at their mouths by compact sandbars, which present a soHd path to pedes- EIVERS OF ALGEELV. 213 trians and riders. Nevertheless, the weds are not so completely exhausted as they seem to be, for below the dry surface there is often an underground bed, in which the water oozes through the sand and develops small pools above such obstacles as rocky ledges or artificial dams. In the extreme north-west, the Marocco frontier is marked by the little "Wed AjerCid. But the first important stream is the Tafua, which receives someafHuents from Marocco, but whose farthest source is in the Tlemcen hills, within the Algerian frontier. Although not more than 90 miles long, the Tafna has suc- ceeded in excavating a channel through a .series of gorges, through the Tlemcen, the Traras, and some intervening ridges. The Isser, its chief tributary, pursues a similar course from its rise on the southern slope of the Tlemcen range to the confluence. Fornierly the extensive low-lying plain skirted northwards by the Oran coast ranges was flooded, and of this old lacustrine basin there still remains the great sebkha of Misserghin, or Oran, besides some other saline depressions and marshy tracts fed by the Sig and the Habra. These two streams, jointlj- forming the Macta, which flows to Arzen Baj^, rise on the northern scarp of the Central Algerian plateau, and reach the plain through a series of abrupt windings in the transverse fissures of the intervening hills. The longest river in Algeria is the Shelif, whose farthest headstream, the Wed Namus, rises in the Jebel Amur, beyond the whole region of central jilateaux. After its junction with the Nahr TVassal from Tiaret, it pierces the northern border chains through the Boghar defile, and flows thence between the Warsenis and Dahra ranges to the coast a Kttle to the north of Mostaganem. But although it has a total course of at least 420 miles, the Shelif has a smaller discharge at low- water than many Pyrenean torrents flowing to the Garonne. The Mazafi-an, with its famous affluents the ShiSa, the Harrash, and the Hamiz, which water the Mitija district, are all mere streamlets, indebted for their celebrity to their proximity to Algiers, to the battles fought on their banks, the towns and fertile tracts occupying their basins. More voluminous are the Isser, whose lower course forms the western limit of Great Kabylia, and the Seban, fed by the snows of the Jurjura highlands. The "Wed Sahel, or Summan, which has a longer course but smaller discharge than the Seban, rises to the south of the same moun- tains, flowing thence north-east to the Bay of Bougie. In spite of its name, the "V7ed-el-Kebir, or " Great Eiver," which reaches the coast between the Jijeli and Collo headlands, is great only relatively to the small coast streams. One of its affluents, the Bu-Merzug, or Ampsagas of the ancient.s, for a long period formed imder the Romans the frontier line between the province of AJi-ica and Mauritania. "West of this Wed-el-Kebir of Constantine, two other rivers bear the same name, one rising in the Guehna hills, and flowing to the Mediterranean south of Cape de Fer, the other descending from the Khumirian highlands in Tunisia. Between these two eastern kebirs flows the far more important Seybouse, which falls into the Gulf of Bona with a more constant discharge than any other 2lJt NORTH-WEST AFRICA. Algerian river. The sources of the Sherf, its chief headstream, are intermino-led on the Ain-Beide plateau w'ith those of the Tunisian Mejerda and its affluent, the Wed Meleg. At a former geological epoch the plain now traversed hy the lower Seybouse formed a marine inlet, of which the shallow Lake Fetzara is a remnant. Between the sea and the eastern Wed-el-Kebir, at its mouth known as the Mafrag, the town of La Calle is encircled by a girdle of three lakes — the Guera-(Guraa)- el-Melah, or " Salt Lagoon ; " the freshwater Guera-el-Ubeira draining during the floods to the El-Kebir ; and the Guera-el-Hut, or " Fish Lagoon," which reaches the sea through the sluggish and sedgy El-Mesida. Except the narrow strips drained by the Upper Shelif and the llejerda, with Fig. 71. — Lakes of La Calie. Scale 1 : 200,000. 8°ia oJ breenwich Depth. to 320 Feet. 6 Miles. its tributary, the Meleg, the whole of the Algerian plateau region is comprised within the region of closed basins, which were formerly united, and which would again be connected in one system with a more abundant rainfall and less elevated temperature. The larger baisins take the name of s/w/ts, less extensive freshwater or brackish depressions being knowTi as dhaijas, while the term ghedir is applied to •muddy swamps or meres. Most of the shotts are encircled by rocky banks or cliffs 50 or 60 feet high in some places, but now separated from the lacustrine waters by intervening saline beaches or strips of crumbling gypsum mixed with sand. Such is the aspect of the Shott Gharbi, or "Western Shott," on the Marocco frontier. The Shott Shergin ("Eastern") has a total length of nearly EIVEES OF ALGEEIA. 215 120 miles in the central part of the plateau. It is divided bj' the Kheider isthmus into two basins, of which the western has an extreme breadth of 15 miles. East of the Shelif the plateau region presents nothing but small basins, such as the Dhaya Dakhla, north of the Ukait range, and south of that range the eastern and western Zahrez, which according to one estimate contain some six hundred million tons of salt. North-east of Bu-Sada stretches the extensive Shott-el-Hodna, which at a former geological epoch was certainly an Alpine lake. Farther east are some smaller sebkhas, the most important of which is the Tarf, whose waters attain the highest possible degree of saturation, or twenty-seven per cent. Most of the streams flowing from the southern border chains towards the Sahara are absorbed by irrigation works soon after leaving the mountain gorges. Some, however, flow from oasis to oasis for a long distance from the hUls. In the west these wadies take a southerly course ; but near the Tunisian frontier the vast basin of the now-dried-up Igharghar is inclined in the opposite direction towards the Shott Melghigh depression. Lofty uplands lying in the Sahara far to the south of Algeria give to the whole of the intervening region a northerly tilt, and this is a point of primary importance in the physical geographj' of the desert. While the running waters formerly flowed in the east, either towards an " inland sea," or towards the Gulf of Cabes, they drained in the west in a southerly direction either to the Niger, or even directly to the Atlantic by trending round to the west. Although the problem is not yet solved, the reports of recent explorers render the former hj-pothesis the most probable. "Within the present limits of Algeria, all the other streams rising on the escarpments of the plateau run dry in the sandy dunes which lie some 60 miles farther south. Such are the Wed Nemus, which rises in the neighbourhood of Tint ; the "Wed-el-Gharbi ; the Wed-es-Segguer, flowing from Brezina, south of GeryviUe ; the Wed Zergoun, fed by the torrents of the Jebel Amur ; the Wed Lua, skirting the east side of the ilzab plateau. The other streams of this region flow to the Wed iizi, the chief branch of the Wed Jeddi, which forms a geological limit between the cretaceous plateaux and the sands of the Quaternary plains. After a course of about 300 miles, the Jeddi merges in the vast depression of the Shott Melghigh. Like other rivers of the Sahara flo-«-ing over rocky beds, it is subject to sudden and formidable freshets, the dry channel at the confluence of the Wed Biskra being sometimes flooded to an extent of 6 or 7 miles from bank to bank in a few hours. The Wed Msif, also in the Hodna district, suddenly assumes the proportions of a river nearly 2 nules wide, sweeping away escarpments and whole flocks of sheep in its impetuous course. Other wadies coming from the gorges in the Aures and Sheshar mountains, or rising in the desert itself at the foot of the rocky escarpments, converge towards the depression of the shotts, without always reaching it. By far the largest of these dried-up watercourses is the Igharghar, which has its farthest headstreams in the Jebel Ahaggar, and which develops a vast channel 1 to 6 miles wide, and large enough to contain the waters of a Nile or a Mississippi. In some places it is completely obKterated and choked with shifting dunes to such an extent that the 216 NOETH-W'EST iVFEICA. general slope of its bed euu uo longer be recognised. But its old course is stiU s I > I T 60 :i:l -.>uC:;iiii«lBaiBi«a^^^^^ ' _ ' ■'ii.'l ' i W preserved by tradition and indicated bj- the natives, who now utilise it as a caravan THE SHOTTS— AETESLUS' WELLS. 217 route. Its chief affluent, the "Wed iliya, resembles the main stream in its general appearance, presenting a series of small basins, depressions, and shotts, interrupted bv shifting sands. But the waters still flowing below the siu-faee continually increase in abundance towards the confluence, where a well-marked depression begins, in which a succession of shotts, wells, pools, and springs, preserves the character of a watercom-se. Such is the valley now known as the Wed Kigh (Rhir). The confluence itself is indicated bj- a number of perennially flooded sebkhas, fringed by the palm groves of Temaciu. The Shotts — Artesian Wells. The Shott Meruan, which forms the natural basin of all these old streams from the south, is connected with the Shott Melghigh proper only by a narrow channel. Fi^. 73. — Vaixzt of the Wed lIiTi, between" the Gabaa El-0>'ksee ant) the Gaeaa T-ei-Beida. ii^iiM^ and ramifies eastwards in secondarj- sebkhas, which rise and fall according to the rainfall and greater or less evaporation. The Shott Melghigh, forming the northern division of the depression, terminates eastwards in the Shott Seliem, beyond which follow several others disposed north and south, and separated by a tongue of land from the Tunisian Shott Gharsa. This basin itseK is separated only by Jerid from the vast sebkhas which stretch eastwards to the Isthmus of Cabes. At first sight it seemed natural enough to regard the whole of this lacusti-ine system as the remains of an ancient inlet, into which the mighty Igharghar discharged its waters, and this view was generally accepted before the VOL. XI. 218 NOBTH-WEST AFRICA. true relief of the land had been determined by careful surveys. It has now been made evident that neither in historic times, nor even in the present geological eijoch, did the Igharghar reach the Tunisian shotts, which are separated from each other and from the sea by two rocky sills, showing no trace of ever having been subject to the action of water. The general slope of the land is also opposed to such a view, being inclined not seawards, but in the opposite direction, towards the inland lakes. The salts of the shotts are of diverse composition, dilfering from those of sea-water, and in certain places containing more sulphate of soda than Fig. 74. — Shott Melghigh and Peojected Ixlaxd Sea. Scale 1 : 1,300,000. L . of breenwicn S Artesian Well. f Ordinary Well. fiudaire's Survey. 30 Miles. marine salt. Nevertheless saline incrustations are found in some of these basins, especially the Shott-el-Gharsa, which yields salt of a very fine quality. The great Algerian shott and surrounding saline depressions lie below sea- level, whence the hasty conclusion that by connecting them with the Gulf of Cabes, the Sahara itself might be converted into a vast inland sea. Recent measurements have shown that the area of the whole region Ipng at a lower level than the Mediterranean scarcely exceeds 3,300 miles. Hence the idea of flooding the Sahara, advocated especially by Rudaire, can never be realised in our days. THE SHOTTS- ARTESIAN WELLS. 219 A more practical project, already begun with the happiest results, aims at recovering the reservoirs of water accumulated below the surface, and utilising them for the extension of the old, or creation of new, oases. Although from the remotest times the natives have carefidly husbanded their supplies, many sources Fig. 75. — Artesian TVeixs of Zibax and the Wed Rioh. Scale 1 : 2,250,000. 55' — s. ) T ' A • -v., i^ Sidi iVacJiad*-^ jt^ 5 n*J •lOued ^-'/ ^^> Tou|ourti'" j55' r, . of^ Greenwich 4 Artesian wells flowing. = Wells yielding water • Ordinary stone and _^ ,, „ with French plantations. on the smface. temporary wells. 30 Miles. have completely dried up, and numerous places are known as Ain-Mita, or " Dead Springs," indicating the victory of the sands over the fecundating waters of the oases. In the everlasting struggle between the elements, incessantly modifying the surface of the earth, the wilderness has continued to steadily encroach on the arable lands, and in many districts depressions formerly flooded are now destitute of all visible moisture. The local fauna itself shows that the climate has Q 2 220 NORTn-WEST APEICA. become ilricT, and tliu Klual desiccation of the land is attested by tbe remains of organisms unable to survi\c uudei- the changed conditions of their environment. Nevertheless the local populations, accepting the struggle against natiire, have constantly endeavoured to preserve Fig. 76.-BAEEAOE OF THE Hamiz. t^^^ir plantations, and "artesian " Scale 1 : 85,300. wcUs wcrc Sunk in North Africa long before the practice was intro- duced in Eurojje. But none of these wells " lived " long, some "dying" in five j'ears, while a few prolonged their existence, under favourable conditions, for eighty or even a hundred years. Since 1856, however, scientific methods have replaced the rude processes of the inhabitants every- where except in the regions still subject to the influence of the marabuts of Temacin. At a dejith of 100 feet the engineer, Jus, reached the Bahr Tahtani, or " Lower Sea," which flows beneath the dried -ujj bed of the Wed Righ, and the inhabitants of the Tamerna oasis, north of Tugurt, beheld with surprise and delight a spring suddenly well- ing up and yielding over thirty gallons per second. This source received from the marabuts the name of " Well of Peace," to commemorate the treaty of friend- ship henceforth cemented between the Saharians and the French creators of living waters. Since this first essay, over a hundred Artesian wells have been sunk in the hydrological basin of the Melghigh, and fresh sources are being constantly developed. One of the most copious is that of the Sidi Amran oasis, in the Wed Righ, north of Tugurt, which yields nearly fifty gallons per second. The wells have an average depth of 230 feet, with a temperature varying from G5° to 78^ F. Sudden changes and even a total 3,300 Yards. CLIMATE OF ALGERIA. 221 stoppage of the supplies sometimes occur, as in the Hodna district, in 1862, when an underground shock suppressed two wells and reduced the volume of a third by one-half. Thanks to this increase of irrigating waters, the oases have been largely extended, and M. Rolland alone has planted as many as forty thousand palms in reclaimed districts. Other fruit trees have been doubled ; the crops have increased in pro- portion, and new plants have been introduced in the gardens. New villages have sprung up amid the palm groves ; the population of the Ruaras has been doubled, and the tents of many nomad tribes have been converted into fixed habitations grouped round about some newly created oasis. The same process may also be applied in many places to the development of thermal and mineral springs, thus increasing the already abundant supply of medicinal waters in Algeria. It might even be possible to utilise the subterranean sources for pisciculture, the wells of TTrlana, ilazer, and Sidi Amran having revealed the presence of several varieties of fishes, crustaceans, and freshwater molluscs. Efforts are also being made to prevent the waste of the surface waters, which are lost by evaporation or infiltration in the sands and crevices of the rocks. So early as the year 1851, a first barrage was constructed in the gorges of the Meurad, above Marengo in the west Mitija plain. Since then large dykes have been raised in the Macta basin, and for many years an extensive barrage has been in progress, which is intended to intercept the waters of the Wed Hamiz south-east of Algiers. Similar works are being erected in the Shalif basin or its affluents, as well as on other rivers of Algeria. On the completion of the schemes already projected, all the streams rising in the uplands will be arrested at their entrance on the plains by means of dams diverting the current to lateral channels. But these works, some of which are stupendous monxmients of human enterprise, are not unattended with danger. The two great reservoirs of the Sig and the Habra have ahready burst through their barriers, the timiultuous waters overflowing on the surrounding plains, wasting the cultivated tracts and sweepiug away houses and villages. But the havoc caused by these disasters is partly compensated by the fresh supply of alluvial matter thus spread over the exhausted soil. Climate of Algeria. The differences of climate correspond to those of the relief, aspect, and latitude of the land. Each of the several zones— maritime strip, coast range, central plateau, southern slope, and desert— has its special climate, variously modifying the shifting curves of temperature, moisture, and other meteorological pheno- mena. Algiers, lying about the middle of the north coast over against Provence, may be taken as tj-pical of the maritime region. On the whole, its climate may be described as mild and temperate, although very variable, owing to the sudden changes of the atmospheric currents. According to M. Bidard's observations, its mean temperature is about 65° F., falling in January- to 54^ and in August, the 222 NORTn-"S^TST AFRICA. hottest month, rising to 78°, thus showing an extreme deviation of not more than 24". The usual division of tlie year into four seasons is scarcely applicable to Algeria, which has really not more than two well-defined periods — ^moist and temperate from Seiitember to the end of May, hot and dry for the remaining three months of the year. The position of Algeria on a coast completely exposed to the sea breezes gives to the anemometric regime a paramount influence in the distribution of heat, moisture, and atmospheric pressure. Here the winds have free play from all quarters, even from the interior, where the Sahel uplands retard their progress without perceptibly modifying their direction. The sirocco, or hot ^ind from the south, is tempered by the ^-icinity of the sea, while Fig. 77. — Rainfall of the Sahara in 1884. Scale 1 : 15,000,000. L ^ oi VjreenwicK HeavT rainfall of 20 inches. Mean rainfall of 10 inches. CZl Rainless. . 300 lliles. the cold breezes from the north acquire a certain degree of heat during their passage across the Mediterranean. Algeria Ues beyond the zone of regular trade winds ; but during the fine season light and pleasant land and sea breezes succeed each other regidarly along the coast, the former prevailing at night, the latter during the day. Elsewhere, owing to the radiation, the changes of temperature from night to day are very considerable, the thermometer under the solar rays rising in some places to 166° F., and falling in the hottest nights to 68° or 69° F., a discrepancy of 98° within the twenty-four hours. The result is a great condensation of aque- ous vapour, with abundant dews and frequent fogs during the night and early morning, especially along the maritime districts. The rainfall itself is more FLOBA OF ALGERIA. , . 223 copious than is commonly supposed, the winds from every quarter beiii» charged with some degree of moisture. But the heaviest downpours and most violent storms are brought by the north-west currents, which form a continuation of the fierce Provencal mistral. On the east coast the annual rainfall varies from 24 to 69 inches, while the average, as recorded by the observatory of Alo-iers for the years 1862 — 73, was found to be about 37 inches, a proportion much higher than the mean for the whole of France. But for the whole of the hill region north of the Sahara it would appear to be not more than 22 inches. On the central plateaux, which for vast spaces jjresent no obstacle to the free play of the atmospheric currents, and where the geological structure of the soil is everywhere the same, a great uniformity of climate prevails, although the oscilla- tions of temperature between winter and summer are much greater than on the coast. In winter the cold is very severe, and vast spaces are often covered with snow, which in the depressions lies to a depth of manj' feet. But the summer heats, although also very intense, are more endurable, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere. Even in the Sahara, the solar radiation causes a fall of the tempera- ture during the night from 150" down to 38° F. Here also dews are abundant, but rain extremely rare, several j'ears sometimes passing without a single shower, at least according to the reports of the natives. But their statements can now be rectified by the observations of meteorologists, who have recorded a mean rain- fall of over 3 inches at Biskra duriag the period from 1878 to 1883, and six times that quantity in the exceptional j-ear 188-1. Flora of Algeria. Although differing little from that of Western Tunis between Cape Bona and the frontier, the Algerian flora presents more sharph' defined divisions in its several provinces, divisions due to the obstacles presented by mountain ranges and plateaux to the diffusion of plants. The greatest variety of species is found in the maritime zone and on the northern slopes of the coast ranges. Notwithstanding the destructive action of fires and a reckless system of exploitation, veritable forests still exist in this more favoured region. In the low-lying tracts and along the riverain districts, poplar, ash, and aspen trees are matted together in dense thickets by a network of creepers, while on the slopes the prevailing species are the Halep pine, juniper, and other conifers. The suber, zeen {quercus Mirheckii) and other varieties of the oak also cover extensive spaces, especially on the eastern seaboard. The crests of the hills are often crowned with cedars differing little from those of Lebanon, but approaching still nearer to the Cyprus variety. On the moist and wooded slopes of Tlemcen the botanist Kramer has discovered a species of poplar {pojmlus Euphratica) found elsewhere only in Marocco and on the banks of the Jordan and Euphrates. A variety of the oak also {quercus castaiieofolia) hitherto met only in Caucasia, is found spread over the Babor heights between La CaUe and Bougie ; while other species, such as the Australian eucalyptus, have been more recently introduced by man from distant regions. 224 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. But most of the Algerian forests, abeady wasted in the time of the Romans, and again destroyed by the charcoal-bumers, have been replaced by extensive tracts of brushwood, and of smaller growths, such as the myrtle, arbutus, and bu-nafa, or t/iajjsia rjanjanka, fonnerly so famous in Cyrenaica under the name of silphium, and still highly prized in Algeria. Above the maritime region and beyond the coast ranges, the changes in the character of the vegetation are due less to altitude than to the aspect of the land, and the proportion of moisture contained in the atmosphere. The olive, the characteristic tree of the seaboard and of the slopes facing the Mediterranean, scarcely reaches the upland plateaux, although it is still met on the Jebel Aures and in the oases at their foot. The cork-tree and Halep pine disappear at the same altitude as the olive, and no evergreen oaks are seen at a higher elevation Fig-. 78. — Forests of Aloeeia. Scale 1 : 9,600,000. ^'lab^Wf ^ ■' ■Sill .,# Qerjville. '^ \ ^-v^:.^' ^ J ..■! t . n] breeniA'icK 8° Forests. 180 Miles. than 5,000 feet. In the Jurjura cedar forests flourish at between 3,300 and 4,000 feet, and this plant attains a higher altitude than any other species. The only tree that has adapted itself to the breezy and dry climate of the central plateaux, with their great extremes of temperature, is the betum (pisfada atlaniica), which at a distance looks like an oak-tree. Here are also met a few tamarisks and arborescent species growing in the hollows, but no other trees or shrubs except those planted by the colonists round about the civil and military stations. The characteristic vegetation of the plateaux are coarse grasses, especially of the stipa family, which cover a space of about ten million acres altogether. Conspicuous amongst them are the well-known alfa, or rather halfa {sfipa tcnacisshna), and the shi {artcmisia herba alba), which occupies extensive tracts between the Marocco and the Nile deserts, and the dried leaf of which is used as a substitute for tobacco by the Arabs. FLOEA OF ALGERIA. 225 On the upland eastern plateaux, and especially in the districts frequented bj' the Meraemslia and Haracta tribes, the prevailing plant is theguethaf {airiplcr halimm), which supplies an excellent fodder for the camel. A common species on the plateaux is also the dis {ampelodesmus teiiax), which resembles the halfa grass, and which is used by the Arabs for thatching their huts and for making cordage. The terfas, or white truffie [tuhcr niveum), is widely diffused throughout the Oran uplands and in the Hodna districts. Together with the parmelia escuknfa, a species of edible lichen known as "manna," it serves as a staple of food amongst the natives. Nor is the Sahara itself so destitute of vegetation as is commonly supposed. Besides the palms and undergrowth of the oases, such as fruit-trees, herbs, and Fig. 79. — The Alfa Region. Scale 1 : 9,600,000. 120 Miles. vegetables, hundreds of plants grow on the clayey, rocky, sandy, and marshy tracts of the desert. But there is an absence of European species, and the chief affinities are with the flora of Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, and Southern Persia. Altogether the Saharian flora comprises 560 species, of which about a hundred are indigenous. But the number might be easily increased, and several useful varieties have already been introduced by Europeans in districts where water is available. The sands themselves might be clothed with vegetation, and several species growing spon- taneously on the dunes, help to bind the shifting masses and convert them into soKd hills. Amongst them is the drin {arthratherum pungent), the grain of which in times of scarcitj'- serves as a substitute for barley. 226 XOETH-'^'EST Al-'EICA. Fauna of Algeria. The Algerian fauna, like its flora, forms part of the Mediterranean zone, thus still attesting the former connection of Mauritania with Europe. Nearly all the species are, or at least were at one time, common to the two regions now separated by the Strait of Gibraltar. But as we advance southwards the analogy gradually disappears, first for mammals, and then for birds. In the southern districts a con- tinually increasing resemblance is observed, on the other hand, between the Algerian species and those of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Senaar. The intervening desert was certainly in former times less extensive and more fertile than at jDresent, so that many animals may have migrated from Central Africa to Mauritania. But for shells, which move more slowly and with greater difficulty across unfavourable tracts, the normal distribution has been maintained. Hence the contrast in this respect between the Algerian and Sudanese faunas is complete. According to Bourguignat, six parallel faunas follow successively from north to south, in Algeria — those of the seaboard, of the coast ranges, of the central plateaux, of the southern ranges, of a now-dried-up maritime zone, and lastly, of the Sahara. Since the separation of the European and North African areas, both have become modified, less, however, by the development of new varieties than through the disappearance of old forms. The loss has been greatest in Etirope, where civilisation was earlier diffused ; but Mauritania also has lost some of its species even within the historic jDeriod. There can be no doubt that the elephant was cap- tured in the Numidian forests two thousand years ago ; but it has now disappeared, together with the bear, which from numerous local traditions and legends appears to have survived in the wooded heights of the Upper Seybouse down to the period of the conquest. Shaw speaks of the bear as still living in the Algerian forests ; Horace Vernet saw a freshly dressed bearskin ; and hunters are mentioned who are said to have recently pursued this animal. The deer is also disappearing, while the ape family is represented only by a single species, the inthecm iiuuius, found also on the rock of Gibraltar. On the other hand, many wild beasts long extinct in Europe still hold their ground in North Africa. Such are the lion, panther, wild boar, hyaena, jackal, and Barbary wild cat, the two first being numerous especially in the dense thickets of the province of Constantine, and in the hilly and wooded districts south of the Shelif river, near the Tunisian frontier. But the ostrich, bustard, and mouflon, till recently abundant on the central plateaux, have everjTvhere become very rare since the French conquest. The gazelle, of which there are three varieties, is also retiring towards the Sahara, although occasionally compelled by want of water to return to the southern highlands. But although the upland plateaux have thus ceased to be a great hunting- ground, the local feudal families still keep their falcons as of old, and also preserve a famous breed of greyhounds, which are highly esteemed, while other dogs have remained in a semi-savage state, prowling about the camping-grounds and justly IXILiBITAXTS OF ALGERIA. 227 feared by the traveller. But of all the companions of the Algerian hunter, none are held in such estimation as the horse, a breed distinguished by its beauty, elegance, high sjjirit, combined with great gentleness, sobriety, and endurance under fatigue and changes of temperature. In the Algerian Sahara several reptiles occiu- of the same species as those of Nubia and Upper Egypt. Such are the horned viper, and the large waran, or Egyptian monitor, some of which are over 3 feet long and look like small crocodiles. They are much feared on account of the magic power attributed to them, and like the chameleon, they are suj)posed to be the deadly enemies of the horned viper. Another remarkable saurian is the dobb, a lizard frequenting the palm groves, whose delicate flesh is eaten hj the natives and its skin used for making pouches and boxes. The crocodile, supposed to ha^■e entirely disappeared from Mauritania since the historic j)eriod, still survives in the running and stagnant waters of the desert. It was first discovered by Aucapitaiue in the Wed Jeddi, and has since been found in the upper affluents of the Igbarghar. Insectivorous birds exist in vast numbers, and to this circumstance must be attributed the comparative rareness of grubs and butterflies. The locust {oedipoda cruciata), which was one of the chief causes of the terrible famine of 1867, swarms in myriads only in exceptional years. In ordinary times their numbers are kept down by the stork, " the agriculturists' providence." On the Setif plateaux the curious spectacle has presented itself of thousands of storks drawn up in line of battle and attacking a living wall of locusts. o IXHABITANTS OF AlGERIA. The changes that have taken place since historic times amongst the human population of Algeria, are even still greater than those affecting the animal and vegetable species. But the question at once presents itself, do they, like these forms, constitute a common domain comprising both the northern and southern seaboards of the West Mediterranean ? Is the character of unity observed in the organic world throughout this region, retained at least in the fundamental elements of its present inhabitants ? Although no positive answer can yet be given, there can be no doubt that numerous migrations have taken place and frequent relations been maintained between the opposite coastlands. At some epoch before the dawn of history, the whole region was certainly occupied by peoples enjoying a common civilisation, whether they were all of one or diverse origin. Throughout Mauritania, and especially in the province of Constantine towards the Tunisian frontier, megaKthic monimients are met with similar to those existing in the West of Europe. Tens of thousands of such remains have already been found, and others are constantly discovered, although they are too often destroyed to procure materials for the house-builder and road-maker. In the Me j ana plain, west of Setif, M. Payen estimates at ten thousand the number of menhirs scattered singly or in groups over the steppe. They look like a multitude changed into stone, the mean height of the blocks being that of a man of low stature. The so- 2-28 NORTH-WEST Al^EICA. called kbur-el-juhala, or "pagan graves," are mostly of smaller size than the dolraens of like origin still existing in Brittany and La Vendee, from which it has been inferred that the megalithic industry of Algeria was either just beginning or already declining. But the officers engaged in the triangulation of the district between La Calle and Suk-Ahras have discovered sepulchral slabs of enormous size, scarcely inferior to those of Gavr'iunis and Lockmariaker in Brittany. Besides the slabs and raised stones, there occur all sorts of megalithic structures : the cromlech or circle of stones, the cairn, the barrow crowned with a dolmen, terraces encircled by flights of steps, underground chambers hewn in the live rock, cupped stones, sacrificial altars ; rows of luinuts, or subterranean cells ; kusf/ns, or tombs in the form of cylindrical ovens topped with a large slab ; bnsinas, or mounds composed of concentric layers rising in the form of step pyramids. In the Algerian Sahara large sepulchral urns have been found placed mouth to mouth, the head and body occupying one, the legs the other. The remains of resinous wood associated with earthenware, and still more the worked flints scattered here and there, not only on the heights skirting the "Wed High, but even on the hamadas and in the desert between Tugurt and Ghadames, are amongst the facts regarded by geologists as undoubted indications of recent changes in the climate of Africa. Near Hammam-el-Meskhutin, the Roknia graves, belonging partly to the bronze age, contain thousands of molluscs disposed in hori- zontal layers. According to Bourguignat, many species then living in the country have ceased to exist, or have become very rare ; one species even became gradually modified during the period of the Roknia tombs. Since that epoch of worked flints and polished hatchets, used by peoples living in a more humid climate, the mega- lithic industry has been continued throughout the historic period down to recent times. In many burial-places the rude stone implements of the natives have been found associated with Roman stelae, shafts of columns, slabs covered with Libyan or bilingual inscriptions. Under the kbur-el-juhalas and kushas, numerous skeletons have been found, nearly always resting on the left side and with the knees bent up to the breast. The mode of interment is always the same, whatever be the objects deposited with the dead — coarse earthenware, flint instruments, silver, copper, bronze, or iron rings and armlets. Not many skulls have been collected ; but those already measured suffice to show that at this prehistoric epoch, before the arrival of Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, or Arabs, there existed amongst those now collectively grouped as aborigines two perfectly distinct cranial types. Both were dolichocephalic, or long-headed ; but one was a tall, the other a short race, the former being further distinguished by the posterior position of the crown and of the diameter of greatest breadth, as well as by more prominent zygomatic arches, nasal apophyses, and frontal ridges. The same cranial conformation still charac- terises most of the Biskri and of the nomads surroimding the oases. These men also differ from their neighbours in the structure of the skeleton, which when leaning against a wall prevents them from applying the outstretched arms close to the surface, a considerable sj^ace being always left behind the humerus. >., l-^^-'-t^^xS- ,^^^^^^^^^ ^^-^^^7i^:^r?#^-^-^^,^ ARAB MENDICANT, BISKBA NEGRESS AND EL-KANTAEA WOMAN. IXKABITANTS OF ALGERIA. 229 The second type found in the old graves resemhlcs that of the present inhabi- tants of the oases. These have a well-balanced cranium, straight features, and arms disposed like those of Europeans ; but they are otherwise A'erj' slim, and of low stature. People of the same type are found in the more elevated parts of the Jurjura range, where they would seem to have taken refuge, together with the moukey tribes, that have also retired from the plains to these inaccessible uplands. Dui-ing the first years of the French occupation, all the natives were confounded under the common designation of Arabs ; nor is the distinction between Arabs and Berbers even now always observed. On the other hand, those who clearly recog- nise the great contrast between the two races, might easil}- fall into the opposite error of regarding all the non-Arab elements as forming a single ethnical group usually known by the name of Berbers. But these also present different types, and a closer inspection soon shows that many peoples of diverse origin have con- tributed to form the so-called Berber j)opulation. Besides the contrast presented by groups differing in stature, disposition of the limbs, and cranial formation, there is also that of the complexion and colour of the hair. Although the prevailing colour is brown, in all the tribes men are found with light hair, and some even with blue eyes. This fair element, first described by Shaw, is numerously represented in the Aures district, and especially near Khenshela and in the Jebel Sheshar. According to Faidherbe, it constitutes about a tenth of the whole population in the pro^-ince of Constantine. The Denhajas, who occupy a tributary valley of the Safsaf south-east of Philippeville, claim to be sprung of fair ancestors, although from subsequent cross- ings with their neighbours most of them have acquired dark hair and eyes. They call themselves Ulad-el-Juhala, " Sons of Pagans," and until recently they still raised on their graves huge blocks (siiob), roimd which religious rites were cele- brated. This circumstance lends some support to the hj-pothesis attributing the Algerian megalithic structures to a fair race, which came from the north through the Iberian peninsula and across the Strait of Gibraltar. But this race has also been identified with the Gaulish descendants of the mercenaries charged by the Romans with the defence of the southern frontiers, as well as with the Vandals driven by Belisarius to the Aures highlands in the year 533. Even the Romans themselves do not appear to be entirely extinct. The remains of their towns and military stations are met by the hundred ; many thousands of their inscriptions have been collected, and on the plateaux of Constantine they seem to be still more present in their works than the French colonists themselves. Here their ruined cities are more numerous and far more extensive than the European towns of recent foundation. Even in this direction they had occupied all the highlands of Aurasius, and penetrated beyond them far into the desert. South of the province of Algiers, their monuments are also met on the verge of the Sahara ; and farther west they had built many cities, at least on the Mediterranean slope of the Tell. Their colonists, settled mostly on the upland plateaux of Nuniidia and the Mauritanian Sitifis, that is, in the regions where the climate was most suited for the preservation of their race, must certainly have left 230 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. descendants in Algeria. The Roman type is even said to be well preserved amongst the Ulad-el-Asker, or " Sons of Soldiers," in eastern Kabylia. Although good Mussulmans, the inhabitants of Tebessa still call themselves " Romans ; " nor in their mouths is the. term "Rumi" confused with that of "Christian," as amongst the other Mohammedans of Algeria. Roman coins were still current in Algiers when that town was taken by the French in 184"2. Of the ten sections of the Amamra tribe, in the northern districts of Aures, two are supposed to be of Roman and three of Shawi'a (Berber) descent, while the others were formed under marabut influences since the Mussulman invasion. But whatever proportion of the indigenous population may be of Roman or European origin, the local traditions, as well as certain historic evidences, point to the East as the home of most of the immigrants. From Asia came the ancient Libou (Libyans), who gave their name to the whole continent, and who have been identified with the Luata, or Liuata, one of the powerful tribes of Barbary at the Fig. 80. — Chief Akcient Cities of Ax.geeia. Scaile 1 : 10,000,000. . ISO Jliles. time of the Ai-ab conquest. After reducing the peoples of Mauritania and driving the aborigines from the plains to the upland valleys, the Mohammedan invaders continued to follow the general westward movement of migration. At the same time the changes of soil and climate, combined with the .shiftings of- population caused by these events, naturally tended to modify the habits of the peoples, in one place softening in another accentuating their mutual contrasts. At their first arrival the Berber intruders can have differed little from their Arab successors. But while wars, invasions, and marauding expeditions fostered a nomad existence, defeat and the imposition of regular tribute compelled many wandering com- munities to adopt a settled life. Thus their daily pursuits are not always a certain proof of their ethnical affinities. Many ages before the Ai-ab invasion the Numidians, from whom the present .so-called "Berber" population is partly descended, were themselves "nomads," as is probably indicated by their very INHABITANTS OF ALGERIA. 231 name. Nevertheless racial differences are still at least roughly indicated by the occui^atious of the inhabitants, the nomad jjastors being mostly Arabs, while the term Berber is usually applied in a collective sense to the settled peasantry. This old ethnical appellation of Berber is still borne in a special manner by one of the Atlas tribes in ilarocco. But as applied to an aggregate of peoples, whose diverse origins have been sought in Mauritania, West Europe, and the Asiatic regions bordering on Egypt, it has lost all definite meaning, except in a linguistic sense. It now indicates in a general way all those peoples which speak, or which, during the historic period, are known to have spoken, languages belong- ing to the Libyan family. This form of speech, already current amongst the Tamahu figured on the Egyptian paintings, has been preserved under its old name for thousands of years. Amongst the Tuaregs and the various Sahara peoples, it is still called Tamahag, Tamahug, or Tamashek, and dialects akin to the Targui are spoken by a large number of other communities from the western oases of Egj-pt to the Atlantic seaboard. The Berber linguistic family shows some affinity with the Semitic, not in its vocabulary so much as in its guttural sounds, its grammar, and syntax. Although constituting, with Coj^tic, the group of so-called Hamitic languages, it presents all the characteristics of an Eastern origin. Eelying mainly on these resemblances of speech, certain writers have in fact endeavoured, rightly or wrongly, to estabUsh a common origin for all the indigenous races of North Africa and Western Asia. But great differences have been observed even among the two chief ethnical groups in Algeria itself. The true Semites represented by the Arabs present the most striking contrast to the various peoples previously settled in the country. The Kabyles of Jurjura, taken as typical Berbers, have a less oval head and face, broader and fuller features, less regular and less retreating forehead, less arched eyebrows than the Arabs. The nose is seldom aquiline and often short and thick, the chin firm, the mouth rather large, the lips strong or thick. The physiognomy usually lacks the delicacy noticed in the Arabs, although the expression is more frank, the eye more animated, the muscvdar system more compact, the body less pliant, but more robust and more firmly planted on the ground. The Kabyles are also usually of a somewhat lighter complexion, which may be attributed to then- more settled existence. On the whole, they differ but little from Southern Europeans, and by a mere change of costume thousands amongst them might be taken for natives of Auvergne or Limoges. No less marked from the moral standpoint is the contrast between the two elements, although this may be more readily explained by differences of euvn-ou- ment and pursuits. Although comprising many essentially nomad tribes, such as the Saharian Tuaregs, the Berbers show a preference for a settled life wherever favoured by the physical conditions. Mostly upland agriculturists, they necessarily differ in habits, social and poUtical institutions, from the restless nomads of the plahis. The Kabyles are distinguished by their unflagging industry, enterprising spirit, and common sense. They are inquisitive, fond of discussion, eager for information, susceptible of admiration and wonder, while the Arab affects a passive 232 NOETH-'WEST AFRICA. iutliflereuce to all things. They are little disposed to mystic contemplation, and althougli superstitious, because ignorant, they give little play to the religious sentiment in their daily pursuits and social relations. Hence they lack the figured speech of the Semite, despising the graces of style, the subtle metaphor, and refined expression of the Ai-ab poets. On the other hand, their life of toil inspires them with a feeling of pride and self-respect, combined with a high sense of indiA-idual worth. They demand above all things to be treated with justice, and those whose communal autonomj' has been respected by the French, regard and treat each other in all respects as equals. Although, thanks to their agricultural occupation, the Algerian Berbers have on the whole risen to a higher degree of civilisation than the Arabs, the latter still Fig. 81. — Chief Teibes of Algekia. Scale 1 : 9,600,000. L . of Greenwich B. Beni. O. Oulad, Ouled. O.S. Oulad Sidi. .^-^—^-^ 120 Miles. in many respects exercise a preponderating influence over them. As descendants of a conquering race, they still preserve some of the prestige of past triumphs. By them the religion of Islam was also introduced, and to them the Kabyles are indebted for a knowledge of letters and of the Koran. Notwithstanding their nomad existence, the Arabs of the plains enjoy to a larger extent the advantages derived from a greater relative degree of national cohesion. Although more numerous, the Berbers driven to the highlands nowhere form a compact nationality capable of resisting the pressure of the surrounding Arab jJopulations ; hence iii every part of Algeria Berber tribes are found, which have become assimilated to the Arabs in speech, which have often lost their racial traditions, and which have even gone so far as to concoct false genealogical tables, tracing their descent to some conquering tribe from the Arabian peninsula. Even those that have ^mm^^^^'^^^ KABYLE FAMILY GROUP. LIBRARY INHABITANTS OF ALGERIA. 233 preserved the national idiom, such as the Kabylesof Juijura, tbcShawiasof Aures a few groups of the Dahra district and Marocco frontier, have adopted a large number of Arab words and forms of speech. They have also everywhere abandoned the old Tefinagh orthographic system, inscriptions in which still occur in various parts of Algeria. Hence all instruction is conveyed through Arabic, which is at once the religious, polite, and literary tongue, but which no Berber ever succeeds in pronouncing with perfect accuracy. The patronjTfnic Ait (in South Marocco, Ida) is applied exclusively to the Berbers, many of whose tribes have also adopted the Arabic Bern', indicating family relationship; while the term ^w /A/, or more commonly Uldd, ?7/erf, is restricted in Algeria almost exclusively to communities of Arab descent. But there is no Fig. 82. — Aeabs and Beebeks of Algeeia. Scale 1 : 10,000,000. White Berbers of White Berbers Black Berbers of Berber speech. of Arab speech. Arabspeech. Arabs. 180 Miles. Shotts. absolute rule for the use of these terms, and the Ulad Abdi of Anres are undoubtedly Berbers. Hence great uncertainty prevails regarding the classification of the Algerian races, and while some writers estimate the Berber population at upwards of two millions, of whom nearly nine hundred thousand still speak a Libyan dialect, others, with Pimel, reduce the whole number to no more than a million. The diversities and contrasts caused by language and pursuits, by voluntary or forced displacements, render any general description impossible, so that each lowland or highland group must be studied apart. Of the thousand or eleven hundred tribes enumerated in Algeria, some comprise distinct racial elements ; and even amongst the minor groups of Dwars, Dasheras, Arsh, or Ferkas, dis- VOL. XI. R 234 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. creparicies may be found within the same Kbaihi, or federal league. Many communities are a mere confused aggregate of families of diverse colour and orio-in, and such heterogeneous groups are foimd in the suburbs of all the large towns. The Algeri.\n Ar.\bs. The bulk of the Arab tribes are concentrated in the western district, where Mascara may be regarded as their natural capital. Abd-el-Kader, himself a perfect specimen of the Arab type, selected this place as the seat of his empire, and here all the natives of pure Arab descent still Hve under the tent. According to Faidherbe, the Arab population, including the Moors of the towns, numbers altogether not more than one-fifth, or about six hundred thousand souls. But this estimate would be too low if it comprised all those who possess genealogies tracing their descent from the Prophet's family, or from some noted hero of Islam. The Algerian Arabs have generally a dull or brown complexion, black hair, scant beard, fine teeth, aquiline nose, broad movable nostrils, black eyes, prominent superciliary arches, high skull, open rounded brow. The legs and neck are disproportionatel}^ long, and the chest too narrow, while the women are all com- paratively undersized. In public the Arabs are grave, dignified, and impassible ; but within the social circle they readily lay aside their assumed air of solemnity, converse and gesticulate with great vehemence. They are indifferent agriculturists, to whom a settled existence is always repugnant, who still love the free life of the steppe, with its boundless horizon, shifting mirage, and ever-changing camping- grounds. To understand and sympathise with them, here they must be seen and studied, for here alone they are happy, hospitable, and genial ; here alone they become confidential, and relate with glowing enthusiasm the great deeds of their forefathers. Descendants of warriors who overran all North Africa, from Egypt to Marocco, they naturally despise the degraded races dwelling in fixed abodes, and their ideas regarding projjerty are far from harmonising with the niceties of the code introduced by the new masters of the land. Hence frequent wrangling and strife, aggravated at times by the instinctive hatreds of race. In any case, the Arabs seldom become landed proprietors. The ground, which has no definite limits, belongs in common to the whole tribe ; but the social organisation being always feudal, the tribe itself is represented by its chief, who thus becomes the virtual master of the land. "As soon as there are three of you," says the Prophet, "elect a chief." Religious fanaticism also tends to foster discussion among the Arab tribes, who are much more inclined to mj-sticism than their Kabyle neighbours. Most of them are sincere believers, obeying the precepts of Mohammed, and muttering in a low voice the passages from the Koran which command the extermination of the Infidel. Thus it happens that by his manner of thought and sentiments, as well as his habits and traditions, the tribal Arab feels little inclined to adapt himself to the changed conditions developed round about him by tlie sc^ttlement of the land, the TIIE ALGERIAN ARABS. 23S foundation of towns and villages, the construction of roads and railways. He gradually becomes an alien in the land conquered by his forefathers, and in many districts he pines and perishes, making room for men of other races. It may be stated in a general way that the Arabs resist these adverse influences best on the boundless upland plateaux, where but few French civil and military stations have j'et been founded. But in the to^vns and urban districts they tend gradually to Fisr. S3. — Aeab Type : Aoha of Tuovkt. disappear, killed ofE by vice, misery, lack of confidence in the future, and the exactions of their chiefs. The same fate is overtaking the so-called Moors, or "Hadri," that is, the more civilised Mussulmans dwelling in the coast towns, under the very eyes of their foreign masters. But their rapid disappearance may be partly due to the instability of a heterogeneous race comprising the most diverse elements introduced e2 236 XOETH-WEST AFRICA. by former wars, ijiracy, slavery, polygamy. Thus have been thrown together Berbers, SjTians, Circassians, Albanians, Spaniards, Balearic Islanders, Italians, Provencals, Ilaussas, Bambaras, Fulahs, and even groups of Gipsies (Gsani, Guezzaui), who arrived contemporaueoush' with the Andalusian iloors expelled from Spain. The Kulugli (Kur-Ogli), the offspring of Turks and native women, were also formerly very numerous in the coast towns and in certain inland villages ; but these half-castes have already been almost entirely absorbed in the general ]\Iussulman pojjulation of the towns. The Negroes, Jews, and Europeans. A large strain of Negro blood may everywhere be recognised among the inhabitants of Algeria, and whole tribes even among the highland Kabyles betray clear proofs of crossing between the aborigines of the seaboard and the Sudanese Negroes. Perhaps more than one-half of the Algerians who pass for Arabs or Berbers are of mixed descent ; but pure Negroes are now rarely met, owing to the almost complete interruption of direct intercourse across the Sahara between the Mediterranean seaboard and Western Sudan. Hence, since the suppression of the slave trade in 1848, the local Nigritian elements are gradually disappearing, while the children of free immigrants from Sudan seldom survive. The Negroes settled in Algeria are all distinguished by their love of work, finding employ- ment chiefly as agricultural labourers, stone-breakers, watchmen, or domestic servants. The Jews, far less numerous in Algeria than in Marocco, form nevertheless an important element of the population, owing to their spirit of solidarity, their money-making instincts, and the part they take as French citizens in the political administration of the country. The European immigrants, constituting a seventh , part of the whole population, have already become the predominant race in Algeria. Thanks to their higher culture, combined with the exercise of political power, they naturally occupy all the chief civil and military positions, and hence- forth control the destinies of the country. The French have resumed the work 1 of .the old Roman rulers, but under conditions greatly modified bj- the progress of ] events. Except in Western Europe and in Mauritania, where it reached thej ocean, the Roman world was hemmed in on all sides by unknown regions and hostile populations ; foreign pressure was constantly felt on the frontiers, and the political equilibrium was at last overthro^vn by the migration of the barbarians. Now the conditions are changed, and the modern European world, instead of being surrounded, everywhere encircles the less cultured populations, incessantly en- croaching on their domain, and transforming them by the introduction of new industries and new usages. If they do not become entirely assimilated, they must at least share in the same culture, and esjjecially to the French colonists on the Mediterranean seaboard falls the lot of carrying on this conscious or unconscious work of civilisation throughout the regions of North Africa. The results already achieved since 1830 are considerable ; from year to year the face of the laud k-wTOii'f n 11(1 ifl iii«'«;,mji 'i'i\.m;r''"r"\ ■ ^ TOPOGEAPHY. 237 becomes niodificd by the foundation of new towns, the spread of agriculture, the development of the network of roads and railways. Although the European element is still in the minority, its influence is ah'ead}- everywhere visible from the seaboard to the upland plateaux and the verge of the desert. Topography. The traveller visiting Algeria is surprised at the slight contrast presented by its towns and those of the mother country. But for the palms and bamboos adorning the pubKc gardens, the Moors and Arabs mingHng with the crowd on the quays and in the streets, he might find it difficult to believe that he had really crossed the Mediterranean. The quarters built by the French architects seem to have been modelled on those of Marseilles ; almost everywhere the picturesque Arab houses are masked by streets with regular and commonplace facades ; and the stranger may reside for a long time in a modern Algerian town without having ever to penetrate into those labyrinths of dwellings which recall an already- antiquated epoch. But extensive tracts may still be traversed for hours together vrithout meeting a single human habitation. Such on the eastern plateaux is the district drained by the Mejerda and its affluent the Wed Melleg, and comprising a total area of about 4,000 square miles. Standing at a mean elevation of over 3,500 feet, endowed with a healthy cKmate and fertile soil, and forming the converging point of the trade routes between the coast and the desert, this at present almost uninhabited region presents one of the most promising fields for future colonisation. Here the remains of Roman settlements are scarcely less numerous than in the neighbouring territory of Tunis, and since their complete reduction about the middle of the century, European immigrants have again begucn to find their way to these breezy uplands. They are at present occupied by three distinct tribal groups — the Xememshas in the south, the Flad Sidi Yahia-ben-Thaleb in the centre, and in the north the Hanenshas — all of Berber stock, more or less mingled with Arab blood since the invasion of the eleventh century. The town of Kalaa-es-Senam, standing on an isolated table of the plateau, is a stronghold of the Hanenshas, who since their final reduction in 1871, have maintained a peaceful bearing towards the new French settlers. But the most important place in this region is Tebessa, the ancient Tevesfe, whose many natural advantages seem to ensiu-e it a biilLiant future. Although dating only from the time of Vespasian, its favoiirable strategic and commercial position soon rendered Teveste a flourishing town of some forty thousand inhabitants. Notwithstanding its destruction by the Vandals and many subsequent vicissitudes, it still preserves some imposing Roman or Byzantine remains, such as the ramparts with thirteen flanking towers, a magnificent triumphal arch, an aqueduct restored by the French, numerous tombs, and a temple of ^linerva (:-) now converted into a Christian church. The French citadel is entirely built of blocks taken from the old struc- tures, and the routes converging on Tebessa are still the old Roman roads, one of 238 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. which, running through Mascula and Diana towards Sitifis, presents the appearance of an " Appian Way " with its temples, porticoes, and other monuments. North of Tebessa there are no centres of colonisation until wo reach the Mejerda basin. In the intervening tract, where the vestiges occur of no less than a hundred and fifty Roman towns or hamlets, the only French stations are the so-called horj, constructed at considerable expense along the Tunisian frontier, and rendered nearly useless since the line of military defences has been advanced to Kef, in the territorj' of the regency. In the upper Melleg valley the chief station on the route between Tebessa and Constantine is the vdllage of Meskiaiiri, in a district covered with prehistoric and Roman ruins. Formerly the whole of this Fig. 8-1. — Suk-Aheas ant) its Entieoss. Scale 1 : 121,000. 2C, I E oi Green V ch 7° 5'^ . 3,300. region was covered with olive groves, as is evident from the oil-presses, remains of which occur in every Roman farmstead. Suk-Ahras, the chief place on the frontier plateau, occupies the site of the ancient Thagnde, the birthplace of the famous Austin, bishop of Hippo. Until 1852 a mere military station threatened by the powerful Hanensha tribe, Suk- Ahras has since become a flourishing town, as the chief centre of trade and inter- course between the two ports of Bona and Timis. Here large tracts have already been brought under cultivation, and the slopes of the hills, recently overgrown with scrub, are now under crops or jDlanted with vineyards. Of Roman antiquities TOPOGEAPHY. 289 nothing survives except a few inscriptions and shapeless blocks ; but the line of railway, here constructed through a scries of deep cuttings and the Fej-el-Moktha tunnel, across the hills and down the winding Scybouse Valley, is a remarkable monument of modern engineering skill. The southern plateaux beyond the gorges of the Mejerda river abound iu Roman remains, such as those of Tac/ura, now Taura, near Ain-Guettar ; Mdaurush, the ancient Madaura, birthplace of the rhetorician Apulaus ; Tlfeah, the Roman TijMsa ; and near the sources of the Mejerda, Khemissa, identified with Thiihursicum Numidarmn. The northern slope of the mountains running north of Suk-Ahras to the Khumirian highlands give birth to several copious streams collected in the Mafrag Fig. 8.5. — La rJ AT.r.y. Scale 1 : 20,000. Depths. otoie Feet. 16 to 39 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. . 6D0 Yards. basin, which, although at present almost uninhabited, seems destined to become one of the most populous districts in Algeria. At present the only town in thi.'* region is La Callc, which lies beyond the Mafrag basin on a creek flowing to the Mediterranean, and separated from the interior by an amphitheatre of steep hills. This seaport, which is connected by a diificidt route with Bona, was long a nest of corsairs ; but a hundred and fifty years before the conquest, the rocky headland on which stood the old town had already become French territory. The trading station founded here in 1560 by Marseilles merchants was removed in 1694 to Mers-el-K/ierraz, which became the port of La Calle, where a small colony, recruited chiefly from the French prisons, held its ground till the close of the eighteenth 210 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. century. During the wars of the Empire the English purchased this station from the natives, but restored it to France in 1816. Although the oldest French settle- ment in Algeria, La Calle is still the least French in its European population, three-fourths of whom are Italians, chieflj' from Naples and Sicily. The coral fishery, the chief industry on this coast, has suffered much by the introduction of modern dredging gear, and is now largely replaced by the trade in sardines, large quantities of which are here cured and exported to Naples and the south of Italy. In rough weather the harbour of La Calle is almost inaccessible to shipping ; but works have been imdertaken or projected which, when carried out, will afford complete shelter from the winds and surf. Some six miles east of La Calle, the Tunisian frontier is guarded by the fortified station of Um-ct-Tebul, which occupies the lower slope of a mountain abounding in argentiferous lead deposits, at present worked by about three hundred miners, mostly from Piedmont. From 2,500 to 3,000 tons of ore are yearly forwarded by a small local railway to Mcsida, and there shipped for Europe. In the district between La Calle and the Tunisian frontier have been found the largest dolmens and the most numerous Latin and Berber bihngual inscriptions . At the mouth of the extensive Sej'bouse Valley stands the famous city of Bona, and at the source of the Sherf, its chief headstream, the modern town of Ain Beida ("White Spring"), which dates only from the year 1848. North-west of this place, which lies midway between Constantino and Tebessa, is situated the important mart of Um-el-Buagi, much frequented by the powerful Haracta Berber tribe. In the Zenati river valley, usually called Hamdan, forming with the Sherf the main stream of the Seybouse, the chief centre of population is the commune and town of Wed Zenati. The whole of this district, including Ain-er-Regnda and Ain-el-Abid, has been conceded to a financial company, and constitutes a vast domain of some 250,000 acres, of which 185,000 are leased to a single tenant. On the Wed Hamdan, a short distance above its junction with the Sherf, are the houses and railway station of Hammam-el-JUcskhuthin, or " Bath of the Accursed." At this point the bed of a streamlet is occupied by a " petrified cascade," or mass of calcareous concretions over thirty feet high, formed by a number of tiny falls charged with lime, which have here deposited incrustations in diverse colours — red, violet, blue, or grey, and here and there sparkhng like fresh- fallen snow. These copious springs discharge nearly four hundred gallons per second, at a mean temperature of from 220° to 230° F. The concretions, which are of a somewhat coarse texture, are so rapidly precipitated that the position of the cascade is continually advancing, and fresh rills have constantly to be formed for the service of the j)onds established along its sides. The saline and ferruginous thermal waters of Hammam-el-Meskhuthiu are utilised by a military and a civil hospital, the latter frequented especially by the Jews, and this station is destined sooner or later to become one of the chief therapeutic estabhshments in Algeria. It takes its Roman name of Aqu(e Tihilitance from the town of Tibili or Annuna, whose ruins lie some 6 miles to the TOPOGRAPHY. 2il south-west, on the route connecting the villages of Clause! and "Wed Zenati. The ' -' 'Ml -. '• . • * ■ . neighbouring cliff of Hajar-el-Khenga is covered with curious sculptures, amongst 242 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. which may be recognised figures of men, dogs, cattle, and an ostrich. Farther north was the site of Jio/cnia, in a district strewn with dolmens and other pre- historic monuments, including over three thousand graves, to which the natives apply the term hanut, or " shop." From these have been recovered some skeletons of great interest for the stady of the various Algerian races. A hill on the right bank of the Seybouse, below the confluence of the Sherf and Zenati, is occupied by the town of Gitelnia, heir to the name, if not the site, of the Roman Calama, where Punic was still spoken in the fifth century. Enclosed by a verdant belt of vineyards and olive groves, Guelma, which stands on the border of the Arab and Berber territories, is one of the pleasantest places in Algeria. Over its valley are dotted the picturesque hamlets of Ain-Tuta, Heliopolis, Petit, and Millesimo, and in the neighbourhood ai'e the copious mineral springs of Ilammam- rl-Bcida, in a basia surrounded with Roman ruins embowered in foliage. The charming village of Diivivier commands the right bank of the Seybouse opposite the junction of the two railways from Algiers and Tunis. Thanks to the facilities of communication and the fertility of the soil, numerous European settlements have sprung up in the Lower Seybouse Valley. Such are BarmI, Mondoci, noted for its tobacco, Dazerville, Wed Besbes, Merdes or Conihes, Zi'n'zer, Randon, Morriii, and Blaiidaii, and in the neighbouring Mebuja valley the town of Peiit/iien-e. Bona — Herbillon. These stations become more numerous as we approach the city of Bona, which, although preserving the name of the Roman Hipjmn (Hippo), the Ubba of the Carthaginians, does not occupy the actual site of that ancient city. Hii^iDO Regius, where the famous Bishop Augustine resided for thirty-five years, and which was overthrown by the Vandals in -131, the year after his death, stood over a mile from the present town, on a hill commanding a fine prospect of the blue Mediterra- nean waters and surrounding district. A few ruins of the Glisia Rumi, or " Church of the Romans," are still scattered on the side of the hill, and near its base is the bridge over the Bujema (Bu-Jemaa) still resting on its old foimdations. Owing to the constant encroachments of the alluvial plain formed by the Seybouse, the city has had to be rebuilt at some distance north of the ruins of Hippo. The port, which two thousand years ago opened at the foot of the hill, has been gradually shifted to the north ; and the shij^ping, instead of penetrating into the natural harbour at the river's mouth, has to anchor off the coast, under the precarious shelter of the headland on which now stands the kasbah or citadel of Bona. The Arab quarter stood on the slopes of this eminence ; but since the French conquest it has spread beyond the enclosures over the low-lying plain which stretches in the direction of the Seybouse. Between the old and new quarters a handsome boulevard runs from the sea to a wooded height, beyond which it is to be continued farther inland. Thanks to its well-kept streets, shady walks, and pleasui-e-grouiads. Bona is one of the most agreeable places in Algeria, and as |!Sf?!ST ::'^ '!^'^iO?t*'!f '^Pffl'" ' " ""^ I BONA— HEEBILLOX. 243 the seat of the Hippo Academy has even become a centre of scientific and literary activity. As a seaport Bona enjoys great advantages. Its roadstead, well sheltered from the west and north-west winds by Cape Garde, was much frequented during Fig. 87.— Bona. Scale 1 : 90,000.. Depths. to 3-2 Feet. 32 to 64 Feet. 64 to 160 Feet. IfO Feet and upwards. 4,400 Tarda. Medifeval times by European mariners, who were protected from oppressive exactions by special conventions. On two occasions, in 1152 and 1535, it even fell into the hands of the Christians, and after its final occupation by the French in 24-1 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. 1832, it became one of the chief naval stations on this coast. The present harbour, from 18 to 20 feet deep inshore, occupies an area of about 30 acres ; while the outer port, protected from the surf bj^ a pier 2, GOO feet long, encloses an additional space of 175 acres. Eut its growing trade, especially with Algiers, Marseilles, and Tunis, requires further accommodation, and it is now proposed to convert a large portion of the outer harbour into a second basin, lined with quays reclaimed from the sea. About one-third of the motley population of Bona are French, after whom the most numerous elements are the Italians and Maltese. There are about one thousand Kabyles and Mzabites, em^jloyed chiefly as porters and labourers, within the city ijroper, whUe several thousand natives reside in the outskirts grouped in the picturesque but squalid village of Beni-Ramasscs. On the neighbouring Mount Edugh is a pleasant health-resort, whose advantages have hitherto been Fig. 88. — Edtjgh and Lake Fetzaea. Scale 1 : 295,000. 7°ao- \- . of Uf~eenvvich 3 Miles. somewhat neglected. From the crest of this eminence an extensive view is com- manded of the surrounding hills falling northwards in terraces down to the coast, and in the opposite direction down to the depression of Lake Fetzara. On the northern slope, between Capes Garde and Dc Fer, the only group of habitations is the little fishing village of Herhillon (Takush) ; but the southern is more thickly inhabited, thanks to the iron-mines of Mokta-el-Hadid, which yield an excellent ore, almost as highly appreciated as that of Dalecarlia, and containing 62 per cent. of pure metal. Over a thousand workmen are employed in these mines, which yield about four hundred thousand tons annually, valued at £280,000, and exported to France, England, and even the New World. But the rich deposits of copper and zinc found at Aiii-Barbar, in the very heart of the Edugh district, are no longer worked, owing to the extreme difficulty of cartage. I CONSTANTINE. 245 Less thau hali a mile south of the Mokta-el-Hadid works, lies the important station of Aiii Jfok/ira, which is unfortunately exposed to the exhalations from liake Fetzara. This lagoon or morass, which has a mean depth of little over 6 feet, is evidently the remains of an old inlet forming a continuation of the present Gulf of Bona across the now-di'ied-up plains of the Mafreg and ilebuja rivers. The question of its drainage has fi-equently been discussed, and should this project be carried out, over 30,000 acres of rich alluvial soil will be brought under cultiva- tion. In summer the basin is nearly dry, and it might be easily diverted to the lower Seybouse by reducing the bed of the Mebuja to a lower level than the present level of the lake. The railway connecting Ain Mokhra with Bona is soon to be continued west- wards in the direction of the station of Saint-Charles, on the Constantine-Philippe- vHle line. Were it also extended to the coast by skirting the Filfila headland, the works might be resumed in the famous marble mines of this district, interrujited since the time of the Romans. In the TTed-el-Kebir basin, which flows to the gulf sheltered by Cape de Fer, the only important European town is Jemmapes, situated in a rich and well- watered district. The local Berber tribe of the Sanhejas has preserved the name formerly borne by the powerful Zenaga nation. The name of the Zenaga or Senegal Eiver, over 2,000 miles from this place, also attests the former extension of the Berber race dispersed by the Arab invaders. COXSTAJJTINE. Coiisfanfine, capital of the eastern department, is one of the famous cities of Africa. From the dawn of Mam-itanian history this great natural stronghold appears under the name of Cirta, that is, the " fortress," as the word is commonly interpreted. The title of Constantine, preserved by the Arabs under the form of K'santhina, was conferred on it at the beginning of the fourth century, in honour of the Emperor Constantine. The extensive ruins scattered over the district attest the important position of this ancient capital of Numidia and centre of the Eoman dominion in North Africa. But its very strength necessarily exposed it to frequent attack, and according to the local tradition, it was taken no less than eighty times. By its capture in 1837 the French secured a solid footing in the interior of the eastern Tell, and easily crushed all local risings, henceforth deprived of a common rallying-point. The city proper occupies a gently inclined rocky table, whose northern head- land rises to a height of 2,100 feet, or 360 feet higher than the opposite point. The whole terrace forms a somewhat regular trapeze, with a circuit of nearly 2 miles, and detached by deep ravines from the rest of the plateau on all sides except towards the south-west. The steep escarpments facing south-east and north-east rise precipitously above the bed of the Eummel, which plunges into these gloomy gorges soon after its confluence with the Bu-Merzug. Of the five bridges formerly connecting the two sides of the abyss, four have almost entirely 243 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. disappeared ; but the fifth, at the eastern angle of the clifP, has always been ■ rebuilt. The iron arch constructed by the French engineer.s, at a height of 350 feet above the stream, stands on fragments of masonry of every epoch from the time of Antoninus Pius. Immediately below this bridge the Rummel disappears beneath a rocky arcade, beyond which the cliffs again fall vertically to the bed of the stream, leaving only a solitary pointed arch of remarkablj' symmetrical shape, Fig. 89. — CoNSTANTHJE IN 18.36. Scale 1 : 10,300. 6 36 50 . 330 Yards. forming a natural bridge over the chasm. Farther down the current ramifies into three turbulent branches, and at the issue of the gorge plunges in three successive falls into the lower valley. Unfortimately it is impossible to penetrate far into this romantic ravine, owing to the mcphitic exhalations rising from the Hummel, which serves as an open sewer to the town. CONST ANTIXE. 247 Oil the rocky table above the gorge houses and buildings are packed close Fig-. 90. — The NATtiRAi. Aech of CoNSTiXTixE. together. lu the north are grouped the barracks, hospital, arsenal, and kasbah. 248 NORTH- WEST AFRICA. south of which run the regular streets of the European quarter. The Jews are grouped in the east, the Mzabites in the centre, and in the south the Arabs occupy a hibyrinth of coui-ts and alleys, into which few Eurojjeans venture without a guide. "Whole streets are devoted to the leather trade, which is the staple industry of Constantine, giving constant emplojTiient to hundreds of tanners, saddlers, and shoemakers. Fig. 91. — CoxsTiSTiifE IN 1884. Scale 1 : 20,000. ^^fiirv^;;-^';^ 6°S6' E . of Greenwich 1,100 Yards. Constantino has scarcely any noteworthy monuments. Few of its ninety-five mosques have escaped the spoiler's hand, and the citadel is a mere aggregate of barracks and magazines, although some valuable inscriptions have been preserved in its outer walls. Nearly ten thousand inscribed stones have here been collected, and the city, which is a provincial capital, also contains numerous other archaeo- logical remains, such as Roman statues, busts, vases, sepulchral and votive PKLLIPPEVrLLE— JIJILI— SETIF. 249 tablets. The most interesting building is the Moorish palace of the last Bev, Ahmed, no'sv occupied by the French stajff. Near this structure are gi-oupud the new municipal buildings, the Geographical Society, and the other learned institutes established since the French occupation. In order to make room for the continual growth of the city, it is proposed to level the Cudiat-Ati hiU, the site of the old necropolis at the south-west comer, and lay out the space thus acquii-ed beyond the walls as a new quarter. Amongst the extensive remains scattered over the lower valley of the Eummel are the ruins of the fortified town of Tiddi, near which the right bank of the Smendu, a tributary of the same river, is occupied by the tomb of the LoUius famUy, one of the finest Eoman monuments in Algeria. The Alsatian colonists settled in the surroimding villages of Ruffash, Ain-Eerma, Belfort, Altkirch, and others, have in several places been allowed to utilise these remains for the con- struction of their dwellings. The rapidly increasing local and export trade of Constantine is furthered by several railways, all of which, however, have not stations in the city itself. Thus the junction of the Guelma-Tunis line is at Khrith {Khoruh), the largest cattle market in East Algeria, while the two lines between Setif and the Sahara brauch off at El-Guerra. East of this point the Algiers line approaches the Upjjer Eummel Valley, where are several centres of European colonisation, such as Ain- Smara, Wed Aimenia, Chateaudun, Cotilmier-s, Saint-Donat (a curious corruption of Saaduna), Paladines, and Sainf-Aniaiid. Here the Abd-en-Nur nomads have mostly acquired sedentary habits, and their habitations are now everywhere inter- mingled with those of the European settlers. Since the middle of the century these Berber communities have ceased to speak their native tongue ; and many of them are noted for their light hair and blue eyes. The railway connecting Constantine with the coast winds along the slopes of the El-Kantur hiUs down to the plains of the Safsaf, which, till the French occupa- tion, were almost uninhabited. Xear the line follow in succession the villages of Bizof and Conde- Smendu, and the little town of El-Harrush, surrounded bj' gardens and oHve groves watered by the Safsaf. The neighbouring hamlets of Saiiif- Charles, Saint-Antoine, Bamremonf, and Valee, have all become flourishing centres of viniculture. Philippeville — JiJiLi — Setif. PhiUpperille, the seaport of Constantine, is not such a modem place as its name might suggest. It occupies the site of the old Phoenician Rus-Licar, the Riisicada of the Eomans, modified to Rax-Skikda by the Arabs, and to Tasikda by the Berbers. But since its occupation by the French in 1838, most of its monuments have disappeared, having been utilised for the erection of the extensive fortifi- cations which foUow the crest of the hills from east to west, enclosing the whole town and large open spaces. There stiU remain, however, the ruins of a theatre VOL. XI. s 250 XOETH-WEST AFRICA. partly excavated in the cliff, numerous cisterns, and some fine mosques, besides the statues, busts, urns, and inscriptions preserved in the museum. The town occupies a ravine between the two ridges of Bit- Jala and Jehel Addiin, east and west. The main thoroughfare, running along the old bed of a stream, terminates seawards in an elevated terrace, whence a view is commanded of the esplanade and of the inner and outer harbour, the former covering an area of 50 acres, and enclosed by jetties, the latter much more extensive, but insufE- 92. — Philippevtlle. So.nle 1 : .W.OOO. ' oT [jreenw ch e'^io otoie Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. Depths. 82 to 64 Feet. 64 to 128 Feet. . 2,200 Yaj'ds. 128 Feet and upwards. ciently protected from the surf. Before the construction of the present harbour works the shipping was obliged to seek refuge at Stora, the old " Genoese port," which lies 2J miles north-west of Philippeville, at a point sufficiently protected from the west and north winds. A somewhat analogous position is occupied by Co/Io, the Chuiln of the Romans, and KuUh of the natives, which is also sheltered by a headland from the west and PHILIPPE^TLLE— JIJILI— SETIF. 251 north-west winds. The Eomans had some purple dye-works at this port, which during the Middle Ages was much frequented by Italian and French traders. Since its occupation h\ the French in 1845, Collo has again become a flourishing seaport, doing a considerable export trade in minerals, cork, sardines, and other local produce. About midway between Collo and Bougie stands the ancient seaport of Jijili, which stni preserves in a slightly modified form its Libyan name of IgilgiH, handed down by inscriptions from the very dawn of history. The tombs excavated in the cliffs along the coast are the work of Phoenician colonists, as shown by their perfect Kg. 93.— JiJiLi. Scale r: 25,nu or JTiiko, occupying the site of an old Roman station, was formerly regarded as a sort of capital for the whole of Kabylia, although containing scarcely more than sixteen hundred inhabitants. The Ait-Fraucen are also Zwawas, and in their territory is situated the formerly important town of Jemaa-es-Sahrij, or " Collection of Basins," so named from the numerous reservoirs constructed in this district during the Roman eiMch. In the same group are classed the Ait-Batrun, settled west of the Wed Aissi, and the brave Ait-Iraten, whose village of Isheraiuen has been replaced by Fort Kational, the chief French stronghold in Great Kabylia. In the upper Wed-Bu-Gdura basin, towards the south-west angle of these 258 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. uplands, dwell the Gueshtula or Igueshdiilcn, who are usually identified with the ancient Getulians, and who differ in many respects from the other inhabitants of the Jurjura district. They are a small "bullet-headed" people, less cultured than the Zwawas, Kving in wretched hovels, and occupied chiefly in tending the herds of their more powerful neighbours. Xear them are the Abids, descended of emancipated Negro slaves, and farther north the formerly powerful Mahacta tribe. The West Kabyle highlands are occupied by the FHssa-um-el-LU, or Flissa of the Night, called also Flissa of the Woods, descended of the warlike Issaflenses, who maintained a long struggle against the Romans. The Flissa of the Sea, another branch of this group, separated from their brethren by the Issei', the Ait- Waguennun, and other communities, were formerly noted armourers, whose swords, modelled on the Roman gladium, and worn by most of the natives, still take the name of " flissa." Amongst the other Kabyle groups, the most important are the Zarfawa of the Azeffun district, the Bu-Daud at the north-east extremity of Kabylia, and the Ait-Gobri east of the Zwawas. On the outer flanks of the Jurjura are also some powerful tribes, such as the Ait-UghH, between Akbu and Bougie ; the lUula Assamcr, or Illulas of the Sun, so named in contradistinction to the Illula TJmalu, or Illulas of the Shade, residing on the northern slope of the Upper Jurjura ; and the Ait-MUkesh, bordering on the Beni-ilansur marabuts, who occupy several villages south of the Wed Sahel. Lastly, in the Lower Scbau Yallcy are settled the Amarawa j)eople, who comprise the most diverse elements, and who long constituted a makhzen, or military tribe, in constant feud with its neighbours. In Great Kabj^lia ethnologists recognise two predominant types, one distin- guished by roimd features, prominent cheek-bones, pointed lower jaw, probably representing the aborigines ; the other with flat, oval face, small bright eyes, nose depressed at the root, projecting upper incisors. In general the Kabyles are of middle size, strong and muscular, but mostly tainted with syphilitic diseases. But however different in phj'sical appearance, all the Kabyles of the Jurjura and eastern ranges are one in sj^eech, speaking Zwawia, a Berber dialect affected by Arab elements in the proportion of about one-third. From Arabic are usually borrowed terms relating to mental or moral subjects, to religion, law, the arts and sciences, and to such plants, animals, and other objects as have been introduced since the ilussulman conquest. In the same language are composed the few works read by the cidtured Kabyles, whose mother tongue is no longer written ; in fact, the only literature it possesses are some theological tractates and a few songs, differing from the ordinary language of conversation by a larger infusion of Semitic elements. Thus the Kabyle gradually acquires a knowledge of Arabic, and wherever the rival tongues meet on common ground, the more useful tends to prevail. The essential difference between the two races lies in the greater love of a nomad life sho'mi bj' the Arab, the Berber everywhere preferring a fixed abode and agricultural pursuits. He betrays the same passion for the soil as does tlio KABYLLi. 257 French peasant, and thanks to this qualitj% the rugged slopes of the hills, formerly strewn with stones or overgrown with scrub, are now clothed with the olive and other useful plants. " What would become of me," cries the land in a native legend, " were man to forsake me ? Must I return to my first state, and again become the haunt of wild beasts ? " So minutely is the land subdivided, that in Fig'. 95. — ZwAWA ANT) Arr-IiLiTEs TEKKnoEy. Scale 1 : ISO.OOO. i ''O f ° f. ^.---< ^'>>-> ,^Quk el ^fCn V^'' / '^ PA;.. / . oT Liroenr. ich 4°iO" . 3 Miles. some cases a single olive-tree is shared among several owners. Hence the soil has acquired an excessive value in the more densely peopled tracts, the average price being from twenty to a hundred times higher in the Kabyle than in the Arab districts. ;tTor are the Berbers less distinguished for their industrial than for their 258 XOETH-WEST AFEICA. agricultural still. Amongst them all labour is respected, even that of the black- smith, which is regarded with such contempt by the Arabs. The various Kabyle tribes have each their special industry, so that at the fairs held successively in each village on different days during the week, buyers may obtain all manufactured articles of which they stand in need. In many Zwawa tribes the women excel in the production of beautiful vases ; in others coarse earthenware is prepared ; the lUiltens and lUulas of the Jurjura ujjlands devote their attention to wood-carving; the Bu-Shaib and Ait-Ijer elans in the eastern highlands occupy themselves with weaving ; the Ait-Fraucen with iron- work ; the Fenaia and Ait-Yenni with arms and the preparation of warlike supplies of aU sorts. The last mentioned are also Fig. 96. — Chief Teibes or Kabyxia. Scale 1 : 1,290,000. .-■^sjrs^i^ -^'" -i-,'"Ora el M(zarjf^'-^ I s>-^-;- tev> E .cf Gr A. Alt. B. Beni. 0. Otilad. . SO MUes. jewellers and metal casters, melting down the Spanish douros and converting them into necklaces, rings, or diadems. In the Kabyle districts the markets, supplied with objects of local industry and foreign importation, are very animated. Usually held near the cemetery outside the town walls, they become in political times popular gatherings for the discus- sion of public topics. Here were formerly decided questions of peace and war ; but since the French occupation politics have given place to the interests of peace- ful intercourse. So dense is the population in Great Kabylia that the agricultural produce is insufficient for the local wants. Hence thousands yearly emigrate in search of a livelihood amongst strangers. Formerly many hired themselves out as mercenaries to fight for the Tuik, and even still most of the Algerian " Zouaves " are recruited KABYLIA. 259 amongst the Zwawa tribes. The Ait-Iraten and Beni-Abbes have settled iu Algiers as bakers and bankers. But most of the emigrants become porters in the coast towns, or else pedlars and hawkers in the rural districts. "WTiole colonies become associated with the Arab tribes on the plains, where they gradually acquire possession of the laud. In this way several Kabj-le villages have sprung up iu the vicinity of Guelma, Shershell, Aumale and other towns. Since the cessation of tribal warfare, the rapid increase of population even obUges the Kabyles constantly to widen the field of migration, and they have already begun to invade Tunisia, the oases of the desert, aud JIarocco. The number of temporary or permanent emigrants has thus risen from about twelve thousand in the middle of the century to some forty thousand at the present time. The Kabyles have all the sterling qualities of true peasants — patience, frugality and thrift. Extremelj^ honest and incapable of deception, they exact from others the same probity in their mutual dealings. But notwithstanding their careful habits and strict attention to the main chance, they can at times unbend, and willingly indulge in social amusements, songs, aud merry-makings. However conservative of the old usages, thej' are less slaves to routine than the French peasantry. They gladly introduced the potato into their gardens, and have recently taken to cultivating the vine iu a large way on the outer slopes of the Jurjura highlands. They are above all distinguished by their excessive love of personal indcjjendence. All want to be " sidtans at home ; " all sjjeak of their honour, aud have constantly on their tongue the Arabic word nif, which properlj- means "nose," but which symbolises personal dignity and sensitiveness. But their self-resj)ect is not shown in any love of fine clothes. The gandura is worn till it falls to pieces, nor is it always easy to detect the original colour of the national sheshia. The houses also, iu which oxen, goats and poultry have their share, are often unspeakably foul. " The Kabyle never dreams of sweeping his dwelKng until the time comes for manuring his vegetable garden." * The Kabyle marriage is a strictlj-- business transaction, the wife being purchased of her jDarents for from £8 to £40, according to their rank and intluence, or her personal charms. " The father eats his daughter," saj's the local expression, " when he squanders the sum received as her dowry." On the other hand, once master of the bride, the husband may send her back at pleasure, iu which case the jjarents may again offer her for sale, on condition of returning the whole or part of the purchase-money to the first husband. Nothing is simpler than the form of divorce, a single word thrice repeated suiEcing to dissolve the union. The husband's authority is absolute, and in several tribes he formerly jjlaced a stick by the side of his bride, a formality needing no verbal interpretation. Infidelity on her part is severely punished ; before the French occupation she was usually condemned to be stoned, and even still most of the murders committed in Kabylia are due to the secret observance of the old law. Nevertheless, the wife enjoys great freedom in domestic affairs, and when badly used by hei- husband may even take refuge with her parents. She also goes abroad unveiled, but never alone. * L. Feraud, " Re\-ue Africaine," November, 1862. 260 XOETH-WEST AFEICA. Numerous cases have been recorded of women acquiring a predominant influence in the tribe, either as heroines or prophetesses, and their shrines are no less venerated than those of the marabut saints. The widow enjoys equal rights with man before the law, and like him may purchase, sell, or bequeath property. Already in some of the tribes a certain evolution has begun in the direction of a new constitution for the family, and, acting under the advice of their French friends, several communities have decided that girls shall no longer be given in marriage before the age of fourteen. The establishment of French schools, in which the native women give proof of great zeal and intelligence, has also greatly contributed to their emancipation. All these social changes will easily be accomplished, because, unlike the Arabs, the Xabyles are not bound by the letter of the Koran. They have their own laws, or rather their traditional usages, designated by the name of kanuii, or " canons," a term obviously borrowed from their former Byzantine rulers. According to the local traditions, they were at one time Christians, and the old religion would seem to be still symbolised in the crosses tattooed on the women's faces, and even on some of the men, and in some of the tribes sculptured on the doors of the houses and of the very mosques. But however this be, their Christianity does not appear to have greatly modified their habits and ideas. After calling themselves Christians, they called themselves Mussulmans, adopting a few rites from Islam, but seldom showing anj^ zeal for the faith. They neglect the prescribed prayers, and are far from strict observers of the Ramadan fast. The echo of the mountain, they saj-, when consulted to know whether they might eat, repUed " Eat ! " Scarcely a hundred Kab3'les make the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca, and then more in the character of traders than of devotees. Most of their ceremonies seem inherited from pre-Mussulman and pre-Christian times ; they still worship the divinities of nature, who control the winds and the rain, who give fertility to the soil and to the cattle. On certain days processions are formed in honour of the ancient goddess, " Bride of the Waters," represented by a dressed-up doll. These are the " Rogation daj^s," which in the course of ages have already been adapted to three successive cults. The descendants of the Arab conquerors still reside in KabyHa without mixing with the surroimding populations. Such are the so-called " Marabut families," sometimes numerous enough to form veritable clans. Those of the Jurjura district claim to have come from the west, and some local names would seem to show that the Andalusian Moors are largely represented amongst them. They are confined to special villages, iisually situated below those of the tribe, whose Liberty is thus secured from attack. The Marabuts act as advisers, and teach the children to recite verses from the Koran. But depending for their supjjort partly on voluntary contributions, they have acquired indolent habits, and their villages, even when situated in fertile districts, are mere collections of wretched hovels. In recent times the Mussulman confraternities have made great progress amongst the Kabjde populations. Some of their monasteries established in the midst of the tribes are encircled bv a neutral zone interdicted to all belligerents. ELUiTLIA. 261 The most iuflueutial of these religious communities is that of Ben Ali Sherif, at Shellata, on the outer slope of the eastern Jurjura uplands. The head of this zawra has become a sort of prince, one of the most distinguished natives in Algeria. Although greatly modified by the French conquest, Kabyle society stUl preserves in its political constitution distinct features, rendering it one of the most original and remarkable of human associations. Carette, Feraud, Hanoteau, Sabatier, and other observers speak of it ■nrith amazement, and assure us that even the most cultured nations might learn much from these hitherto despised high- Fig. 97. — ErKU AXD Shellata Pass. Scale 1 : 1?5.500. 5336' n VilLl2T5. . 3 Miles. landers. "WTierever military regulations or the ciA"il administration have not arrested the free plav of the old usages, every faddert, or village,, constitutes a little self-governed commonwealth, in -n-hich rich and poor, yoimg and old, have all alike their share. At the age of fifteen the youth becomes a citizen, and, if strong enough to shoulder his musket, has a right to vote ; only he is expected to show to his elders the respect due to age. The jemaa, or assembly, composed of all the citizens of the several kharuhas, .neets once a week, oftener in cases of emergency, deKvers sentence, and appoints those who have to give it effect. In the assembly are centred all powers, political, administrative, and judicial. It hears charges 262 XOEXn-WT^ST AFRICA. against persons accused of dishonourable acts, or of offences against the rites of hospitality, and its sentences usually take the form of fines, which go to replenish the communal coffers. But whoever brings disgrace on his tribe must leave it, the sentence of banishment being followed by the demolition of his house. Imprisonment is never inflicted on any one, freedom being too precious a treasure to be forfeited even by criminals. The bastinado and blows of any sort are also considered as degrading offender and executioner alike. Death was restricted to cases of high treason, but every citizen retained the right of inflicting personal vengeance on his enemy. "Murder is a loan which must be repaid," says the local proverb. To administer the commune in the name of the jemaa, an amin is chosen, usually amongst the wealthier classes, because no salary is attached to the office. He is often even obliged to incitr hea\7- expenses, and if he accepts the position of a public servant, he does so on the condition of acquiring nothing but a certain honourable distiuciion for himself and his familv. He holds office so long as he performs his duty ; but the moment he ceases to give satisfaction to his fellow- citizens, he sees in their attitude of disapproval that the time has come for him to resign, without waiting for a formal vote of censure. Measures have also been devised to prevent him from favouring the interests of the Hoff (majority) to the detriment of the minority. He is elected by the soff, but the minority always nominates the treasurer, who disposes of the revenues, and thus all interests are consulted. Moreover, each soff constitutes a sort of commune within the commune, and in alliance with the corresponding soffs of the neighbouring districts, and even of distant confederations. Associations of all sorts assume a thousand fonns in Kabylia, at one time restricted to a particular branch of industry, at another embracing several family groups, and constituting one large family analogous to the Servian zadruyn. But in all cases the responsibility of the associated members is of a joint character, the " limited liability" principle of European companies being unknown amongst the Kabyles. Thanks to this spirit of republican solidarity, abject poverty is of rare occur- rence. Without sacriiicing their personal dignity, those in temporary distress receive from the commune such aid as they stand in need of. Occasionally public repasts are held, in which rich and poor must all alike take part. The builder of a house claims by right the assistance of the whole village ; those engaged in manual labour, or in harvesting their crops, may also rely on their neighbours' help ; while a general corvee is instituted to till the land of those no longer able to work for themselves. Thus all claim and return mutual aid to all. Even towards the distressed stranger the Kabyle is bound to show friendship, guiding him through the storm, and giving him food when pressed by hunger. During the terrible winter of 1867-8, when thousands of natives perished in the French settlements, mendicants flocked from all quarters towards the Jurjura highlands, where none were allowed to starve. It might be supposed that a nation di\'ided into as manj- little democracies as there are villages, would be powerless against foreign aggression. On the contrary, KABYLIA. 263 it displayed greater strength than the little centralised Arab states, in which the subjects, following one leader, were vanquished or surrendered with him. In the presence of a common danger confederacies were formed between the different tribes, and young men hastened from all parts, vowing to sacrifice their lives for the common weal. Before the battle the prayer for the dead was read over them by the marabuts, and they in truth seldom cared to survive defeat. All recognised the virtue of the anaya, an Arabic word meaning "protection," but also used in the sense of " honour," spoken of as " the beneficent king of the Kabyles, who levies no taxes." Should war break out between the septs, the women were forth- with placed under the joint anaya of the contending factions ; in the same way certain roads, districts, or days were reserved by being placed imder the same collective guarantee, answering to the "truce of God," which in Europe afforded some respite from the everlasting feuds of Mediscval times. And now that the French in their turn have proclaimed the universal auava amongst the tribes, they already feel themselves half assimilated to their new masters, and religiously observe the peace. Many are even proud of the privilege of naturalisation, and but for the fear of being rejected, whole tribes would ask to be enrolled as French citizens. Primarj' instruction daily spreading, and already obligatory and gratuitous in some communities, will soon raise the whole nation to the same level as many so-called " Aryan " peoples. Assuredly a bright future may be predicted for this brave and industrious race, which, under the name of " Arabs," has already rendered an immense service to mankind by preserving and developing in SjDain the knowledge bequeathed by the Hellenic world, at a time v/hen all science was threatened elsewhere with extinction under the night of the Middle Ages. Over the heights, terraces and headlands of Great Kabj'lia are scattered some fourteen hundred villages, some containing from two thousand to two thousand four hundred inhabitants. Although mostly forming a mere aggregate of huts pressed close together, a certain order may still be detected in the distribution of the different quarters. AH persons belonging to the same family group constitute a kharuba, whose dwellings form a distinct district, while the streets or lanes of all the kharubas converge in the jemaa, or place of pubHc assembly. In the centre of this open space an arcade between two houses serves to shelter the benches on which are seated the elders presiding over the popular gatherings. But even in the densely peopled Jurjura district there are no towns properly so called. Fort National, the military capital, is a mere collection of barracks, magazines, taverns, and a few private houses, with promenades and gardens, surroimded by an irregular enclosure, which follows the crest of the hill and falls from terrace to terrace down the steep slopes, whence a view" is commanded of a vast horizon. The present fort was built in 1857, nearly in the geographical centre of Great Kabylia, in the midst of the powerful confederation of the Ait-Iraten tribe, whose black villages crown all the surrounding heights. The great elevation of Fort National (3,050 feet above the sea), giving it the military command of the whole country, prevents it from becoming a large centre of trade and population. 2G1 NOETH-WEST .AFRICA. An eminence in tlie Beni-Yenni territory, towards the south-west, is occupied bj- Beni-Yahsen (the Arab Beni-cl Hassen), the largest Kabyle village in the whole of the Jurjura country. Here are four mosques and some sixty workshops, where arms and jewellery are manxifactured. Tizi-Uzu — Dellys — Menerville. In the valleys of the Sebau and its tributaries, the European settlers have already founded several villages, such as Azazga, Freha, Mekia, and Temdn, which Fig. 98. — FoET NATioxAi. Scale 1 : 8,000. 56- 4=. ""^V 50 :^'\ -/- '.^^' / ^ ■/ 4° 15-50 - ^ , oT breenwicVi 4°k4-IO" follow from north-east to south-west along the line of the future route between Algiers and Bougie. But at present the trade of this district is centred in the modern town of Tisi-Uzu (the Arab Fej-el-Gucndxl), -which lies at an altitude of 850 feet to the west of an extensive plain where the "Wed Sebau and "Wed Aissi unite their turbulent waters. Few places in Algeria have developed more rapidly than this administrative capital of Xabylia, whose market is frequented by thou- sands of natives from the surrounding districts. In the hills to the north-west '^i^ wH DELLTS. 205 was discovered the remarkable Berber stele of Abizar, representing a naked warrior armed with shield and three javelins. Besides the railwaj* which will soon connect Tizi-Uzu with Algiers, another line is intended to ascend the valley of the Wed Bu-Gdura, towards the flourishing Fig-. 99.— Dellys. Scale 1 : 20,000. Depths. otoie Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 to G4 Feet. W Feet and upwards. 550 Yards. village of Borj-Boghni, Ijing at the foot of a fortified hill. About 10 miles farther west Hes the town of Dra-el-Mizan, which although no longer classed as a miUtary post, occupies an important strategical position commanding the southern approach to Great Kabylia. In the Lower Sebau Valley, some thriving places have recently sprung up VOL. XI 200 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. including Rebcvri/, Ukd- Kcdi/aa/i , and Boia-Sacre. But DdbjH or Bellis, thcoutport of the district, lies not at the mouth of the river, but more to the east, under a headland sheltering it from the north-west winds. It consists of one long street and a few lanes on the slope of a hill terminating at Dollys Point, where a break- Fig-. 100. — P.iLESTBO AXD GoKGES OF TUB IsSEE. Scale 1 : 170,000. . 3 Miles. water, intended to protect the roadstead from the north and east winds, has already been carried some 300 feet into the bay. A school of arts and industries, one of the chief institutions of the department of Algiers, has been founded in Dellys for the benefit of the surrounding Kabylo population. On the exposed coast running PAI.ESTEO— ISSiEE Vn.LE . 267 eastwards, the only European stations are Tikzirt, near the little port of Taksebt, and Asct'iiii (Zrjfiin), called also Port Giiedoii. Xear the waterparting between the sources of the Isser and the eastern slope of the Shelif stands the rising town of Bencagha, an important agricultural centre, where the French have established a model farm, a school of agricultiire, and a rural conA-ict station containing over a thousand criminals. Below the abrupt bend of the Isser roimd the hills of Great Kabvlia lies Pakstro, a flourishing place founded since the opening of the road which penetrates through the gorges of the river, and which is now accompanied by a railway. Since the massacre of some Fig. 101. — LowEE Sebah axd Issee Vailets. Scale 1 : 270,000. Depths. D to 3-2 Feet. 32 to 64 Feet. 61 to 160 Feet. ISO to 320 320 Feet and Feet. upwards. 6 Miles. fifty Europeans duiing a revolt of the natives in 1871, Palestro has been strength- ened bv a strong citadel commanding the surrotinding district. The plain opening north of the gorges is one of the most densely peopled in Algeria. Beni-Amran , on the slopes of the hUls, is followed lower down by Blad- Guitun on the left, and Isscni//e near the right bank of the Isser, in the centre of the plain. Xear this place is held the great market of the Isser tribe, formerly a rendezvous for aU the inhabitants of Kabylia. But the French conquest has modified the economic conditions of the country, while the importance of this market has been further diminished by the foundation of BorJ-Jtleiiaiel in the t2 268 XOETH-'\\'EST ATEICA. neighbourhood, and especially of the Alsatian colony of Azib-Zamun, officially known as Hamaonvilkrs, some 6 miles farther down. Beyond this point the Isser winds through its broad valley to the coast near Cape Jinet, a bold basaltic headland not far from the site of the Roman station of Cksi. About 4 miles west of the Isser market Hes the broad Beni-Aisha Pass, at present occupied by the busy little town of Menerville. At this point the Tizi- Uzu branch effects a junction with the main line of railway between Constantiue and Algiers. Algiers. Algiers, capital of the "African France," still bears its Arabic name of El- Jezair, or " the Islets," derived from four reefs now connected with the mainland. It was founded in the tenth century, on the ruins of the Roman Icoshim, in the territory of the Beni-Mezghanna tribe, and already in the beginning of the sixteenth ccnturj- it had become powerful enough to attract the attention of the SjDaniards, whose occupation of the place, however, lasted only nineteen years. The pier, constructed by the famous Kheir-ed-Din by connecting the reefs with the mainland, created a sheltered and commodious harbour, which henceforth secured for Algiers the first rank amongst the towns on the exposed Mauritanian coast between Boiigie and Mers-el-Kebir. For three centuries it bid defiance to Europe, thanks partly to the pusillanimity of some and the jealousy of others. Eleven times besieged or threatened in vain, it was for the first time compelled to lower the crescent to the British fleet imder Lord Exmouth in 1816, and was definitely occupied bj- the French in 1830. At present Algiers holds the foremost position in Africa, not for its population, in which it is second to Cairo and probably also to Tunis, but as a centre for the diffusion of European culture throughout the continent. It is also unrivalled for its picturesque and imposing aspect, presenting a marvellous seaward view which leaves an indelible impression on the memory. Towards the crest of the hill crowned by the citadel is seen all that remains of the old town, which from a distance looks like a quarry of white marble strewn with irregular and rough-hewn blocks. But the native quarter, which formerly descended quite to the sea, now stops half-way, being arrested by the regular masses of Eui-opean houses, which develop an extensive facade above the quays. South of the Arab town another quarter has sprimg up along the slopes, consisting exclusively of modern dwellings, whose grey walls and red roofs contrast everywhere with the deep verdure of the surrounding gardens. Farther on the buildings are again abruptly interrupted by a green zone of grassj' ramparts and wooded moimds. But at Mttdapha, beyond the enclosures, the city is continued b}" the new and more open suburljs crowning every height, and affording a pleasant retreat to the English and other visitors who come to pass the winter season in the mild climate of Algiers. The narrow sjjace enclosed between the cliffs and tlie sea has comiJelled the rising city to develop itself along the coast-line on both sides of the old town, which down to 1830 was still confined to a triangular space on the hillside, some i| I'll , ■■^:';-:',.j'-|: -ttt- ■ ■-,= -: = 5'-- '-("gSi^ Y II'' 11 .•' * f ALGIERS. 269 r25 acres in extent, and commanded by the kasbah. At that time the population scarcely exceeded forty thousand, although commonly estimated at over one hundred thousand. The ramparts of this quarter were levelled by the French ; but the new enclosures have in their turn become too narrow, and towards the north-west, beyond the Bab-el-^ed, or "Eiver Gate," several suburbs, interrujited by cemeteries, follow in succession as far as the interminable Rue de Saint-Eugene. Fig. 102.— AiGiEES DT 1S30. Scale 1 : 22,000. ■«',- 3 Miles. it was mostly rebuilt in the European stj-le, with regular streets and squares, uniform military and municipal buildings. But what remains of the old town is still distinguished for its picturesque appearance, quaint iloorish houses, and 292 NORTH- WEST AFEICA. bandsome Berber mosques. Amongst its architectural curiosities are the nave of Fig. 122. — Street View in Tlemcen. 1 the Great Mosque, supported on seventy-two columns, and especially that of Abu-'l-Hassan, disposed in three sections supported on onyx columns. One of the TLEMCEN. 293 inscriptions collected in the museum is the epitaph ou the tomb of Boabdil, last king of Grenada, who died here, and not, as traditionally supposed, in Marocco. At El-Etibbad, over a mile to the south-east of Tlemcen, stands the famous kubba Fig. 123. — Mouth of the Tafma. Scale 1 : 85,000. West of.Gree>^wicW l"39 0tol6 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. Depths. 32 to 80 Feet. 80 to 160 Feet. 1,100 Yards. 160 Feet and upwardfi. of Sidi Bu-Medin, the learned Andalusian Moor, who taught at Bagdad and in Spain during the twelfth centurv. Other historic monuments of some interest are 204 NOETH-T\Ti:ST AFRICA. found at Mnnsura, 2 miles to the south-west, including a graceful minaret over 130 feet high, half of which, built, according to the local legend, by Christian liands, has become detached longitudinally, leaving the portion erected by the faithful intact. The European settlement of Remchi, conveniently situated below the confluence of the Isser and Tafna, forms the chief station between Tlemcen and its natural outport, Bcni-Saf, which, notwithstanding a badly protected harbour, does an active Fig. 124.— Nemoues. Scale 1 : 40,000. West of L>r Depths. oto3a Feet. 32 to 80 Feet. 80 Feet and upwards. 1,100 Yards. export trade, cspcciallj' in the excellent iron ores worked by over one thousand miners in the neighbouring metalliferous district. Over a mile from the moiith of the Tafna lies the island of Rashgun, the Arshgul of the Arabs, which affords a shelter to the approaches of the river. Near the lighthouse at the north end of the island are the ruins of an Arab town, and other remains are strewn over the whole seaboard. North-east of Beni-Saf stand the vestiges of the Roman port of NEMOURS. 295 Camarata. South of Rashgun are the scattered stones of Takehrit, or the "Vaults," occupying the site of the ancient Siga, and to the west the fragments of an ancient enclosure not far from Cape Honein, a name transformed by seafarers into that of Xoah. At this point, overlooked by the escarpments of the Jebel Tajara, stood the important Arab town of Honein, one of the outports of Tlemcen before the conquest of Oran by the Spaniards. Between the Tafna and the Marocco frontier the modern French seaport of Nemours occupies the site of the Ai-ab to^vn of Jemda-el-Ghazatcat (Razawai), the Fig. 125. — Nemoues. Roman Ad Frcttres. This Latin name is explained by the two rocks, still known as the " Two Brothers," which lie off the coast to the west ; while the Arabic appellation of the " Corsairs' Mosque" recalls the time when this creek was a nest of pirates. East of the city rises the bluff on which stood the corsairs' stronghold and mosque. The port is not suificiently sheltered to give access at all times to the steamers and sailing-vessels which place Nemours in direct communication with Oran and Avith the Spanish ports of MeliUa on the JIarocco coast, and Almeria and Malaga on the opposite Andalusian seaboard. Like the Berber town of Nedroma, lying 14 miles to the south, it is surrounded by hills, which abound in rich iron, manganese, and other mineral ores. Near the kubba of Sidi-Brahim, to the 296 XORTH-AA'EST AFRICA. south-west, the Arab war of independence was brought to a close by the surrender of Abd-el-Kadcr in 1847. Compared with the coastlands and uplands of the Tell, the southern plateaux and regions di-aining to the Sahara are very sparsely peopled, the Arab and Berber tribes here occupying vast spaces out of all proportion to their numbers, while the 1-Veuch settlers, exclusive of the naturalised Jews, numbered scarcely five thousand altogether in 1881. Yet the ruins of Roman towns and farmsteads in the upland valleys of the Aurcs and other districts show that many of these extensive tracts enjoy a soil and climate highly favourable to European civilisation. AuREs — Batna. The Aures, or Auras, properly so called — that is, the " Cedar Mountains," accord- ing to some etjTnologists — is comprised between the course of the "Wed-el-Kantara and that of the Wed-el-Arab, and is inhabited exclusively by peoples of Berber speech, but of diverse origin. Although there has evidently been much displace- ment of populations since the Roman epoch, the country was never occupied by the Turks nor reduced by the French till the year 1845. Yet the latter are already regarded as the descendants of the " Ruman," or old Roman colonists, and the inscriptions and other local monuments constitute in the eyes of the natives their most legitimate title to the possession of Algeria. "The Rumi, sons of the Ruman, have only resumed the patrimony of their fathers." To these are attributed all the ruins of the land, and especially the circular graves still scattered in hundreds over the uplands of the Mons Aurasius. Roman blood probably betrays itself in the prevalent fair type, and some of the most important tribes even as far south as the Saharian oases still bear the name of Rumaniya. The current Berber dialect retains many Latin terms, such as the names of the months, bignu (from piniis ?), the cedar-tree, bu ini [bonus annus'j, the salutation at the New Year, and others. Although traditionally converted to Islam by a certain " Saint " Sidi Abdullah, before the French occupation most of the natives were Mohammedans oulj^ in name. But Arabic having been adopted as the official language, both the Arab speech and religion have since been widely diffused amongst these Berber high- landers. The indigenous dialects, Zenatia in the eastern, Tmazirt (Temazirha) in the western districts, often take the general name of Teshawit (vulgarly Shawia), from the Arabic Shawi, " Shepherds," and this term is even collectively applied to all the Algerian Berbers, except the Kabyles. The rising French settlement of Khenshcla, conveniently situated at the con- verging point of several fertile valleys, commands the north-eastern Aures district. It occupies the site of the Roman Maseula, and numerous ruins are found, especially towards the north in the direction of the old Roman town of Bagai. Megalithic monuments, such as graves surrounded by a circle of stones, are also scattered in thousands over this region. Sidi-Naji, at the south-eastern extremity of the Aures, in the Wed-el-Arab basin, is noted for its handsome mosque, and in the district \ AUEES— BATXA. 297 are several influential zawyas (religious communities), such as that of Khairan in the Jebel Sheshar, and Liana near the old Roman military post of Bades {Ad Badias) . "West of the Tizugarin pass stretches the extensive plain which seems destined to become the centre of European colonisation in the Aures, but whose rich pastures are meantime held in common by all the branches of the Ulad-Daud tribe. Here begins the valley of the Wed-el-Abiad, which has a south-westerlv course, losing itself in the Sahara below the Tranimin gorges. The nearlv parallel Wed Abdi Yalley is held by the brave ITlad-Abdi tribe, whose stronghold Fig. 126. — The Shelita iSD Plles of Medina. Scale 1 : 130,000. >WtovS?^ ""l^-^iZ ^ '■■' — "- -3§if' .r ^^^^ "'^ ^ b. ^ of G'^een^', R.R. = Roman ruins. , 3 lilies. of Xara was razed by the French in ISoO. The present capital of the tribe is Menaa, which may be regarded as the central point of the Aures highlands. Batna, commanding the northern districts of this region, is at once an important military station and the chief administrative centre in the southern portion of the province of Constanrine. It occupies between the Aures and Tugueur uplands a position analogous to that of Khenshela, lying in a plain which affords direct communication in one direction with the Eummel, in another with the Hodna basin. Here converge all the more important natural routes south VOL. XI. X 298 NOETH-"OTi;ST AFEICA. cf Constantine ; hence the neighbouring Lambmsis (Lambessa), had been chosen by the Romans as the head-quarters of the famous Tertia Augusta legion, and the centre of Numidia Miliciana. LAMBESSA. 299 Lambessa. The New Lambaesis (Xouvelle Lambese), as Batna was at first officially called, cannot pretend to rival the splendours of the old Lambaesis, the Tuzziit of the Fig-. 128.— Fuji Ksaotdta. Scale 1 : 2S,000. 6° 29' 6*^30' L . oT breenwich • • llegalithic Tombs. . 1,100 Yards. Berbers, which covered an area of several square miles, and whose remarkable ruins are still far from having been thoroughly explored. Here Leon Reuier x2 soo XORTH-WEST AFRICA. alone deciphered over one thousand inscriptions, and the great collection of "Algerian Inscriptions" already contains over fifteen hundred from this place, including some of great historic value. The sites have been determined of two camps, one that of the Third Legion, the best preserved of all in the Roman world. In its centre still stands a large portion of the Pra;torium, now converted into a museum. Of the forty triumphal arches seen by Pcyssonnel in the last century, when the city was stiU almost entire, four only are now standing. Most of the other buildings, except the tombs lining the Roman way, have also been demolished to supply materials for the construction of barracks, houses, and prisons. Fig. 129. — Ancient Roman Towxs in Noeth Auees. Scale 1 : 600,000. ' 12 Miles. The henshir of Timcgad, 12 miles east of Lambessa, is all that remains of the Roman Thamugas, which was even a more magnificent place than its neighbour. South of this point the narrow Fum Ksantina gorge, separating the plateaux of Bu-Driasen and Kharruba, is crowned with circidar tombs, pillars, and the remains of some large buildings. In the Batna district are also many other vestiges of the pre- historic and Roman epochs, the most remarkable of which is the Medmcen {Med- ghasen), on the margin of a sebkha 18 miles north-east of Batna, and not far from the Ain-Yolcut station on the Constantino railwaj'. This is a sepulchral monument in the same style as that of the Christian Lady near Tipaza, consisting of a circular mass, 580 feet round, supporting a cone and surrounded by sixty columns. » o a o a < Eh m BU-SADA. 801 This was evidently a mausoleum of the Numidian kings, older than that erected by Juba near lol Ca?sarea. In the district are several other conic tombs, but of smaller dimensions. Westwards in the direction of Selif follow several other Roman towns, such as Diana Veteranorum, the present Zana and Zurai (Zrai'a), where was found a curious custom-house tariff attesting the former importance of the trade between Mauritania and Sudan. Fig. 130. — A Nail Abab Woman. ^'yf-j^ij ^c The present capital of the extensive Hodna basin is Eii-Sada, the "Happy Abode," a picturesque place perched on the brow of a hill in the midst of gardens and palm- groves. Since the French occupation in 1849 its trade has been considerably developed, and its commercial relations now extend northwards to the coast towns, southwards to the oases of the Sahara. South of this place the powerful confederation of the Nail Arabs occupies a vast territory, stretching westwards to the Jebel Amur, eastwards to the Ziban district. These Arabs, S02 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. whose camping-grounds are recognised bj- the red-brown colour of their tents, breed camels on the steppes and sheep on the hills, cultivatiag cereals in the depressions, and elsewhere ser\-ing to maiatain commercial intercourse between the Sahara and the Tell. The military port of Jelfa, south-west of Bu-Sada ou the route between Algiers and Laghwat, occupies the centre of the Nail territory. Notwithstanding the brackish character of the waters flowing north-west to the Zahrez-el-Gharbi sebkha, the formerly arid slopes ia this district have been successfully reclaimed and planted with the Italian poplar and other large trees. These favourable results cannot fail to encourage similar efforts on the part of the European colonists, who have begun to settle in the upland valleys especially of the Jebel Fig. 131. — The Bc-Khah. Mountains. Scale 1 : 320,000. 3'jO- L!._*Df Greenwich . IG Miles. Amur. But however arid in appearance the rocks of this jagged parting-line between the plateaux and the Sahara, they have a beauty of theii- own, produced by their bold outlines, .sharp profile, and brilliant tints. There are few more impres- sive sights than the steep cliffs of the Jebel-bu-Khail, streaked ia colours caused by erosive action, and forming the scarp of a regular plateau slightly depressed towards the centre. Ain-es-SitUan, near this district, marks the extreme limit of the Roman Empire in this direction. A few ruins, the last occurring south from Algiers, attest the presence of the Romans at a point beyond which the French have already pushed the frontiers of their North African possessions. South-west of Eatua the route towards the desert and the raQway now in pro- BISKRA— TOLGA. 803 gress takes the direction of the El-Btar pass (3,630 feet), where the road begins to fall, at first imperceptibly, towards the Sahara. The TVed-el-Kantara, a small stream descending abruptly through a succession of cascades from a height of over 330 feet, skii-ts the highway, swollen by other torrents from all the lateral valleys. The debris strewn at the issue of these gorges are supposed by 31. Grad to be moraines of glacial origin. Eight and left rise the limestone cliffs, broken by faults, bristling with jagged peaks, offering here and there scarcely sufficient humus for the growth of a few shrubs. But suddenly the cliffs retire and the stream rushes oyer a cascade spanned by a one-arched Eoman bridge, whence the name of El-Kantara, the " bridge " in a pre-eminent sense, a solitary link between the Tell and the Sahara. Of all the many romantic sights in Algeria, none is more striking than this, where the sharpest contrast is presented between the rocky plateaus and the Saharian oases. The Ai-abs are firmly persuaded, and the belief is partly justified by the facts, that all the moisture-bearing clouds -from the Tell are arrested by the simimits of the El-Kantara cliffs, where " the rain dies away." On the one hand is the region of winter, on the other of summer; above the Tell, below the Sahara ; here the hills are black and the coloui- of rain, there rose-tinted and the colour of fine weather. BiSKKA TOLGA. Biskra, capital of the Zibans, who stretch eastwards to the Tunisian frontiers, occupies an important strategic position at the approach to the desert. At this point of the ancient Mauritania the French plough the land already tilled by the Romans, and the present Fort Saint-Germain rises not far from the site formerly occupied by Ad Fiscinam. But farther south no Roman remains have yet been discovered, although legend speaks of a " Ruman " host annihilated by the nomads near Tamerna, and of another swallowed up in the Temassin swamps. Like the kasbah that it has replaced, the French fort at Biskra has been erected above the oasis whose waters it commands. Here the united stream of the TVed-el-Kantara and Wed Abdi still discharges a small volume even in summer. The Biskra oasis, which is planted with one hundred and forty thousand date- palms and some thousand oHve trees, said to derive from Roman times, has lately become a winter resort, where many invalids from the north of France seek health beneath an ever- cloudless sky. In the Zab Shergui, or Eastern Zab, the oases are developed in a narrow zone skirted on one side by the escarpments, on the other by the saline margin of the Melghigh depression. In this region the most extensive palm-groves, south-east of Biskra, are those of Sidi-Okba, so named from the mosque raised above the tomb of the famous conqueror. Here probably perished, in the sixtieth year of the Hegira, the founder of Kairwan, the leader who, according to the legend, spurred his steed bevond the ilaghreb-el-Aksa into the surf of the Atlantic. The zawya 804 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. enclosing his tomb bus become the religious metropolis of the -whole coimtry, and one of the famous schools of Mussulman law in iVlgeria. Fig. 132. — Emascipated Neqeess, Biskra. South-west of Biskra a numerous group of oases take the name of Zah Dahri, the^ Noj.j^gj,jj y.^^^ ^^^ ^^j ^^^^^j.^ ^^^ Southern Zab, names scarcely justified by their relative position to the whole archipelago of the Zibans. Here also the STREET VIEW IN BISKEA. i BISKRA— TOLGA. 305 Eomaii anus had penetrated, aud the capital of these oases still possesses a Roman castle, whose inhabitants have replaced. the roof by a layer of earth supporting a few date-palms. The palm groves of the Northern Zab yield the finest dates in the countrj' ; but the cultivated tracts do not suffice for the support of the inhabitants, although fresh oases have recently been created by the French settlers. The capital of the archipelago is Tolga, a great religious centre, with some fifteen mosques and a zawya even more powerful than that of Sidi Okba, attracting to its school of Arab jurisprudence as many as one thousand students. Its political influence also, always conciliator}' towards the French, makes itself felt as far as the Tunisian frontier. In the Lishana oasis, north-west of Tolga, a few ruins mark Fig. 133.— Oases of the Noetheen aud SotrrnEEX Zieans. Scale 1 : 300,000. i*;"«'^' "■\--* ElBor^V-^ ''it- i,ouJ:^, A •^'*"^JtJj: Mi/,Ji WW 54' 5°co- . 6 Miles. the site of Zaacha, which after its heroic defence and destruction by the French in 1849, has never been rebuilt. South of Biskra, the Tugurt route, which will soon be accompanied by a railway, traverses the newly created oasis of Um-el-Thiur, and after skirting the northern bank of the Jeddi, follows the west side of the Shott Mclghigh aud its southern prolongation, the Shott IMerwan. Here the oases run north and south in the plain of the Wed Righ, beneath which the underground waters are tapped at intervals by old and modern artesian wells. Thanks to the recent borings of the French engineers, the palm groves of Mghuier now contain some fifty thousand trees, while extensive tracts have been brought under cultivation in the Ughkina and Tamcnia districts. Since the middle of the century the supply of water has increased four- fold, changing the whole aspect of the Wed Righ, and causing new oases and villages to spring up in all directions. 306 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. Wed RiGir — Tugurt. Fio 131.— The Wed Eion Oasis. Scale 1 : 600,000. The Ruagha (Rurha, Ruara), or inhabitants of the High, numbering about thirteen thousand, belong to the Zenata Berber family ; but their dark colour and Negroid features betray a large inter- mixture of black blood. Of late j^ears their material condition has greatly im- proved. They now raise large crops of barley ; most of them have become inde- pendent proprietors of palm groves, and have paid off the claims of the usurers, by whom they had formerly been reduced almost to the condition of serfs. TiKjurf, with its hundred and seventy thousand palm-trees, is the natural capital of the "Wed Righ, and the oldest oasis in this region. It lies' below the undcr- groimd confluence of the Wed Miya and Igharghar, 230 feet above the sea, at the eastern foot of a plateau rising several hundred feet higher. Its form is that of an oval enclosed bj-^ a broad but now dried-up ditch, beyond which it is pro- tected by a mound from the ever-en- croaching sands. Since the French occupation in 185-1 the population has doubled, and many of the old earthen or adobe houses have been replaced by dwell- ings constructed with blocks of gypsum, with galleries and upper stories. Suburbs have sprung up beyond the enclosures, and its trade and industries have been greatly developed. About 8 miles to the south is the religious metropolis of Te- massin, containing the zawya of Tamelhat, a branch of the Ain-Mahdi confraternity, but now enjoying more authority than the mother-house, its influence being felt as far as Senegal. Suf, the most isolated of all the Al- gerian oases, lies about 60 miles east of Tugurt, on the route to Jerid. Here the Wed Suf, whose waters are nowhere visible on the surface, maintains a group of ten oases, with a hundred and eighty S3' El Berd/. fg,. Am RoIUna . : ° f i^ •SldiYahla??-'^ -'^"" SidiAwipan '^tJ^merne-el-Dji.digla S:di R«5>.ecl<»''a%-: Orstm rv ^ TUGURT ws \ V / 55- S'SQ' G*b . oi.breenwIcK Oasis ^R 12 Miles. WED EIGH— TUaUET. 307 thousand palms, yielding dates of an excellent qualitj-, besides other fruit-trees, such as the orange, apricot, fig, and in the shade, vegetables and tobacco. But like most of the Saharian oases, these gardens belong not to the cultivators, but to the warKke nomads, who claim the larger share of the crops. Grouped vmder the general name of Trud, and associated with the Rebaias, Ferjans, and other marauders, these Arab pastors, who are said to have arrived in the district towards the end of the fourteenth centmy, pitch their tents in the neighbourhood of the oases, leaving the cultivation of the land entirely in the hands of the industrious Adwans. El- Wed, the chief of the Suf oases, comprises a group of about one thousand Fig. 135. — TuGUEi. Scile 1 : 60.000, L ,r oT. Urcenwicn 2,200 yards. houses, and Kke others in the ncighboiu-hood, is the seat of a religious confraternity, which maintains commercial and friendlj- relations with all the brotherhoods of North Africa. Guemar and Kicinin are also populous communities ; but most of the iohabitants of Kwinin are nearly blind, from the action of the fine sand ■nith which the air is fi-equently charged. The Suf is the only part of the Sahara ia which recent marine shells, a huccinum and a ba/aiiits, have hitherto been found. But most geologists are of opinion that these isolated shells are not now in situ, but have been brought from a distance by natiu-al agencies. Like the oases of the Wed High, those of the "Wed Jeddi belong also to the 808 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. basin of the " inland sea," if tliis term can be any longer applied to the saline depression of the Shott Melghigh. More than half of Southern Algeria draining towards the Sahara, from the Jebel Amur to the Tunisian frontier, forms part of 'this basin, the central reservoir of which is at present almost dry. Laghwat MZAB. The watercourse flowing from the rising village of Aflu, capital of the Amur Fig. 136. — Laohwat. Scale 1 : IS.OOO. L . ot UreenwcK 550 yards. highlanders, is joined near Tajennif by a stream fed by tributaries from the southern Amur valleys, and passing near Ain-Mahdi , the religious centre of the famous Tijaniya order, founded in the eighteenth century. But its prosperity was ruined by the choice made of Laghwat by the French as the capital of the Saharian LAGHWAT— MZAB. 309 regions in the province of Algeria. Alreadj- connected witli Algiers by a carriage road, Laghwat (El-Aghwat) seems destined to become the starting-point of the future railway projected in the direction of the Twat oasis. Although standing at an altitude of 2,470 feet, it lies beyond the border ranges of the Algerian plateau, from which it is separated by the valley of the Mzi, which a few miles farther down takes the name of Jeddi. An irrigation canal derived from this stream circulates through the oasis, winding away between two hills to the plains bej'ond. On these hills are perched the houses of Laghwat, disposed in amphitheatrical form along the slopes. Like those of other Berber towns, the inhabitants were formerly grouped in two distinct quarters, according to their origin. In the public assembly were equally represented the Ulad-Serghins of the west, the eastern Ahlafs, and the southern TTlad-el-Haj-Aissa, or "Sons of the Pilgrim Aissa." One of the present Laghwat confraternities belongs to the famous Senusij-a brotherhood. The fifteen thousand pakns of Laghwat, which yield dates of indifferent quality, occupy a part of the oasis, the rest of the land being planted with European fruits, such as peaches, pears, apricots, figs, pomegranates, and vegetables, especially onions, besides some olive, lemon, and orange trees. These varied products are largely exported by caravans, mostlj- under the escort of members of the Larbaa Arab confederacy, who are nearly all aiEUated to the Tijaniya confraternity. Below Laghwat the Jeddi traverses districts which in many cases might be brought under cultivation. If properly irrigated, the rich alluvial soil in the depressions, several hundred feet thick, would yield abtmdant crops. After receiving the waters of the Demmed, flowing from the moimtain gorges near the picturesque hamlets of Messdd and Demmed, belonging to the Ulad-Xail tribe, the Jeddi continues its intermittent course across an extensive steppe region frequented by nomad pastors. The oases, properly so-called, reappear in its lower valley south of the Zab Dahri. Here the most populous settlement is that of the Ulad- Jellals, which comprises no less than f om-teen hundred houses, each surrounded by its pakns and garden-plot, and possessing its own well sunk to the underground reservoir. The Ulad-Jellals are separated by a feud of long standing from their western neighbours, the inhabitants of the Sidi Khakd oasis. Ghard.wa. South of the sandy and steppe regions frequented by the Ulad-Nail, LarbaS, Hajej, and HarazUa tribes, the Beni-Mzab confederation occupies the eastern slopes of the cretaceous plateaux traversed by the Wed Mzab and other surface and undersround streams, which flow eastwards in the direction of the Wed Miya. Lj^ing nearly 1"20 miles south of the advanced French station of Laghwat, the religious and trading Mzabite republic endeavoured long to maintain its political independence ; but it was fain, in 1850, to recognise the suzerainty of France. Its capital, Ghardaya, was seized seven years afterwards by a French 310 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. detachment ; lastly, in 1882, its annexation was formally proclaimed, a fort erected above Ghardaya receiving the small garrison which was here stationed to represent the new Government. The Mzabites. Although of undoubted Bei'bcr descent, and speaking the language of the Kabyles and Tuaregs, the Mzabites are allied in dogma and rites with the "Wahabites of Arabia. Like these, they trace the origin of their sect to the teachings of Abd- Allah ben Ibadh, who flom-ished towards the close of the seventh century. The Ibadhitc doctrines were diffused throughout Oman and other parts of Arabia, and thence reached Irak, Khorassan, Turkestan, and India ; but they became extinct everywhere in Asia, except in the Arabian peninsula, where they were revived imder a new form by the modern reformer, TTahab. In Africa the Ibadhite propaganda produced more lasting results, but only amongst the Berbers, the K^efusa highlanders in TripoHtana, the Tunisian Jarabas, and the Beni-Mzab of Algeria. Fundamentally the Ibadhite teachings represent an older religious evolution than those of the other Mohammedan sects, and in opposition to them allows some scope for the action of free wiU. Frequentlj' persecuted for their theories and practices, the Mzabites have become " the most reticent of men," so that it is difficult to obtain from them any information regarding their doctrines. By dint of much perseverance and tact, M. Masqueray has, nevertheless, succeeded in getting possession of all their religious waitings and historic records, and many of these valuable Arab manuscrijDts have already been published. Oppressed by the true believers, the Mzabites have been often compelled to shift from place to place. Forming a branch of the Zenata Berbers, they had founded Tiaret on the upland plateau, about the middle of the eighth centm-y, and for nearly two hundred years they held their ground in this region of northern ilauritam'a. Vanquished by the Sanhejas, they were thence driven to take refuge in the Sahara, where they occuined the Ziban, "Wed Eigh, andSuf districts, sinking wells and with patient industry bringing much land imdcr cultivation. But they were again compelled to quit their new homes, and withdraw to the cirques and higher mountain gorges about the headstreams of the Maya. With every exodus their numbers were reduced, but the survivors became banded all the more closely together, displaying an ever-increasing zeal in the observance of their religious practices and national usages. Their tolhas, at once judges, priests, and censors of the public morals, armed also with the powers of absolution, purification, and anathema, constitute a true priesthood, in which Masqueraj- recognises the hierarchy- of the Roman Church — possibly a remnant of the religion professed by the Berbers before the spread of Islam. But beneath this Christian element traces are said to be detected of a still older worship, that of the goddess Thanit, "Mother of the Eain." Most of the Mzabites are clearh* Berbers, as shown in their small statiu-e, well- knit frames, broad and even flat features, thick lips, high forehead, deep-set eyes. THE MZABITES. 311 and bushy eyebrows. Besides many Negroes, still ^arhially slaves, some four hundred Jews dwell amongst them, but cannot hold any land in the oasis. Naturally of a peaceful disposition, the Jlzabites have allied themselves with some Arab clans, who pitch their tents near the settlements, and who in former times served as mercenaries. Amongst these Arabs are some descendants of the old occupiers of the land, a few even still possessing gardens and houses in the oasis. Before the annexation, each Mzab village formed a small independent republic, administered by an assemblj' which was chosen from the heads of families with a stake ui the community. On important occasions a general assembly, formed by delegates from the different urban bodies, consulted for the common interests Fig. 137.— Mzab. Scale 1: 1,100,000. C\v T J- ^ '^V---?^. L . of breenvvic^ 4'-!0- . 30 Miles, of the confederacy. Quarrels often broke out amongst the various factions, and, as at Ghadames, the combatants fought with the hea-sy iron or wooden keys of their doors, always worn at the girdle. The head of the family is absolute master, the children being incapable of holding any property without his sanction. The women, who nearly always marry in their native place, are not permitted to emigrate ; but they are well protected from insult, any one accosting them in public being banished for the ofEence. They are chiefly occupied with weaving, entirely a house industry, while the men do all the field and garden work. According to the census of 18S"2, the whole group of oases comprise about 193,000 palms, with a population of over thirty thousand. Nearly all are owners 312 of a small plot, so NORTH-WEST AFRICA, that there are no mendicants in the confederation. Those 1' C3 \^ o 4 4m r-.T. , '^ni' , 4^Vr' S'.Hh I, aiiiiiiiliiiilil ii iJliliililll iilil ililliiiiiiliiiii r^l.^^. •'-■;:; wb' v^^. • A*,W.?ui'? i I' '* >': f few '.',;..■ ^" ^ reduced to want are supported by their respective communities. But however THE MZABITE3. 318 well cultivated, the land is insufficient for the needs of all the inhabitants, about one-third of whom reside abroad, chiefly in Algiers, Tunis, and other coast towns. The emigrants leave their families in the commune, recognising as their own all children born during their absence, however long they may be from home. On the other hand, most of them set up temporary establishments in the towns where Fig. 139. — MZAB ASD Metixu. Scale 1 : 250,000. 3 x>^Sh6blv \ '^~'^ y^ Mh^ It. -^-.m.^ ^'v* '^v7 \^ / 13C ' ^ -^ / / ^v J'v ~y f^ ,0Q ^ ■ / ' ^ : I -^ cj y r-^ 50 1 t — i % i s i i' £ s i i 1 highways on the African continent, and the mental comparison which he makes with many European countries is to the advantage of the French colony EOADS ,\XD EaILW.WS. In 1830 the only roads in the regency were the tracks of shepherds and their flocks, and the beaten paths of caravans along the streams and through the moun- tain gorges. But during the first years of the French occupation, one of the chief ^ OL. XI. z 880 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. works of the army was that of road-makmg, and Algeria may be said to have been reduced far more by the construction of strategical routes than by force of arms. Even stiU thousands of military convicts are employed on these works, jointly with Calabrian, native, and other navvies, j^et the system of main highways has not yet been completed. Between Tunisia and Marocco a single route, running through Suk-Ahras, Guelma, Setif, the Mitija and Shelif valleys, and Tlemcen, serves to connect the lateral roads branching off towards the interior, or northwards to the coast. The coast route, intended to connect La Calle with Nemours, is still inter- rupted by numerous gaps, representing over one-half of the whole distance. Fig. H8. — Lejes of Steam Navioahon between Maueitania axd the opposite Coast. Scale 1 : 18,000,000. M8'~i:iiJ^' dj breo^o. ic \Veekly Departui'es ux either direction. Under one. One to four. Four to eight. Eight upwards. ^^^_^^^_-^^— 180 Miles. Several important communes also are still accessible only on foot or on horseback, and the important town of Jijelli still remains completely isolated for want of any carriage roads. Railway operations began in 1860, and the first section was opened in 1862. At present the total development, exclusive of the single lines used for carrjong alfa, is nearly 1,200 miles. But the great central artery, between Tunis and Marocco, is not yet completed, a break occurring (1885) south of Kabj'lia, between El-Ashir and Palestro, in the direction of ]\Iarocco, while the locomotive stops at Ain-Tcmushent, within 60 miles of the frontier. Several seaports, such as Nemours, EOADS AXD RAILWAYS. 831 Beni-Saf, ilostaganem, Tenes, Shershcll, Dellys, Bougie, Collo, and La Calle, still await the branches that are to connect them with the trunk line. These, however, have all been either begun or at least projected. All the companies have received Government aid bj' advances and concession of land. Yet in certain places, espe- cially between Algiers and Blida, and on the PhiHppeville-Constantine section, the local traffic has already begun to yield ample returns on the capital originally- invested. The tariff is everjnvhere very high, sufficient interest on the outlay being guaranteed by the Government to render the companies independent of the Pig. 149. — Roads A^•D Railways of Aixjeeia. Scale 1 : 9,500,000. se- VMarnown 'Mlli^.r..^ Gei^rvil's €h3Msy3^ r,^\t Wa^U 52' Meridian oT b.-eenvv'cri Railways. Carria^ Koad. __ ISO Miles. public favour. Hence along all the lines ordinary coaches are able to compete successfully with the locomotives. South of the great central artery, three lines already penetrate to the plateaux in the direction of the Sahara. One of these rims from Constantine to Batna, another from Saida to Mesheria, and the third from Sidi-bel- Abbes to Eas-cl-^Ma. Thanks to these new means of communication, colonisation may now be diffused throughout the plateaux better than in the regions lying between Aumale and Laghwat. The great continental Une across the desert to the Niger, first proposed by IfacCarthv, will probably run from Algiers through Blida and the Upper Isser Talley to the upland plateaux, and so on by Laghwat and the "Wed Jeddi Valley to the Sahara and Timbuktu. But several alternative projects have been suggested, and several important expeditions have been undertaken to survey the ground. z 2 332 NOETH-"^^ST AFEICA. Nevertheless the construction of a trans-Saharian line can hardly be seriously taken in hand until the great Algerian railways are farther advanced towards completion. The Algerian system itself has to be farther developed in the direction of Twat, which lies about midway between Algiers and Timbuktu. "When the almost unknown desert region beyond this point has been sufficiently surveyed, the trans-Saharian line may be pushed forward in the direction of the Niger. Other schemes have been advanced, which are intended to connect the Igharghar Valley with the Tsad basin across Central Sahara. Admixistr.^tiox — Tribal Orgaxisatiox. The administration of Algeria, which is attached to the ^Ministry of the Interior, is directed by a civil governor-general, commander in chief of the land and sea forces, assisted by a director- general and a Government council. But the action of this central power is brought to bear through different channels on the natives and the European settlers. The latter enjoy the same rights as in France, whereas the Arabs and Kabyles are practically at the mercy of the administration. The Arab tribal organisation is nearly always of an aristocratic character. Comprising a group of families which believe themselves sprung of a common stock, the clan recognises a chief at once military and religious. The dwar, or encamjjment established on the steppe or near the arable lands, is the original unit, out of which is developed the group of tribes. In each dwar the authority is vested in the heads of families, and especially those who can boast of the noblest birth. Several dwars, united in a ferka, are administered by a sheikh or "elder," or even a kaid, when the group is large enough to constitute a whole arsh, or rija, that is, a number of persons which may vary from five hundred to as many as fifty thousand. The kaid is subordinate to an agha, and the latter to a bash-agha or a khalifa, who are all so many absolute kinglets in their respective spheres, uncontrolled by any elected body of advisers. Nevertheless, a certain democratic spirit has been fostered in the dwars, thanks to the jemaa, or assembly, constituted by the heads of families, or by the kobars alone, that is, by the " grandees," con- sulted by the sheikh of the ferka on all weighty matters. Very different is the assemblj- of the Berber communes, in which the old customs are still respected. Amongst them the whole people form the assembly, whose authority is limited only by traditional usages. In all Arab communities, questions of genealogy are of paramount importance. At first the French governors adopted the policy of relying on the chiefs of the warlike tribes, in order to secure the pacification of the coimtry, neglecting no devices to attract them by titles, honours, the grant of fiefs and domains. But the aristocratic tastes and traditions of the Arab people have the fatal consequence of engendering fierce rivalries in the struggle for power. Three distinct orders of nobility contend for the ascendancy amongst the tribes : the juads, or sons of chiefs, who by right or usurpation claim to be sprung from the companions of SOCIAL CHANGES. 883 Mohammed or the conquerors of Mauritania ; the s/iorfa, who regard as their common mother Fatima, wife of Mohammed, and who consequently belong to the Prophet's family ; lastly those whose ancestor is some reputed saint or marabut, and who have thus acquired a sort of nobihty not less respected than the others. All these men stand higher than the common mass of the faithful, and when favoured by circumstances, such as tribal feuds, wars, commotions, or family occurrences, are ever ready to enforce their pretensions. The tribal groupings also are not unfrequeutly modified, the followers of con- tending parties passing from one side to the other, according to the vicissitudes of these ambitious rivalries. Fragments of a single tribe have thus occasionally become scattered throughout the whole of the Barbary States. Hence by purchasing the friendship of one chief or another, the French Government has vainly hoped to secure the loyalty of the whole tribe, the official protege being simply replaced by some more popular rival in iDublic favour. The policy pursued by the French has also at times simjjly resulted in the creation of formidable opponents bj' founding real Arab monarchies. It was hoped that the work of pacification would be made easy by dealing with a single chief instead of with the several heads of countless tribes. Thus it was that imder French patronage Abd-el-Kader became a sultan, and the chief of the Ulad-Sidi sheikhs received as a fief the whole of the Algerian Sahara, while Mokhrain assumed almost supreme power in southern Kabylia. The lands hitherto reserved for the commune, the widow, the orphan, and the poor, thus passed into the possession of the great feudal lords. Nevertheless the vassal chiefs continued still powerful enough to revolt, and even since the French occupa- tion have waged war with their suzerain. Social Changes. But this regime of the great Arab fiefs is drawing to a close. The virtually independent chiefs are being gradually replaced by French administrators, or by Mohammedan kadis, entrusted with the administration of justice, in accordance with the Moslem jurisprudence accepted by the French tribunals. Sheikhs, kaids, aghas, and bash-aghas, receive their investiture from the French authority, and jaeld direct obedience to its orders. Their judicial functions are strictly limited ; but they have not yet been deprived of the traditional prerogative of indemnifying themselves from the proceeds of fines imposed on criminals— a prerogative which has always proved a source of the most crying acts of injustice. The dwars no longer enjoy the same facilities for migrating from the uplands to the plains, and according as the country becomes settled, the nomad tribes find their freedom of action more and more restricted. A continually increasing number of natives are also abandoning the primitive tribal organisation, and attaching themselves to the French communes, in which they constitute the proletariat class. The old habits disappear, customs change, a settled life takes the place of the nomad state, the patriarchal yields to the communal system, 334 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. polygamy to monogamy. The last census for the city of Algiers returned five rifr. 150. — An Abab Family of Tlemcen. y^fjiK"' •^'" polygamous Mussulman families, and that of Oran not more than three, so that in- AD^^^^STEATIVE dr^isioxs. 335 this respect also the Mohammedan populations appear to be gradually conforming to the usages of Eiu-opean civilisation. The social transformation now going on creates a hope that all the ethnical elements may vdtimately become fused in one nationality, and that the prophets of evil may thus be belied. "All these native populations," said one of them, " must die out ; those who escape one disaster will perish hy another, or become infected by the contagion of our bHghtiag civilisation. Where we pass, everj-thing decays." The extermination of the natives might have seemed inevitable during the first decades of the occupation, when the country was wasted by razzias, when the Arab " rebels " had neither corn nor cattle ; when their women, held as hostages, were bartered for live stock, or sold by auction like beasts of burden ; when a price was set on heads, and human ears paid for at the rate of two douros a pair. In those days Arab prisoners acquitted bj- the courts were nevertheless executed, because " it was necessary to make an example ; " nor were there wanting philosophers to justify any acts of injustice or cruelty agaiast the natives. " Without violating the moral law," said Bodichon, "we can fight our African enemies with powder and the sword combiaed with famine, intestine feuds, brandy, corruption, and disorgani- sation." No one would now repeat such sentiments in Algeria, although many acts of injustice are still committed, and the conquerors contiuue to abuse their power against the weak. If the natives are being crowded out in many places, the Mohammedan population stiU goes on increasing, slavery exists only on the verge of the desert, and the \\Tetched Khammes peasantry have almost everywhere ceased to be true serfs, such as they were till recently on all the estates of the great feudatory chiefs. The Arab has no longer the power of life and death over his wife, whom he fears even to maltreat, lest her cries should reach the ears of some " accui'sed Rumi." Administrative Divisions. For administrative purposes, Algeria is divided into two sections — the civil and militarj- territory. In the former, which comprises a portion of the Tell, the oflB.cials are dependent on the Minister of the Interior, while in the latter they all belong to the military class. In the one, affairs are administered with the same routine as in France ; in the other, the tribes are governed by a form of martial law. Ill the civil territory the three great divisions of Algiers, Constantino, and Oran are designated bj' the name of "dej^artments," like the modern circumscriptions in France ; in the military districts (" Territoire de Commandement ") the old appellation of " provinces " has been preserved. As in the mother coxmtry, the department is divided into arrondissements administered by sub-prefects. The arrondissements are again subdivided into districts, and these into communt 5, which for the most part are "depleinexercice," that is, fuUy privileged, their organisation being about the same as that of the French communes. 836 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. The mixed communes, less numerous than the others, are those in which the native element still prevails, and where the Em-opeans only form small groups, too weak to constitute a municipality. They are under the control of a civil adminis- trator, who is required to speak Arabic or Berber. In the military districts, certain circumscriptions are also called mixed communes ; but here Europeans and natives alike are governed exclusively by military authority, the functions of mayor being exercised by the commander-in-chief. Lastly, in the same districts a number of purely native communes, comprising dwars, ferkas, tribes, and even isolated towns, are controlled by officers of the regular army. In 1881, there were altogether two hundred and nine commimes enjoj-ing full privileges, and this number is gradually increasing by a process of subdivision, the section demanding a municipal constitution as soon as it feels strong enough to sup- port a separate administration. In 1884 there were seventy-five mixed commimes in Fig. 1.51.— Fully Pkiyileged, Mixed, and Native Coictcnes in Aloeeia. Scale 1 : 9,500.000. CD Privileged Communes. Civil Territorj-. Military Territory. — ^^■^— ^^^^— ^^— 180 Miles. the ci\41, and six in the military districts, besides sixteen native communes created by the military bureaux. But these so-called native communes are sometimes vast regions, several square miles in extent. Such are those of Ghardaya, comprising the whole of the Mzab, Metlili, and Chaanba territories, with a total area of 26,700 square miles, and of Biski-a, which is nearly as large again, stretching from El Kantara for 150 miles to and beyond Tugiu-t and Temassin, with an area approxi- mately estimated at about 45,000 square miles. But as a rule, the larger the commune the smaller the population : that of Algiers, scarcely two square miles in extent, having at once the smallest area and the largest number of inhabitants. In the European communes the municipal councils are elected by the suffrage of the French citizens, while each of the three Algerian departments is represented in Parliament by one senator and two deputies, elected according to the electoral EELIGION— THE AtAEABUTS. 837 laws of the mother-country. The departments also possess a separate general council, elected in the same way as those of the French circumscriptions, and like them occupied mostly with local affairs, such as the roads and forests, public buildings, education and communal rates. Each delegates six of its members, eighteen altogether, to the Superior Council of Algeria, which also comprises the three prefects, the three generals in command of the di\-isions, and the twelve members of the special council appointed to assist the governor-general. This assembly, one half of whose members are thus nominated by the Government, and the other half by the citizens indirectly, meets once a year for a session of about twenty days, to settle the current budget and the incidence of taxation. The yearly expenditure is estimated at about £1,600,000, besides over £2,000,000 Fig. 152. — Relative Popui.aiio;j op the Algerian C'osDru>'E3. Scale 1 : 10.000,000. c om munes Fulfi' pni/llsB -A ^^ _ _ ■ 1 1 ! 1 r [ --^ "-■■■ ■■■ ■■ — ■ ^ fi ' ' 1 . ij bommuriea mixed 1 1 ! 1 _J Mill Military Terrlto ry i-ach complete eqaai-e represents 500 European inhabitants. required for the maintenance of the army. The yearly income about balances the civil expenditure, representing nearly half of the whole outlay, including the militarv budget. Religion. — The Marabxjts. In Algeria the chief cause of disunion and the greatest obstacle to the fusion of aU sections of the population in one nationality is rehgiou. Before the conquest the natives had no official religious hierarchy ; but after the occupation the union of Church and State was one of the very first measures introduced by the French. Immediately after the capture of Algiers the prayers read in the mosques for the head of the State were required to be modified by the imams, who henceforth pray for the " auspicious Government of France." Formerly the ci^-il power never 888 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. 1 intervened in the appointment of religious ministers; now the mufti, the secondary imams, and some subordinate religious agents, are selected by the governors from amono'st men of letters well disposed towards the French. Not only does the administration interfere in the religious affairs of the Mussulmans by these appointments, but it also violates the constant practice of all Mohammedan societies according to which it is forbidden to pray and teach the Koran " for wa^es." Hence strict Mussulmans hold in small account the salaried official priesthood, preferring to the French imams the free marabuts who pray bj' the Fi". 153. — Holt Cities axd Chiep Religious Associations in- Algeeia. Scale 1 : 9,500,000. t 0° Meridiaf^.a^ L'^eenwicn Confraternities rShadeliya-Derka wa YTidjanija YTajbiya TKJiamanTya UKadnya JKaraaiya TAissa\A/a Principal Ziwvas .. A a Groups of 1,000 adherents >.... ....o ,..3 a....,.^..< b ., iSu Miles. shrines of the saints, or the shorfa of the religious orders, who perpetuate the " chain " of teachers from the time of the Prophet. Although unofficially connected with the French Government, the marabuts {maruhot) are a source of Httle danger to the new regime. Belonging for the most part to old families, whose genealogies go back to a remote past, accustomed to live on regular alms of the faithful, residing always in the vicinity of the holy places of pilgrimage, the marabuts are all well known to the French officials, with whom it is to their interest to live on the best of terms. Many even accept service under the Government, allowing themselves to be appointed aghas or kaids, and even mtriguing for honoui-s and decorations. Amongst the marabut tribes, one THE MOH-lMirEDAN BEOTHEEHOODS. 839 especially, that of the Ulad-Sidi Sheikhs, -was formerly nearly always hostile to France ; and this tribe, residing in South Orania, far from the seaboard, naturally looked with the greatest displeasure on the advance of conquerors to whom they ■would have to surrender the political power and the right of levying taxes. But on the whole, the marabuts represent primarily the conservative element in reli- gion ; hence they tend to lean on the civil authorities in order to prevent the development of the religious orders, which eclipse their sanctity and diminish their iacome. They look on the independent associations in the same light that the Eoman Catholic secular clergy formerl}- did the regular clergy. Cases occui" of marabuts who close the doors of their schools to all students afiiliated to a religious order. The Mohammed-\2; Brotherhoods. These orders, which have nearly all their origin in Maroeco, communicating with that region through Tlemcen and Lalla Maglmia, are very numerous in the French possessions, and their influence has increased precisely iu proportion to the favour shown by the Government to the imams and marabuts. The oldest is that of Sidi Abd-el-Kader el-Jelani of Bagdad, whose zawyas are scattered from the shores of Malaysia to those of Maroeco. The Tijaniyas, whose chief centres are Ain-Mahdi and Temassin, were tiU recently the most powerful, and their khwans extend to the banks of the Senegal. But their influence has been unpaired by the rise of the Senusiya and some other foimdations. There can be no doubt that siace the French occupation the number of khwans, a term corresponding to those of fakir and derwish in Turkey and the far East, has considerably increased throughout Xorth Africa. It could scarcely be other- wise, for wherever men are deprived either of political freedom or of national autonomy, they endeavour to create for themselves some sphere of action impene- trable to the outer world. Here they become absorbed in religious thought, fostering their hatred against the infidel, and in the ecstasy of fanatical zeal at times breaking into open insurrection. The Eahmaniya of KabyKa and the Shadelya-Derkawa of different provinces, although most frequently persecuted by Government because of their lawless spirit, are nevertheless the two orders which have been most rapidly developed since the complete conquest of Algeria. Nor is it possible even now to ascertain their actual strength, severe military supervision having converted them into so many partly secret societies. According to Einn, thej- comprised in 1881 altogether 170,000 members, of whom 96,000 belonged to the Eahmaniya confraternity. All these khwans, grouped round 355 zawyas, have nearly 2,000 mkaddems, under the orders of some twenty chiefs. About one-fifth of the native population would appear to belong to one or other of the sixteen great Algerian brotherhoods. A number of Kabyle women are also said to have joiaed the religious societies in the quality of "sisters." There are, moreover, some other associations which affect a religious air, but which are merely strolUng corporations of singers, dancers, snake-charmers, acrobats, and fortime-tellers. SdO NORTH- WEST AFRICA. At first sight the religious organisation of such a large section of the Mussul- man population might seem to constitute a real danger for the French supremacy. A number of writers even regard these institutions as so many societies of con- spirators banded together both by a common faith and hatred of their rulers. At ni«'ht in the Moorish coffee-houses, after the story-telling and recitation of poetry is concluded, the khwans are said to draw near, and to utter in bated breath the prophecies foretelling the approaching advent of the Mul-el-Saa, or " Lord of -the Hour." They speak of the day when the Mussubnan soil shall be cleansed from the presence of the detested Rumi, and mutually excite each other to hatred of the foreigner. Doubtless gatherings of this sort are of frequent occurrence ; but the religious brotherhoods lack the unity necessary to give consistency to these conspiracies. Certainly the various orders profess the purest orthodoxy, differing little from each other except in their formulas, genuflexions, and other outward observances. It is also true that the members of each association are mutually connected by the strictest obligations of the confraternities. But the various groups are still far from considering themselves as united in a compact body. Each order is itself split up into distinct sections, with nothing in common except the spiritual rule, and differing from each other in the conflicting interests of their several sheikhs and mkaddems. Like the marabuts, most of the latter have chiefly at heart the accumulation of wealth and increase of their personal influence. They seek to stand well with the constituted authorities, and will even occasionally favour Christians with letters of protection and diplomas of "honorary associates," entitling them to the support of the community like ordinary members. Insurrections are seldom caused by religious motives, nor have the orders ever plunged bodily into a "holy war." All the khwans seem to bear in mind the Sufi principle forbidding them "to risk death in undertakings above their strength." " Fear the French! The fear of the French is the fear of God ! " said a religious sheikh to his disciples in the Khenga oasis. Thus, however great their hatred of the invader, they have lost the warlike spirit necessary to contend with him. Compelled to absolute submission towards their chiefs, " as towards God himself," bound to dismiss from their mind " all argument good or bad, lest meditation lead them into error," their sole ambition being to impart to their limbs, their voice, and expression, the mechanical forms of the ritual, the khwans become gradually transformed to helpless imbeciles incapable of will or understanding. In reciting certain prayers the face has to be turned to the right shoulder while uttering Jii, then to the left saying hii, then bent dow^l with a ha. The omission of these mutterings and attitudes renders the prayer mefficacious. The history of Algeria shows that insurrectionary movements have never acquired any real importance amongst these degraded devotees, but only auiongst the manly tribes which have preserved the full consciousness of their political life. EDUCATIOX. 341 Education. The French Government has endeavoured to secure the support of Islam by endowing the Mussulman priesthood ; but it has hitherto done little to raise the natives to the level of Europeans by education. The French schools specially- opened for the Arab and Berber children are few in number and for the most part badly supported. The European schools are doubtless also open to the ^Mussulmans, and are frequented by a few hundred natives. But the proportion of those recei\-ing regular instruction is very low in a population of nearly three millions. The zawyas, of which nearly one thousand are supposed to exist in Algeria, are sometimes spoken of as real schools ; but they have little claim to the title, the childi-en who frequent them, to the number of about thirty thousand, being taught little except to recite verses from the Koran. Girls are seldom admitted, nor do they enter the schools of European foundation, except in very rare cases. It could scarcely be otherwise, so long as custom requires them to marry at an age when European children are still playing with their dolls. Amongst the Kabyles, instruction is more highly prized than amongst the Arabs, and all schools opened for them by the administration or by the Catholic and Protestant missionaries are eagerly frequented by both sexes. All the tribal assemblies have petitioned for French schools to be established in their communes, readily accepting the condition of gratuitous and obKgatory instruction. Education is also held ia great honour' by the Berbers of the Saharian oases, and in several towns, notably Biskra, all the children already speak and write French. Of the whole popiilation, over a million now speak French, either as their mother tongue or as an acquired language. Arabic, notwithstanding the wealth of its former literature, no longer lends itself readily, at least in Algeria, to the requirements of modem culture. With the exception of an official journal and a few legal and administrative documents, all the local periodical literature is European, and mostly French. The only Arab works printed are translations made by Europeans, or else historical records published by the learned societies ; nor has any revival of native letters made itself felt after half a century of French occupation. Amongst the European settlers, instruction is relatively more widely diffused than in the home country. At present education is somewhat less general amongst the Jews than amongst the French, a circumstance due to the state of degradation in which the race was long held by its Mohammedan oppressors. But on the other hand, the Jews pay more attention to the instruction of their children than any other section of the commimity. Public instruction, on which the Algerian communes spend on an average 17 per cent, of their income, is organised on the same model as in France. According to a law of 1883, every commune is bound to maintain one or more primary schools, open gratuitously to European and native children. A school for sirls must also be established in all communes with over five hundred inhabitants. 842 XOETH-TVEST ATEICA. Adsiixistratiox of Justice. — The Army. In virtue of the capitulation of Algiers, the French Government is bound to permit the free exercise of the native laws and usages. Nevertheless, the local French magistrates have naturally endeavoured graduallj' to restrict the jurisdic- tion of the Mussulman courts. The kadis soon felt the rivalry- of the French tribunals, to which appeal could always be made. At present the kadis, to the Fig. lo4.— Aloiees in 1S32. number of about one himdred and fifty, constitute with the adels, or assistant judges, a mahahna, or court of justice, which in every circumscription is attached to the tribunals of first instance. Their forensic practice, while regulated by the Koran, must still adapt itself to the exigencies of the French law. The instruction given in the Medersa, or law school of Algiers, becomes daily more assimilated to that of the French legal schools ; while Mussulman society is itself brought more within the reach of the French courts by the appointment of justices of the peace with a wide jurisdiction over Europeans and natives alike. Assize courts are held in the four cities of Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Bona ; and in Algiers is seated a court of appeal, the highest tribunal in Algeria. ADMIXISTEATION OF JUSTICE— THE ARMY. 843 The army of occupation, forming the nineteenth corps, comprises soldiers of all arms sent from France, besides a considerable proportion of local recruits. To these must be added three regiments of Turcos, or Algerian rifles, and one for Tunis, all native volunteers, mainly Kabyles and Saharians. Two regiments of the Foreign Legion are formed of Swiss, Belgians, Germans, and other Europeans, driven by want or the spirit of adventure to take service abroad. Four regiments of zouaves, including many volunteers, have been created in Algeria, besides three of spahis, or cavalry, and four of " Chasseurs d'Afrique." In the army are also Fig. loo.— TiAEET AKB TaODEMT. Scale 1 : 100,000. r,- - z° ^. / ] r "X^^^^^^V^^I ^z^^K - " ■-;! '0^ 24- 1 t sj '"" S'U . '•- '" [ V..^^ 4 -4 ■»? ;Ni^:vjT]ARrr - X \ ^._ ^ T/*'' / ', . ris' ^^ \S^. -^ .„. ^5' L ^ o'T breenwich l°,9- 3,300 Yards. included the gendarmerie, about a thousand strong, and the Arab gums, or contingents of horse equipped by the tribal chiefs. The old Arab and Turkish fortifications have almost everywhere disappeared. The kasbahs or citadels of the strongholds have either been razed to the ground or so modified that their original form can no longer be recognised ; the square bastions, with their graceful flanking towers, the imposing gateways on which were spiked " the gory heads of traitors," have left little but a name, like that of the Bab-Azun at Algiers, which the army of Charles V. failed to capture. Even the ramparts raised by Abd-el-Kader have been destro^'ed, and the exjDlorer finds near Tiaret scarcely a vestige of Tagdemt, at one time the central stronghold of his empire. On the Saharian slope, where no European attack is to be dreaded, the French militar)' posts, such as those of Biskra and Laghwat, are mere fortified barracks, or else ancient kasbahs adajDted to the requirements of a French garrison. The 844 NOETH-WEST APRICA. Saharians are the natural allies of the Europeans against the Arabs of the plateaux and of the steppes draining southwards. On the plateaux what are needed are not fortresses but carriage roads, by means of which the swiftest nomad marauders may be overtaken and dispersed. After the fall of Tagdemt and the construction of good highways from the coast to the central plateaux, the conquest of Algeria was virtually completed. The limits of the military divisions coincide with those of the three departments of Algiers, Oran, and Constantine ; but there are some differences in the adminis- trative and military subdivisions. In each division are seated two councils of war, besides inferior courts which deal with minor offences against discipline. The Arab tribunals, which formerly depended on the military administration, have now been placed under the direct control of the governor-general. In the Appendix will be found a table of all the administrative divisions and subdivisions of Algeria, with their chief towns and communes. CHAPTER X. MAKOCCO. HE term Marocco, giveu by Europeans to the triangular region bounded north-east on the Mediterranean by the Wed Ajerud, south-west on the Atlantic by the TTed Xun, is taken in a far more restricted sense by the natives, for whom Marrakesh, the Marruecos of the Spaniards, is one only of the three states subject to the sultan-sherif. His empire is completed in the north by the kingdom of Fez, in the south-east by the . Tafilelt oasis, while vast districts occupied by numerous independent tribes are also comprised within the space usually desig- nated on our maps by the appellation of Marocco. The inhabitants have no common term for the whole of this region, which in many places has no definite frontiers, and which is vaguely designated Maghreb-el- Aksa, " The Extreme West." But notwithstanding its uncertain nomenclature, Marocco constitutes none the less a distinct geographical unit. A certain physical unity is imparted to the whole of the region comprised between Algeria and the Atlantic by the lofty Deren ranges, with their parallel foldings, spurs, and valleys merging in the lowLind plains which stretch on the one hand seawards, on the other iu the direction of the Sahara. The absence of political cohesion is also compensated by a common faith, while the verj- rivalries of foreign powers, especially England, France, and Spain, serve to impart to the whole of Marocco a certain solidarity, by isolating it from the rest of the continent. Withia its conventional limits, as determined by diplomacy, the region defined south-westwards by a straight line running from the Figuig oasis across the desert to the mouth of the Wed Draa (Draha), may have a superficial area of about 200,000 square miles, Avith a scant population, which in the absence of all ofiicial documents can scarcely be even approximately conjectured. The estimates varj' from Kloden's 2,750,000 to Jackson's 15,000,000, the actual number being, perhaps, between eight and nine milhons. Marocco has not yet been thoroughlj' explored by European travellers. For three centuries the published accounts of the country were little more than reproductions of the work written by the Arab renegade, Leo Africanus. Till the VOL. XI. A A 846 KORTH-WEST AFEICA. end of the last century, the only Europeans who penetrated into the interior were a few missionaries sent to redeem captive Christians, some mariners wrecked on the coast, or envoys to the Sultan's court. But in 1789 the country was traversed by , Lempriere, who was followed at the beginning of the nineteenth century by the 2 Spaniard, Ali-Bcy. Since then many journeys have been made along the routes * Fig. 156. — Routes of the Chief Exploeees in Maeocco. Scale 1 : 9,000,000. Depths. to 1,600 Feet. ^ l.GOO to 32,000 32,000 to 64,000 64,000 to 128,000 128,000 Feet and Feet. Feet. Feet. npwards. Regions crossed in all diiections by explorers. Bontes of travellers. 120 Miles. between Tangier, Fez, Meknes, and Rhat, and between Mogador and the city of Marocco. These itineraries indicate vnth tolerable accuracy the limits separating the Blcd-el-Makhzcn, or settled region, from the Bled-el-Siba, or independent districts held by tribes who refuse to pay the imposts or accept military service. In the MAROCCO. 347 Bled-el-Makhzen Europeans travel in perfect safety, without being compelled to disguise their origin. But they could scarcely venture to penetrate openly into the regions occupied by the independent tribes, regions comprising about five- sixths of the territory on our maps designated by the name of Marocco. The inhabitants of the Bled-es-Siba have, perhaps, good reason to believe that the Fig. 157. — Bled-el-Makhzen and Bled-es-Siba. Scale 1 : 9,000,000. Depths. to 1,600 Feet. 1,600 to 3,200 3,200 to 64,000 64,000 to 128,000 128,000 Feet and Feet. Feet. Feet. upwards. . 180 Miles. exploration of their domain by Christian travellers would be followed by conquering armies advancing along the routes thrown open by their jjeaceful forerunners. Amongst the districts that have hitherto been scarcely visited is the Rif coast, which is nevertheless yearly skirted by thousands of ships plying east of the Strait of Gibraltar. Even on the direct route between Fez and IMarocco, many hilly tracts are kno-wn only from the reports of the natives. The Atlas, the Anti- Atlas, A A 2 g^ NOETH-'VN'EST AFRICA. and all the land draining to the desert, as far as the Algerian frontier, have hitherto been traversed only by two or three Europeans. Of Caille's expedition little is known beyond its approximate line of march ; EohKs merely skirted on the north the main Atlas range, which Lcnz crossed at its southern extremity. But De Foucauld, disguised as a Jew, penetrated much farther inland, surmounting the Atlas at several points, discovering the Bani range, determining over forty astronomic positions and three thousand altitudes. But a detailed account of his explorations, with the maps and other documents embodying the result of his surveys, still awaits publication. The Atlas Highi..\xds. In Marocco the Atlas system attains its greatest elevation. Here the maia range rims south-west and north-east, following the axis of north-west Africa from Cape Blanc through Cape Bojador to the headland of Algiers. The whole coast region between the mouths of the Sus and iloluya lies, so to say, beyond the continental mass dominated by uplands already belongiag to the intermediate zone now pierced by the Strait of Gibraltar. The range deviates slightly from the normal north-easterly direction, developing a sort of arc, with its convex side turned towards the Sahara. Excluding the subordinate ridges and those continuing the system in Algeria, it has a total length of about 360 miles between Cape Gher north of the Sus and the Jebel Aiashin, forming its extreme north-eastern rami- fication. Xo collective name is applied to the system by the natives, who restrict the general term Idraren, or " Mountains," or Idraren Deren, to its western section. The word Deren is evidentlj" the same as the Dyris or Dyrin known to Strabo. The Jebel Aiashin (A'iashi) appears to be one of the loftiest chains in Marocco. According to Bohlfs and De Foucauld, the onlj' modern explorers who have yet described this part of the Atlas, its simimits are distingmshed from all the sur- rounding crests by their snowy whiteness. Rohlfs even confirms the statement of the Roman general, Suetonius Paulinus, that they are covered with perpetual snows. But he visited these uplands in the month of May, and the natives questioned by him may have spoken of the snows which remain in the crevasses and ravines impenetrable to the solar rays. But however this be, the Jebel Aiashin, or Magran, as it is also called, probably rises to a height of 11,600 feet, being surpassed in elevation only by a few peaks in the main range. It is composed chiefly of sandstones and schists, and throws off some lateral ridges, constituting parting lines between several river basins. 'V\'estward stretches the Ait-Ahia, continued through the Aian and the rocky spurs which rise above the plains of Fez. To the north-east the Jebel Tamarakuit, a branch of the A'lan, follows the normal direction of the Atlas system. One of its depressions is flooded by the lovely alpine lake Sidi Ali Mohammed, in whose clear waters are mirrored the wooded slopes of the surrounding hills. The Tamarakuit is continued north-eastwards by a range, which is pierced by the Moluya and THE ATLAS HIGHLANDS. 349 Sharf rivers, and which terminates in xVlgeria in the Tlemcen mountains. The Jebel Aiashin itself falls rapidly northwards, terminating abruptly in the stupendous cliffs of the Jebel Terneit, which rises nearly 7,000 feet above the surroundin* plains. This imposing rampart, forming the northern extremity of the whole Eg. 158. — Chests aub Passes of the Atlas sottth of MaeBjIkesd. Scale 1 : 720,000. '"^%^.F X '-^- 31' ^ ' ^ t It ?■- >% - 't \ V %■ -u 0^ breenwich , 12 Miles. system, presents a striking contrast to the boundless plateaux, which here appear to have been gradually levelled by the action of the streams and glaciers formerly descending from the Atlas. South of the Jebel A'iushin the main range, still unvisitcd by any European B5U explorers, seems to maintain a mean NORTH- WEST APRICA. altitude of over 11,600 feet. According to Foucauld, there is not a single pass accessible to caravans for a distance of 90 miles THE ATLAS HIGHLANDS. 851 to the south of the hills which skirt the northem face of the Aiashin on the route from Fez to Tafilelt. But farther on towards the south-west, occur several breaches affording communication between the Um-er-Rbia and Draa basins. Of these the most important are the three Tizi n'Glawi passes between the Jebel Aniemer and the Jebel Tidili, which are practicable throughout the year. South-west of this depression rises the imposing mass of the snowy Jebel Sirwa, which is probably the culminating point of the Atlas system. Standing somewhat beyond the main axis, it forms a connecting link between the Great and Little Atlas, and separates the two basins of the Sus and Draa. The Mount Miltsiu, surveyed in 1829 by "Washington, no subsequent traveller has been able to identify by that name, which appears to be unknown to the natives. According to Ball and Hooker, it refers perhaj^s to a mountain 36 miles south-east of Marrakesh, whose highest peak may be about 13,200 feet. Seen from the capital, the chain of the Atlas presents the aspect of an almost unbroken rampart covered with snow till the earl}- siunmer. According to Maw, the mean altitude in this section is about 13,000 feet, the highest peaks rising scarcely more than 600 feet above this median line. Thus the Atlas is much inferior in extreme elevation to the Alps, although for a space of at least 100 miles tfc maintains a mean height greater than that of any of the Alpine ranges. The Tagherut Pass, about the meridian of Marrakesh, leading southwards to the Upper Sus Valley, stands at a height of perhaps 11,600 feet, and is approached by rugged gorges presenting great difficulties to pack animals. But 18 miles farther west a large breach presents an easy passage to caravans. From the summit of the pyramidal Jebel Tiza, which attains an altitude of over 11,000 feet, a view is commanded of this narrow defile, above which it towers to a height of 4,000 feet. West of this point the main range, here rvmning perpendicularly to the coast, still maintains an average altitude of 10,000 feet, as far as another deep gorge kno-wn as the " Tizi " or " Pass," in a pre-eminent sense, which is crossed at an elevation of 4,000 feet by the route leading from Marocco to Tarudant in the Sus Yalley. This pass, which also takes the name of Bibawan and Biban, or the " Gates," has been traversed by Lempriere, Jackson and other explorers. Beyond it the maritime Atlas still presents a sujDcrb aspect, with peaks exceeding 8,000 feet. As far as is known of its geological constitution, the Atlas consists largely of sandstones, together with old schists, limestones, and marbles, while porphyries seem to prevail in the central parts of the Deren range. Diorites and basalts occur in several places, and the Jebel Tiza, ascended by Ball and Hooker, forms a porphyry dome, which has cropped out through the mica schists. The character of the rocks in the main range is revealed chiefly by the debris scattered along its slopes, and which, according to Maw, are of glacial origin. At elevations of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet, the valleys sloping towards the Atlantic are fiUed with lateral, median, and terminal moraines, apparently differing in no respect from those of the Alps. A series of hills composed entirely of glacial debris also occurs at the foot of the mountains, where they occupy a broad zone interrupted at intervals by the lateral valleys. 862 NORTH- WT5ST AFRICA. A similar glacial origin is attributed to the undulations on the great plateaux stretching cast of the Atlas along the axis of the orographic system in the province of Oran. A portion of this plateau is filled by the shott or sebkha of Tigri, which is strewn with a reddish argillaceous deposit. This shott does not form a single basin, but is divided into several secondary depressions standing at different levels between the altitudes of 3,700 and 3,800 feet. The greatest contrast is presented by the two slopes of the Alias. The declivity exposed to the moist clouds of the Atlantic is covered here and there with verdure, and in some places, especially towards its northern extremitj% clothed with magnificent forests. But the opposite side, facing the desert, is both much steeper and more arid, presenting the aspect of bare rocky surfaces burnt bj- the parching winds coming up from the sands. Yet the southern escarpments are almost everywhere protected from these winds by a lower parallel chain, usually designated by the name of the Little Atlas, or Anti-Atlas. The Little Atlas and Baxi Ranges. In its western section, south of the Wed Sus, the Anti- Atlas, seen by Ball and Hooker from the simimit of the Jebel Tiza, seemed to have an elevation of about 10,000 feet. But Eohlfs, who crossed it on his journey from Tarudant to Tafilelt, gives it a mean altitude of not more than 5,000 feet, or about half that of the Great Atlas. Towards the east it is known to the natives by the name of the Jebel Shagherun. A broad and apparently perfectly level zone separates the Little Atlas from another ridge running parallel with the main axis of the system. The Bani, as this ridge is called, rises little more than 500 or 600 feet above the surrounding plains, with a thickness of about a mile from base to base. The Bani, which is destitute of lateral chains or spurs, is said to begin near Tamagurt, on the Draa, and to run north of that river almost in a straight line for a distance of nearly 360 miles to the Atlantic. It is pierced at intervals by kheiiegs, or defiles, usually very narrow, above which five or six streams converge in a single channel, through which the waters of the Little Atlas find their way to the Draa. One of these khencgs is regarded by the Berbers as the cradle of their race, and here the)' assemble every year to offer sacrifices, followed by feasts and dancing. Throughout its entire course the bare rocky mass of the Bani range consists of a sandstone, charred in appearance, and covered with a bright black incrustation. This sandstone is probably of Devonian origin, like the blackish sandstones of the Central Sahara, and like them it is sometimes polished, sometimes striated or grooved, effects due to the incessant action of the sands. Between the Bani and the Draa Valley occur here and there certain rocky protuberances, to which the natives give the name of "snakes," from their serpentine appearance when seen from a distance. Like the Bani, they are all disposed in the normal direction of the Atlas system, from south-west to north-east. THE LITTLE ATLAS AND BANI RANGES. 863 East of the Wed Draa stretches a hillj' region, which forms a continuation of the South Oran border ranges. Some of the crests assume the fantastic forms of crenellated walls, towers, or pyramids. Bocween Figuig and Tafilelt, Rohlfs observed one so like the nave of a church flanked with its belfry, that for a moment he believed himself the victim of an optical delusion. "West of the Great Atlas the secondary chains are no longer disposed in the direction of the main axis, but branch ofE irregularly towards the coast. One of these, beginning at the Bibawan Pass, near the western extremity of the Atlas, attains in some of its peaks heights of over 3,300 feet, and under the name of the Jebel Hadid, or '' Fii-e Mountain," falls down to the coast between Mogador and the mouth of the Wei Tensift. Over the district between Mogador and Marocco are also scattered isolated tables, like those in Eastern Mauritania, between Ghadames and the Mzab, all at the same level, and evidently the remains of an older surface layer broken into detached fragments by atmospheric agencies. But while some rocky fonnations thus become weathered, others continue to grow, probabh' under the peculiar action of rain water. The plain of Marocco is in this way covered \\ith a crust of tufa, which fills up all the irregularities of the surface, varjang in thickness from a few inches to three feet, and in many places presenting the appearance of agate. Such is its consistency, that by excavating the earth beneath it, the natives are able to form caves, or mafamoms, as the Spaniards call them, in which cereals and other provisiofis are preserved. On the Marocco coast fragments of lavas and volcanic ashes are also found enclosed in rocks of recent formation. These debris had their origin perhaps in the craters of the Canary islands, whence they were wafted by the trade winds across the intervening marine strait. The Jebel Aiax axd Bexi Hassan Uplands. Of the lateral ridges branching from the Great Atlas on the Atlantic sloj)e, the loftiest and most extensive is the Jebel Aian, which takes its origin towards the northern extremity of the main range, and which separates the Upper Sebu from the Upper Um-er-Rbia Valley. The Jebel Aian, which is often covered vnt\i snow, forms the central nucleus whence ramify the various branches of these almost unknown uplands. None of the heights have yet been measured, and the whole region is held by independent Berber tribes, who neither pay tribute nor military service to the empire. North Marocco is occupied by mountain masses indirectly- connected with the Atlas system. On the one hand the "Wed Sebu, flowing to the Atlantic, on the other the Moluya, a tributary of the ^Icditerranean, enclose with their several afiluents a quadangular space, in which the ridges are not disposed in the normal direction of the general orographic system. A dejiression, probably about 1,000 feet high, separates the two regions on the route from Fez to Tlemcen, a great part of the intermediate space being occupied by hills of reddish argillaceous formation. 354 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. All these uplands, in which the older rocks seem to prevail, descend towards the Rif, that is, the " coast," developing a vast semicircle of hills from the Tres Forcas headland to Point Ceuta. The central mass takes the name of Sanejat- Serir, and on the coast the loftiest summits are those of Beni-Hassan, west of Tetuan. The Beni-Hassan, whose culminating point is over 6,600 feet, is continued southwards through the Mezejel, the Jebel-el-Kimas, and the Zarzar, whose conic summit rises above the town of "Wezzan. The whole sj-stem produces an imposing effect, resembling a number of Rocks of Gibraltar placed side by side on a common Fig. 160, — The Tetuan Higttt.axds. Scale 1 : 1,500,000. ^p t ♦V«t if G ^]' ^ Oto IGO Feet. IBO to 320 Feet. Deplhs 320 to 640 Feet. 640 to I-2S0 Feet. 1280 Feet and upwards. 30 Miles. pedestal. The running waters, grassy tracts, wooded and cultivated slopes, render this angle of the continent one of the most delightful regions in Mauritania, forming in this respect a striking contrast with the arid and rugged escarpments of the Rif, which stretches thence eastwards. The hills .skirting the strait over against Gibraltar, although lacking the elevation, majestic appearance, and rich vegetation of the Beni-Hassan highlands, acquire great importance from their position along this great maritime highway. THE JEBEL AIAN AND BENI HASSAN UPLANDS. 856 The border chain of the Jebel Hauz terminates northwards in the Jebel Belliunesh, the Sierra de BuUones of the Spaniards, which is identified as the Septem Fratres (" Seven Brothers ") of the ancients. Towards the east this mass develops the narrow poninsuLa which is connected by a fortified isthmus with the isolated blufE of Ceuta ; on the other hand it projects northwards to form the Jebel Muca headland, which is the southern of the two " Pillars of Hercules." This southern pillar, the Abjda of the ancients, is scarcely less imposing than the Rock of Gibraltar, and is even of gi-eater height (2,800 feet). But a nearer view shows that it is a shapeless mass, a chaos of rocks, offering a retreat to wolves, wild boars, and monkeys. The term " Elephant Mountain," applied to it by Strabo, is justified by the appearance it presents when seen from a distance. At the same time, the forests which flourished in this region of the continent eighteen hundred years ago, were, according to Pliny, still frequented by elephants. West of the Mens Abyla other crests follow along the narrowest part of the strait. But beyond Cape Ciris the coast begins to trend southwards through a series of curves separated one from the other by the detached headlands of the Jebel Hauz. Bej'ond the cliffs of Tangier the coast-line again abruptly turns south- wards. Above the cape forming the north-western angle of the continent, the headland of Spartel, or Ishbertil, the Tarf-esh-Shakr of the natives, rises to a height of 1,040 feet. Cape Spartel is the ancient promontory of Amfjelousion, or "Vine Point," and this district still yields the best grapes inMarocco. The neighbouring town of El-Araish has for its coat-of-arms bunches of grapes, which a man is lifting with an effort. One of the caverns in Cape Spartel excavated by the surf was formerly dedicated to Hercules, and near it stood the tomb of Antaeus. Thus was sjTnbolised the struggle between the blind forces of nature and the triumphant eenius of man at this " laud's end," where vessels saUing westwards entered on the trackless ocean. For a distance of over 360 miles, between Cape Spartel and Mogador, the Atlantic seaboard almost everywhere presents a low surf-beaten beach, which is carefullj^ avoided by mariners. The shallow waters extend seawards for over 30 miles, where the plummet first reaches depths of 660 feet. Along the coast the highest headland is that of Cape Cantin, whose alternating layers of grey and red marls, limestones, and ferruginous clays, terminate here in vertical cliffs, elsewhere in irregular step formations. Signs of upheaval have been observed at various points, and an old beach containing deposits of shells runs along the coast at a mean height of 65 feet above the present sea-level. But according to some authorities, the opposite phenomenon of subsidence has been noticed, at least at Mogador. Rivers of Marocco. Enjoying a more copious rainfall than the rest of ilauritania, Marocco is able to send seawards a larger number of rivers, some of which, although reduced by evaporation and irrigation works in their lower course, retain a larger volume than 356 NOETE-\\^ST AFRICA. any in Algeria. According to Ball and Hooker, the mean discharge of all the "1 .■ i«i:i I ' !i iiiiii::'„ 111:, I'm um !!. bo Streams flowing from the Atlas to the Atlantic is about 7,875 cubic feet. Yet RH-EES OF ItLillOCeO. 857 of the wadies are of any use for navigation, the only craft plying on them beinc ferryboats of a very primitive type. On the ilediterranean slope the chief river is the Moluya (Muluya), which has its soiu'ce amid the snows of the Ai'ashin mountains, and is farther down swollen by the "^ed Za and other tributaries from the east. The Moluya (M'luya) is the Molochat, ]\Ialua, or Malva of the ancients, who regarded it as the natural frontier between the two Mauritanias (Mauritania Tingitana and Caesariensis). During the Berber and Arab epochs, down to the year 1830, it also formed the boundarj' between Algeria and Marocco ; but the political frontier having been shifted east- Fig. 162. — Lower Coukse of the Sebu. Scale 1 : 400,000. 6° 40' West ftX breenwicK 6°55- OtoS2 Feet. Depths. 82 to 64 Feet. 64 Feet and upwards. . 6 Miles. wards by the treaties of Tafna and Tangier, both banks of the river are now included in Marocco territory. Its mouth is sheltered on the north-west by the Zaffarine islets, so called from the Beni-Jafer Berber tribe, which at some distance from the coast form a sort of semicircular breakwater, behind which vessels ride in safety during the prevalence of the fierce north-east gales. Farther west the Rif seaboard presents nothing but small coast streams, such as the Wed-esh-Sherat, which reaches the sea near Tangier. On the Atlantic slope the first important stream south of Cape Spartel is the Wed-el-Khus, which has its rise in the western escarpments of the Beni-Hassan highlands, and reaches the sea some 36 miles south of the Strait. From this point the monotonous coast- 858 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. line continues to run in a south-westerly direction to the mouth of the Sebu, the Sebur of the Phoenicians, the largest river in ]\larocco, and next to the IS^ile the most copious in North Africa. Having a width of from 400 to 1,000 feet, and a Fig. 163. — AbaBS and BeEBEES of MAOHEEB-EL-AxSi. Scale 1 : 9,000,000. Berbers. Haratin, Black Berberb. Depths. Arabs. to 1,600 Feet. 1,600 to 3,200 Feet. ^ 3,200 to 6,400 6,400 to 128,000 128,000 Feet and Feet. Feet. upwards. . ISO Miles. mean depth of 10 feet throughout its lower course, the Sebu might be made avail- able for navigation, at least for a great part of the year. But at present all passenger and goods traffic between the coast and the interior in this part of Marocco is carried on by land. The riverain tribes are far too restless to allow a EIVEES OF MAROCCO. 359 regular trade route to be estabKslied along the course of the river, which neverthe- less waters one of the most productive regions in Marocco. The main stream forms the natural highway of communication between the Atlantic seaboard and the Moluya, draining to the Mediterranean, and in the fertile plains watered bv the Sebu is situated Fez, the first city in the empire. Travellers following the coast route from Tangier to Mogador cross the Sebu by a ferryboat of primitive structure, which does not relieve them from the necessity of wading through the mud. The tides ascend a long way up the lower course of the Sebu. About 18 miles south-west of the Sebu, the Bu-Eegrag reaches the Atlantic through a rocky channel excavated in the slightly elevated plateau. This river rises, not in the Great Atlas, Hke the Moluya, Sebu, and Draa, but in the advanced hills skij-ting the Fez territory on the south ; and although scarcely more than 120 miles long, it takes the foremost position in the political geography of the country ; for it forms the frontier line between the two kingdoms of Fez and ^Marocco, and near it stood the outpost of Ad Mercurios, which marked the utmost limit of the Roman province of Maiiritania Tingitana. The Fm-er-Ebia, or " Mother of Pastures," so named from the rich grazing- grounds skirting its banks, is said by Eenu and Hooker to be the most copious stream ia Marocco. During the dry season it is fordable at manv points ; but in the rainy season travellers are detained for weeks on its bank, waiting the subsi- dence of the floods .to cross over. For a space of about 120 miles, between the mouth of the Um-er-Ebia and the Tensift, no other watercourse reaches the sea. Xor is the Wed Tensift itself one of the great rivers of Marocco, although the city of Marocco lies ia its basin. Here the rainfall is far less abimdant than in the northern provinces, and in summer the mouth of the Tensift is completely closed by the sands at low water. The Wed Sus, the Subus of the ancients, which takes its rise between the Atlas and Anti- Atlas, is also an intermittent stream, flooded in winter, and throughout its lower course almost completely dry in summer. When crossed by Lenz in March, below Tarudant, some 60 miles above its mouth, it was a mere rivulet 10 or 12 feet wide and less than 2 feet deep. The Wed Assaka, which skirts the southern foot of the Atlas, is also mostly dry, explorers often finding nothing but sand in its bed. Even the Wed Draa, by far the longest river in Marocco, is much inferior in volume to the Moluya, Sebu, and Um-er-Ebia, and seldom reaches the Atlantic. Its chief headstreams rise in the snowy cirques of the Great Atlas, and for a distance of about 180 miles, from the Idraren Deren to the Aiashin range, all the streams on the southern slope of the main range flow towards the Draa, which escapes southwards through a series of gorges in the Jebel Shaghenm. For a space of 600 miles below the gorges its volume constantly di min ishes, absorbed partly by the arable lands along its banks, partly by evaporation and infiltration in the sands. After emerging from the upper gorges, it flows at first southwards, skirted on both banks by a strip of pahn groves, varj-ing in breadth from 500 yards to nearly ^ miles. But after skirting the eastern extremity of the Bani range and 360 XORTH-WEST AFEICA. the parallel " snake " ridges, the Draa, exliaustecl bj- the irrigation canals branch- ing right and left through the plantations, is no longer able to maintain a regular course. It spreads out in the vast Dcbaya depression, which is alternately a lake, a swamp, and a watery plain, on which crops of cereals are raised. Below this depression it trends towards the south-west, here flowing between high banks, and receiving a number of intermittent torrents from the Anti-Atlas. But when these tributaries run dry, no surface water is left in its lower course, although, according to local tradition and historic records, it formerly reached the sea through a broad and permanent estuar}'. At that time crocodiles and hipi)o- potami frequented its waters, and elephants roamed in herds over the riverain forests. The stream, which under the names of Wed Zis and Wed Guers, flows due south from the northern extremity of the Great Atlas, after watering the Tafilclt oases, 150 miles from its source, runs dry in the sands of the desert. Jso traveller has yet ascertained whether its bed is continued southwards across the great dunes trending west towards the Draa, or east to the Messawara basin, or continuing an independent course in the direction of the Niger. The Wed Giiir hydrographic system, which begins in the last cirques of the Great Atlas immediately east of the Wed Zis, is better known in its upper course, thanks to the numerous expeditions made in this direction by the French forces, and to the reports of pilgrims and traders. After receiving the streams flowing from Figuig and from the Ish district on the Oran frontier, the Guir flows under various names in the direction of the Twat oasis. But beyond this point it is unknown whether it joins the Draa, loses itself in a land-locked basin, or effects a junction with the Niger towards the western extremity of its great bend towards the north. Climate of Marocco. ^larocco is entirely comprised within the zone of the trade winds ; but the normal jjlay of the atmospheric currents is modified by the Atlas highlands, by the position of the country at the entrance of the Mediterranean, and the neighbour- hood of the Sahara. In summer the land and sea breezes alternate daily alonw the coast, while the prevailing winds come from the south. In winter, that is, from October to February, north-west winds are very frequent, bearing with them a considerable amount of moisture, which is precipitated in abundant showers on the slopes of the Atlas. But throughout the southern regions the trade winds are predominant. As these blow parallel with the axis of the main ranges, the aerial current follows, so to say, a channel already created by the Atlantic slope of Mauritania. For about two hundred and seventy days in the year the polar winds from the north and north-east prevail at Mogador ; while for nearly two months, usually m winter, the opposite currents from the west and south-west descend from the liiglicr to the lower atmospheric regions. Under the influence of the trade winds and marine breezes, the climate of the I m;^ 5^ 54: 32. 3L Rb. yt J, 3 .1 W-Wiy^ ■-' - - ii»m*« *4^;atil^ ^'Pl* 5 i'***' " ' i, * ■ ■; WARRAKESH (MAROCC*0) ^■^j'jji Soueirs IMoSadorl-.''*-^ .,. V-.^.^> '.•1 ^c"a^ y^^ O^mtadfc- Gh*e< ^ ji fou'i- TAROUDAHT 'TV 10 vmdrrSOOOm. SOOOwKOOOm W.OOO'to 20.000m. merw'oOOm. LONDON D. ■■J Tac>f*fc. ' "^ 'TAr(3iE(i,-X > ^■^'i T«ou=n ^6 Mei;lU 7 '. tf /i ^'■■^ Wezzan RifttM '/^y :/^- - ,v .').-A '•"OS,* j» ■'•" 135 '"t t^' ' UdjJ^ 'Volwb'ri.si' '*' 'Me.>l«ad^.s ,tf* 3^ MAnt4 --- 5er'-'" ' ^Atf// ef-Gharbi \ '...^rf SernJ^iJt, . —> >.-'f>.ft ^ ,'^4 ; JifJJ^- :J^,b-^.^- ^-''JK ' ■- 33 A t > i 7 ^ S«djelnia35^R."AB0UAM * , . E|-6.h.ri.t _/> :„.. i,. £r^^^ ^1 wddi 6 "?" "^ Ouiiwn JJcpt}i.ti EZI! IZZl iZZI iWKl600 I600CO3W0 iWOabWC h*00to13,8CC 'S S0i\t/}niznU FLORA. 301 Atlantic seaboard is generally distinguished bj' an almost complete absence of extreme variations. Few points on the surl'ace of the globe enjoy a more uniform temperature than Mogador, ^\here the oscillations recorded during a series of nine years scarcely exceeded 6° or 7° F. This remarkable equability explains (lie rarity of diseases of the chest. Consumption is almost imknown in this part of the continent, whose climate is also found to be highly beneficial to European invalids. In the interior, where the marine breezes are but slightlj^ felt, the variations of temperature increase in proportion to the distance from the seaboard, while on tlie south coast the climate is influenced by the proximity of the Sahara with its intense heats during the day and active radiation at night. Altogether, Marocco is disposed in three climatic zones bj^ the relief and aspect of the land. In the north the Moluya basin, the Rif, and peninsula of Tangier, belong to the Mediter- r mean Tell, presenting nearly the same phenomena as the corresponding parts of Algeria ; in the centre and south, the main Atlas range separates two distinct regions, one exposed to the Atlantic, the other to the Sahara atmospheric influences. The rainfall is on the whole far more abundant than in Eastern Maviritania, and the Atlas highlands are often visited by heavy snowstorms. Everywhere along the seaboard the atmosphere is saturated with moisture ; but showers are rare on the southern slopes turned towards the Sahara. The coastlands are also frequently visited by those showers of red dust, which are now known to consist mainly of silicious animalcula; wafted by the trade winds from the South American llanos across the Atlantic. Flora. To the varied climate of Marocco corresponds a no less diversified flora, which, however, belongs mainly to the Mediterranean zone. Of the 248 local genera, all, with a solitary exception, are found in one or another of the regions border- ing the great inland sea. Fully a third of the species occur even in the British Isles and Central Europe. On the other hand, very few species are common also to the African floras south of the great desert. Thus in the products of its soil, no less than in its physical constitution. Western Mauritania maintains its European character. Physical geography was consequently in complete harmony with the political divisions when Mauritania Tingitana was by Diocletian attached to the Iberian peninsula. The vegetation of Marocco most resembles that of Spain, although the analogy is not so complete as was at one time supposed by botanists. Of 031 species collected in the Atlas highlands, as many as 181 are not found in Spain, and the divergence increases as we ascend towards the higher regions of the Atlas. The contrast with the Canaries, Made-ra, and the Azores is almost complete. Most of the plants common to the islands and mainland are such as are elsewhere also found diffused throughout vast regions with the most varied climates. Of (he 1,627 flowering plants hitherto enumerated in Marocco, not more tlian fifteen VOL. XL B n 3C2 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. Ix-long also to the archiix'lagocs. Thus the botanical evidence alone suffices to show that, notwithstanding their proximity to the mainland, the Canaries are of independent origin. Eathcr more than ton of its vegetable species are altogether peculiar to Marocco, and arc mostlj' confined to the Atlas uplands. In this central region the few indigenous species have become specialised bj' the process of gradually adapting themselves to the environment. Towards the su mm its of the Atlas have also taken rcfuo-c the European species, which appear in isolated groups on the crests of the Ethiopian ranges. Such is a variety of the pine, which emits a pleasant odour, and which is employed in the manufacture of costlj' cabinet pieces. On the other hand, many of the Sahara species have penetrated far northwards, being found not only on the southern slopes of the Anti- Atlas, but also in the Sus basin and along the seaboard as far as the Wed Tensift. Such are the gummiferous acacias and several large euphorbia;, also yielding valuable gums. The date-palm, which may be included in the number of tropical species that have migrated northwards, grows in the Tangier district on the Mediterranean coast, but bears no fruit, and even at Mogador the crop is of inferior quality. But the dates of the Draa basin are said by the natives to be unrivalled in flavour even by those of the Jerid oasis itself. The dwarf-palm, so common in Algeria, is somewhat rare in Marocco, being found in thickets only in the province of Haha, round about Mogador. One of the most remarkable of the indigenous species is the arganin sidero.njlon, a tree which has often been compared to the olive, and which is found only in the southern districts beyond the Wed Tensift. It grows in the most arid soil, and needs no irrigation. All domestic animals except the horse and ass eat its berries eagerly, whUe from the kernel the natives extract a peculiar oil, disagreeable to the European palate. Its wood is extremely hard, and but for its excessively slow growth the argania, of which mention is first made by Leo Africanus, might be successfidly cultivated in Algeria. Another indigenous plant, found nowhere else, and described by Jackson and Leard, yields the gum " ammoniac " of commerce — a resin with a pungent odour, used in Egypt and Arabia for the purpose of fmnigation. Fauna. The Marocco fauna differs little from that of Algeria, at least so far as it has hitherto been studied. Large carnivora, such as the lion and panther, appear to be confined mainly to the Rif highlands, towards the Algerian frontier. The bear, extinct in Algeria, has not yet disappeared; rabbits swarm in the Tangier peninsula, diminishing gradually southwards to the Bu-Regrag, beyond which they are not found. Monkeys are rare, being restricted to the northern regions and to the single species which survives also on the Rock of Gibraltar. Wild boars, justly dreaded by the peasantry, infest all the thickets. The better classes have the curious practice of keeping them in their stables, in order to conjure the evil spu'its, Mild induce them to pass from their horses into the " impure animal." In INHABITANTS OF MLIEOCCO— THE BEEBEES. 303 the southern steppes on the verge of the desert, the ostrich still abounds, and here also several varieties of the gazelle are hunted, less for their flesh than for the so-called bezoard, a peculiar concretion often found in their stomachs and valued as a powerful amulet. The dead cetaceans stranded on the coast are also opened bj' the fishermen in search of fragments of grey amber. The upland valleys of the Atlas range, with its almost European climate, are well suited for breeding all our domestic animals, as well as for the cultivation of all the plants peculiar to the temperate zone. The waters abound ia turtles, and the river estuaries are fi-equented especially by the sabal, a species of salmon, highly prized for its delicate flavour. The oceanic fauna differs in other respects little from that of the West Indian seas, the nautilus, fljing-fish, and much-dreaded hammer-headed shark being found on both sides of the Atlantic. The exploration of the abysses off the Marocco coast, sounded to a depth of 2,800 fathoms, has revealed to the naturalists of the Talisman a multitude of new species of fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, worms, and sponges. Inhabitants of Marocco — The Berbers. As in the rest of Mauritania, the population of Marocco still remains funda- mentally Berber, this element having, since the time of the Phoenicians, always maintained the preponderance. The successive conquering races, even the Arabs, who have remained masters on the plains and in the large towns, have succeeded only in driving the natives to the upland valleys, without acquiring a nimierical superiority in the country. At present the proportion of Berbers is estimated at about two-thirds of the whole population, and especially in the highland districts, remote fi-om the town and seaboard, they form the ahnost exclusive element. At the same time this general expression, Berber, applied collectively to all the inhabitants not of distinctly Semitic or Negro descent, by no means implies a community of origin. On the contrary, many different races have probably con- tributed to the formation of the aborigines, and Iberian tribes are even supposed at one time to have occupied the slopes of the Atlas. As in other parts of Barbary, especially Tripolitana and East Algeria, megaliths have been found in various parts of Marocco, in every respect similar to the dolmens, menhirs, cromlechs, and suchHie remains in Britain and Brittany. The finest monolith hitherto discovered is that of Mzora, standing on the eastern edge of a plateau, whence a view is commanded of the Tetuan highlands. This menhir, which is over 20 feet high, is known as the Uted, or " tent-pole." The Imazighen, or Berbers of Marocco, who comprise several tribes or con- federations bearing the same name as those of Algeria (Shawia, Beraber, Zenaga or Sahcja, Guezzula, &c.), are divided into four perfectly distinct groups, occupy- ing separate territories and characterised by different tribal customs. Those of the north, who hold the Rif highlands, the peninsula of Tangier, and most of the hilly district bounded southwards by the course of the Sebu, take the generic name of B B 2 SG4 NOKXn-WEST AFRICA. Akbail or Kobail, that is " Kabylcs," like tlie Jurjura higblanders. The frontier tovra of their (hunain on the maritime slope of the Athis is Sefru, a short distance south of Fez. North of this phice the term Akbail is applied to all natives of Berber race, while south of it all call themselves Shleuh, Shluh, or Shellaha. This latter appellation comprises under various forms all the settled Imazighen of white race who inhabit the upland Atlas valleys. But in South Marocco, on both slopes of the mouLtains, and in the Saharian oases, the peasantry, who resemble the Fi"-. 16-1. —A Tangies Arab. I. ' V \^^ ^. Algerian Ruaghas in tlie dark colour of their complexion, are also classed araong.st the Ima/ighcn, and are collectively known by the name of Haratin. On the southern slope of the Atlas every village presents a mixture of Shellaha and Haratin, in which the proportion of the latter clement increases gradually from north to south— that is, from the upper Moluya to the lower Draa. Owing to their lighter complexion, the Shellaha regard themselves as superior to the Haratin, and iu marriage contracts account is usually taken of this difference, the price of a INHABITANTS OF MAEOCCO— THE BERBERS. 3C5 iair being higher than that of a dark bride. Xovertheless the Hartauiat women are often distinguished by their beauty, most of them having lovely and expressive eyes, and in their youth bright features combined with an extremely "raceful carriage. In the oases a Hartani is seldom elected chief of the tribe, this honour being usually reserved for the white Imazighen. Like the Algerian Shawia and Kabyles, many of the Marocco Imazighen are distinguished by light hair and blue Tiz. 165. — Aeab Wohax of Tjixgiee. c o 'O c > a a eyes. But in the central and southern regions this fair type appears to be extremely rare, except in some of the southern hUly districts. It seems to be most frequently met in the Eif, that is, the northern coastlands that have been most frequently occupied by invaders or immigrants from the Iberian peninsula. Hence ^I. Faidherbe is inclined to regard them as the more or less mixed descendants of the race which raised the great monolithic monuments in Jforth Afi'ica. The Tamazight (Shluh or Shellaha) language is spoken by the great majoritj' 866 NOETU-WEST APBICA. of the Marocco Berbers. It is even much better preserved in the extreme west than in other parts of Mauritania, and old manuscripts of the Koran transcribed in Berber characters are said still to exist in the Rif highlands. In nearlj^ all the northern tribes the women and even the children understand and even speak Arabic. But in the hills and oases of the Saharian slope certain communities liNong in secluded districts remote from the great trade routes speak Tamazight alone, emplopng interpreters, chiefly Jews, in their intercourse with the Arabs. On the other hand, the Beni-Hassen of the Tetuan uplands, and some other tribes of undoubted Berber origin, have completely forgotten their mother-tongue, and now speak Arabic exclusively. Amongst all these Imazighcn, scattered over a vast territorj^, varying in com- plexion from fair to dark, and speaking different languages, a great diversity of types, habits, and customs also naturally prevails. In some tribes the women have preserved the practice of tattooing ; in others they cover the face with a black veil at the sight of strangers, or else turn their back on the waj'farer ; but, as a rule, they walk abroad unveiled and with a bold carriage. The practice of stuffing yoimg girls with paste-balls, to give them the corpulence so much admired in Marocco, is coromon to most of the urban communities, and even to many nomad peoples. The dress varies with every tribe, and at a distance the clan to which strangers belong is easily recognised by their costume and arms. Usually men and women wear only a siagle haik woven of wool or cotton, and attached to the shoulders with clasps or knots. Nearly all the natives have bow legs : a feature due to the way children are carried pickaback by their mothers, wrapped in a fold of the haik. Except the nomads that roam the plains at the foot of the Anti-Atlas and Bani ranges, and the semi-nomads in the north and south, whose movable straw dwellings resemble beehives, nearly all the Imazighen live in stone houses variously grouped in the different villages. On the southern slope of the Atlas they are disposed in the form of ksurs, or strongholds, like the fortified villages of the border ranges in South Orania. Elsewhere each familj' dwells apart, the houses of the conunuuitj' being scattered irregularly over the hillside, like those of the Pyrenean Basques. With the exception of a few tribes near the large towns, the bulk of the Berber population may be said to have remained practically independent, although every phase of transition occurs, from complete submission to absolute autonomy. Some of the Imazighen pay the imposts voluntarily, but most of them do so only imdcr pressure, often even escaping to their allies, and leaving nothing but empty houses in the hands of the taxgatherers. The oppression of the Sultan's government is found on the whole more intolerable than tribal warfare and the savage freedom enjoyed by the independent commimities. Nevertheless, some of the more powerful tribes consent to receive a kaid, that is, a sort of envoy from the Sultan, who is respected if upright, but usually merely tolerated as a stranger. The dependence of some elans is of a purely spiritiuil character, while the autonomous tribes often THE INHABITANTS OF MAEOCCO— THE BEEBEES. 8G7 play the part of allies, entering into treaties with the Emperor on the footing' of political equality. Lastly some of the groups, such as the Riata, who hold the hills on the route between Fez and Tlemcen, maintain no relations of any sort with the Government. " They have neither god nor sultan," as it is said, "but only {X)wder." They accept no command from sheikh or chief, but act " every man for himself with his gun." Like the Jurjura Kabyles, the Marocco Berbers regulate all their affairs in the anfali:, that is, the jemaa, or public assembly. The tribes are merely so many large families, which break readily into fragments, and unite again in fresh groups according to their temporarj- interests or caprice. Even traditional codes of law are rare amongst the communes, which, as a rule, yield obedience to nothing except the decisions of the assembly when unanimously accepted by the heads of families. Such is the prevailing system of government amongst the tribes occupying the maritime slope of the Atlas. On the opposite side the populations are more compactly grouped, in order the better to resist the attacks of the Saharian nomads. Here the villages are formallj- confederated into nations, which bv means of delegates act in concert for the common defence. Other tribes, less careless of their autonomy, accept the position of vassals, recognising the supre- macy of a chief, or of some more powerful tribe. Some elect a temporary chief, usually for a year, and as a rule the authority of the sheikhs is always precarious. If wealthy and of good birth, they hold their ground, but even then seldom succeed ia neutralising the influence of the assembly, which meets and issues a sovereign decree on all weighty occasions. The Jews generally serve to maintain commercial relations between the tribes ia this universal state of disorganisation. But despised and hated as they are, they might run the risk of being killed at the entrance of every village, were they not protected by the collective wUl of the commxme, or by the pledged word of some influential person. Yet there are tribes which vn]l never admit a Jew, and he has consequently to pass through theii' territory in disguise, at the imminent peril of his life. The mezrag, or passport, corresponding to the anaya in Kabylia, can always be had for a consideration ; but the payment once made, the protector becomes responsible for the life and welfare of his guest. In some cases the mezrag of a rich merchant or of a whole tribe may be purchased for a Hfetime ; it then takes the name of debiha, or " sacrifice," because it was formerly the custom of the suppliant to inunolate a sheep on the threshold of the man whose patronage he sought. By means of these agencies trade might be freely carried on from one end of Marocco to the other, but for certain marauding tribes which recognise no safe- conduct. The hiUs m. the very neighbourhood of Fez are occupied by the Guerwan Berbers, who grant no mezrag, but allow travellers to pass through their territory on paj-ment of a heavy sum exacted by armed force. The Din-Bellals of the southern slope of the Atlas imdertake to escort caravans; but if their offer is docUued they lie La ambush to plunder the passing convoys. If the travellers are 3C8 NORTH-WEST APRICA. poor or members of :i \\eak tribe, they are merely sfrijjijed and sent on their way naked but uninjured; if, on the contrary, they belong to any powerful tribe whose vengeance might be feared, they are killed right out to prevent the news of the attack from spreading, the duty of vendetta being sacred amongst the Marocco Uerbers. The Imazighen are no better instructed in the dogmas and practices of the faith they profess than are their Algerian kindred. The coast Arabs have even Fisr. 166. — Arab Camel-Dkivee. '\V'' ■}} •% preserved some of the observances of the hated Rumi. The women bear the sign of the cross tattooed on their person, and in difficidt labour invoke the aid of the Virgin Mary. A few Latin words survive in the language, and the Roman calendar is still in use concurrently with the Arab. The marabuts who recite verses from the Koran are mostly of Arab descent; but their influence varies with the tribes, being jealously watched in some places, in others venerated as saints and implicitly obeyed. Some of their convents are regarded as sanctuaries, in THE ABABS— THE JEWS AND NEGROES. 869 which culi^rits £ud a safe refuge. Many tribes refuse to recoo-nise the oblioatiou of making the pilgrimage to Mecca, although there are others, more zealous, who send yearly a number of devotees to -s-isit the tomb of the Prophet. With the religious pilgrims are also associated a constantly increasing number of emigrants, who seek employment as labourers or harvesters in Algeria and Timis. The Arabs. The Ai-abs of the rural districts and the Moors of the towns, in whom the Berber, Ai'ab, and European elements are diversely intermingled, are descended either from the conquering tribes from Arabia or from the Moors exjjeUed ^rom Spain. Those li\-ing in the midst of the Shluhs and of the Haratins in the southern districts, take the general name of Arabs, as if they represented the race in a pre-emiaent sense. Amongst these marauding tribes of the southern oases are foimd the finest women in Marocco, remarkable aUke for their perfectly regular features and fair complexion. Altogether, those who may be classed as Arabs number over a million. In the towns they are in a decided majority, and all now lead settled lives, except the nomads of the southern districts on the verge of the desert. Hence the contrast existing in Algeria between the Berber peasant and the Arab nomad prevails in Marocco to a very slight extent. The Arabs of Marocco are noted for their sociable disposition. In almost every \-illage, and even in the camping-grounds, they assemble in the building or the tent nsed as a mosque, bringing each his contribution and feasting in common. The large number of " saints " is also a remarkable featui-e of the Marocco Semites. Whole tribes consist of Shorfa, or descendants of the Prophet, and in Marocco have originated nearly all the rehgious orders of Mauritania, notably the Aissawa and Derkawa confraternities. Next to Arabia, Marocco is regarded by true Mohammedans as the most illustrious of all lands. The reminiscences of its former power and culture impart to its inhabitants a special degree of prestige in the eyes of all the inhabitants of the oases between Maui-itania and Egj-pt. While the eastern Mussulmans pray for the Caliph of StambiJ, those of the west invoke the benedictions of Allah on the head of the Sultan of Maropco. The Jews and Xegroes. Next to the Berbers and Arabs, the most numerous ethnical group are tho Jews, descended for the most part from those expelled from Spain. They call themselves Guerush Castilla, or "Exiles from Castillo," and at solemn official weddings the Rabbins still use formidas concluding with the words : " All according to the usage of Castille." Those settled in the seaports north of the Wed Tensift still usually speak Spanish, while those of Fez and Meknes have adopted Arabic. According to most authorities, the Marocco Jews number over one hundred thousand, although Eohlfs is of opinion that this figure is more 370 NOETH-AVEST AFBICA. than three times too high. The handsomest women in Marocco are said to be the Jewesses of Meknes, and the term Meknasia is now applied to all women remarkable for their personal charms. The Negro element is also rejjrescnted in ever)' part of western Mauritania, where, according to Kohlfs, there arc as many as fifty thousand Sudanese blacks of pure stock between Tarudant and Tangier. Many half-castes are also found in the families of the upper classes in the large towns, and the reigning family itself is partly of Xegro blood. But in the rural districts intenninglings of this sort are less frequent, and never occur amongst the Berbers on the northern slope of the Atlas. The Ilaussas, Bambaras, Fulahs, and other Negro populations in Marocco are constantly recruited by the organised slave trade carried on through the caravan traffic with Sudan. Here they are usuallj^ pui-chased with blocks of salt, whence the term gemt-el-melha, that is, " bought for salt," often applied contemptuously to slaves and freedmen. In the Marocco bazaars the slaves are generally sold by auction, like any other " live stock," the vendor guaranteeing them free of " vicious habits," and the buyer causing them to be examined by the " veterinary surgeon." The price varies from sixteen or eighteen shillings to twenty pounds, according to age, sex, strength, or health. The European element is represented by a few thousand strangers settled in the seaports, and a few hundred French and Spanish renegades in Fez, Meknes, Marrakesh, and other inland towns. Topography. A portion of north-east Marocco is comprised in the hydrographic system of Algeria, the town and district of Ujda being situated in the basin of the Tafua river. Ujda, which lies at the foot of the Khucbiat-el-Khadra hill, in the plain of Angad, is a mere aggregate of small houses surrounded by oKve groves, doing some trade across the border. Thanks to its proximity to the Algerian frontier, it ranks as an imperial garrison town, depending directly on the Sultan's Government. About six miles to the west, on the banks of the Islay, a headstream of the Tafna, was fought the famous battle of Islay, August 14, 1844, which placed the Marocco Government at the mercy of France, and which was followed by the treaty of Tangier, leaving to the Sultan nearly the whole of the debated territory cast of the Moluya. The eastern affluents of the Moluya are partly occupied by the warlike and independent Beni-Mgill Berber tribe, whose chief village is Bulayul, which lies over a.OOO feet above the sea on one of the torrents forming the Upper Moluya. Lower down in the same vaUey is the less powerful Berber confederation of the Aitu-Fclla, who in return for their recognition of the Sultan's authority are privileged to levy a sort of black-mail on travellers passing through their territory. Their ksar, or chief viUage, is Kuihi-nh-Shorfa, inhabited, as its name indicates, DEBDU— KASBAH-EL-AIUN. 371 by descendants of the Prophet, and situated on a jilaiu where converge the ujjper branches of the Moluya. Ksabi (Eksebi) marks the linguistic parting-line between Arabic and Berber, the latter being spoken exclusively on one side, in the direction of the Atlas, the former prevailing on the other, in the direction of the plains. Debdu — Kasbah-el-Aiun. The small town of Debdu lies, not on the Moluya, but on an eastern affluent on the route leading to the upland plateaux. Immediately above the town rises a Fig. 167. — Ujda, Isly, axd the Anqad Plain. Scile 1 ; 430,000. fHk. §rA >\ ,fc , _,„.,._ ,_ . . §"5' I'^'T '.Vejt of Gf^eenvvic^i . li ililes. vertical bluff crowned with a minaret and a dismantled fortress. Beyond it the ground stiU rises through a series of escarped terraces to the plateau of Gada, which is clothed with one of the finest forests in Marocco. Debdu, which consists of about foui- hundred earthen houses, is the only place in the empire where the Jews are in a majority. All are engaged in trade, their commercial relation extending eastwards to Tlemcen in Algeria, westwards to Fez through the Ttiza route, and down the Lower Moluya valley to the Spanish coast-town of Melilla. In the neighbouring hills is bred a race of mules famous throughout Western Mauritania. West of Debdu the Moluya flows through a series of mountain gorges down to 3-2 NORTH-WEST AI^EICA. tlio cxtousive plain of Tafrata, which, when clothed with verdure in spring, is visited bv the Iluara Arabs. Here the Moluya receives its chief affluent, the Wed Za, which is a perennial stream fed by the Wed Sharf and other torrents from the upland plateaux south of the Tell. The riverain population have their chief market, not in the valley, but farther east on the Angad plain, on an eminence crowned with the kubba of Sidi-Melluk. Around this famous shrine are grouped the houses of Arab and Jewish merchants trading with Ujda and Tlemcen. The village is usually known by the name of Kashah-d-Aitin, or " Castle of the Springs," from the numerous wells that have been sunk at the foot of the hill. The semi-independent Berber tribes of the district are kept in awe by a detachment of about a hundred and fifty regular troops stationed at this frontier outpost. Of these tribes the most ^Mwerful is that of the Beni-Iznatcn (the Beni- Snassen of the neighbouring French Algerians), who comprise several clans originally from the district of Nemours. These irreconcilable foes of the Christians occupy the isolated mass of hills between the Angad desert and the lower course of the Moluya. Jaferin Islands — Mei.illa. No important town has been founded on the low-lying plain through which the Moluya flows seawards, and here the nearest military position is that of the Jaferin (Zaflarine, Zafrin, Shaffarinas) Islands, the Tres Insulse of the ancient geographers. The only importance attaching to these barren rocks is due to the shelter they allord the shipping at anchor in the roadstead, and to their strategic position over against the Moluya Valley, and not far from the Algerian frontier. During the first years of the conquest the French had intended to occupy the archipelago ; but when they had finally decided on taking this step in 1849, they were anticipated by a few hours by the Spaniards. The group is now strongly fortified, forming a niiUtary outpost of the stronghold of Melilla, some 30 miles farther west. Melilla, the Mlila of the natives, occupies the site of the Pha?nician city of RuHsmlii; whose name is perpetuated by the neighbouring headland of Ras-ed-Deir (Rascddir), the Cape Tres Forcas of the Spaniards. The town stands on a terrace at the foot of a steep clifE crowned by the Spanish fortress of Rosario, which has been raised on the foundations of other citadels that have here succeeded each other lor a period of three thousand years. Some shelter is afforded to the shipping by an inlet penetrating to the south-west of the fortress, possibly the work of the Phoenicians, who constructed similar havens at Carthage and Utica. Melilla, whose fortifications were half destroyed by an earthquake in 1848, has been in the possession of the Spaniards since the year 1496, and is now connected by a regular line of steamers with the mother country. Some 30 miles off the coust stands the barren islet of A/horan, which is also a Spanish stronghold. On the semi-circular Rif coast, between Ras-ed-Deir and Tetuan, stand two other military stations, Allniccmas and PcTion dc Ve/ez, which have been held by Spain for over three hundred years. Both ai-c little more than penal settlements, occupied TETU.VX— CEUTA. 378 by convicts from Spain and by small garrisons. Facing renon de Telcz (Yclez de la Gomera) are the remains of the Roman city of BmUs, which in mcdi;rval times was regarded as the port of Fez on the Mediterranean. This spot would be the most convenient landing-place for travellers proceeding from the Rif coast to the Sebu Valley ; but no carriage roads have been opened across the intervening hills, which Fig. 168.— Tetua-v. Scale 1 : 200.000. I . ■;-■.:&?-• ^Sfe',, ■•'>afey^' S»-i3 5-a^ V/.s-of G.. 5•l^ DeptiiS. 0to32 Feet. 32 to 80 Feet, CO to lliO Feet. 160 Feet .--nd upwards. 3 Miles. are still held by independent Berber tribes. In one of the upland valleys stands the town of S/ies/iaimi, surrounded by vineyards, and in the neighbourhood is the mother-house of the religious order of the Derkawas. Teti AX — Ceita. On the Mediterranean seaboard the chief city of the empire is Tefitaii, the Tifairafi of the :Moors, and the Tcftaircii of the Berbers, that is, the " Place of Springs." The name is fully justified by the numerous and copious streamlets 874 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. flowiu" from tlic surrounding amphitheatre of hills, and watering the neighbouring gardens and orange groves. The town, which stands on a terrace some 200 feet hio'h, is commanded by a citadel, and encircled by a lofty rampart flanked with towers, within which a second enclosure contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter. The bar, which is accessible only to light craft, is also defended by a fortified custom-house. Nearly all the wealth of the place is in the hands of the Jews, who constitute about a fourth of the whole population, and who here enjoy a certain degree of autonomy. Hence Tetuan is regarded as one of the centres of the Israelites, who own all the bazaars, and carry on an extensive trade with the Fig. 169.— Cedta. Scale 1 : 90,000. r: -v'^'^E\_ H\ ^\°' y^'.^" ff=^^^^^. 5° 21 west oT Greenwich S"!/- Depths. to 32 Feet. 32 to 80 Feet. SOtolGO Feet. 160 Feet and iipwai-ils. 3,300 yaids. surrouiKliiig regions, through Ceuta, Tangier, and Gibraltar. The exports arc chii'fly oranges and mahaijn, a kind of brandy distilled from grapes. The local industries, largely in the hands of immigrants from Algeria, comprise earthenware and the other wares required to meet the usual wants of Mussulman populations. Tcoplcd to a large extent by Mudejares— that is, by Moors expelled from Granada and Castillc— it has often had to resist the attacks of the Spaniards, by whom it was plundered in the fifteenth century. A hundred years later, its corsairs held the surrounding waters, carrj-ing off thousands of captives from Andalusia, while tiadiiig peacefully with the English, Dutch, and Venetians, In 15G4 the port was TANGIEE. 375 "destroyed by Philip II., and after a decisive vietorj- in the neighbourhood, Tctuan was again seized by the Spaniards in 1859, but after long negotiations finally restored to the Sultan. The neighbouring tovm of Ceuta, however, has been held by Spain for the last three hundred years, although on one occasion, towards the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the following century, besieged or blockaded by the natives for a space of no less than six-and-twenty years. Although a " free port," Ceuta is no longer a great centre of trade, as in Mussulman times ; the Christian stronghold, defended by a triple line of ramparts, and bristling with gims and c/ievaux defrkc, is carefully avoided by traders from the interior. Hence, from the commercial aspect, the greatest contrast exists between this " African Gibraltar," and that on the Spanish mainland, both of which otherwise resemble each other in their geological structure, their peninsular form, and their strategical position on eithci- side of the intervening strait. A fort commands the town, but is itself commanded by the heights of the interior, some of which are occupied by Spanish defensive works. Hence, apart from the opposition of English diplomacy, it will never be possible, except at a vast expenditure, to transform Ceuta into a really formidable rival of Gibraltar. Tangier. On the Airican side of the strait, between Ceuta and Tangier, there are no towns, Kasr-es-Serir being now a mere mass of shapeless ruins. All the trade of the surrounding districts has been diverted to the half-European city of Tangier, which is already within the influence of the Atlantic tides, here rising to a height of over eight feet. Tangier, the Tanja of the natives, is the ancient Thxjc, that is, the " Lagoon," which is fabled to have sprung from the ground with Antaeus. Founded, according to tradition, before the dawn of history, Tinge became, under the Romans, capital of Mauritania Tingitana, answering to the present northern division of Marocco. But at that time it does not appear to have covered a larger surface than at present. The so-called "Old Tangier," whose ruins are seen to the south-east, was a mcdiasval Arab town unconnected with the Roman Tinge. Its position, on a semicircular bay at the entrance of the strait, and offering some shelter from the western gales, must at all times have secured for this jjlace a certain degree of commercial importance. The Venetians were here long received as guests, while the Portuguese, wishing to enter as conquerors, were several times repidsed. They at last seized it in 1471, and for two himdred years it remained in European hands, the Spaniards succeeding to the Portuguese, and the English to the Spaniards. Under the British rule no expense was spared in strengthening the fortifications and improving the harbour works. But the incessant attacks of the Moors, the lack of supplies, the difficulty of provisioning the place, at last exhausted the patience of the English, who, in 1684, evacuated Tangier, blowing up the piers in order to destroy the port. Twenty years afterwards they seized Gibraltar, which not only enjoyed the same military advantages, but also presented an insular position more easily defensible. 076 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. Thus abandoned as a military station, Tangier soon began to attract traders from every quarter, and has now become a chief centre of the exchanges with the European seaports. The foreign envoys to the Sultan's court generally reside here, as does also the Minister of Foreign Affairs, in order the more easily to maintain relations with the European powers. Tangier has thus become a sort of capital, as it is fast becoming a European tovn\, with its new houses, landing-stage, workshops, journals, batteries, neighbouring lighthouse, and suburban villas. Fig. 170. — Taxgieb. Scale 1 : 100,000. W*'st of Gr'een h Depths. ^ ^ to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 to 80 Feet. 80 to 160 Feet. 3,300 Yards. IGO Feet and upwards. In its outward aspect Tangier bears some resemblance to Algiers, being like it dispo.sed in amphitheatrical form on the slope of a hill, which is crowned by the embattled walls of a citadel. A considerable traffic is maintained in the thorough- fares leading from the port to the gate of the upper town. Although the harbom- is too shallow to admit large vessels, which are obliged to anchor in the offing, a large trade is carried on, especially with Gibraltar, which is chiefly provisioned from this place. "Wool, raw and dressed hides, and other produce are also shipped in exchange for hardware, cotton goods, tea, sugar, chandlery, and other foreign W w H 1^ O Bi (H i5 M I « w 3 I If LAEASH— TAZA. 877 merchandise. Invalids also resort in considerable numbers to Tangier, which, as a health-resort, has few rivals, even on the Mediterranean seaboard. Laeash — Taza. On the Atlantic coast, some 24 miles south of Cape Spartel, formerly stood the Eoman city of Zi/is, which afterwards became the Azi/a {Ar-Zeila, Ar-Zila) of the Arabs, now a mere collection of hovels, interspersed with some Portuguese structures. About 15 miles farther south stands El-Araish, or Larash, the first trading-place on this coast. Larash, present capital of the proA-ince of Gharb, dates at least from the ninth century, although it long remained an obscure village, rising to commercial prosperity only imder the Portuguese and Spanish administration. Its re-conquest by Sultan Mulai Ismail in 17G9 is one of the great events in the annals of ilarocco. The garrison, 3,200 strong, was partly exterminated, partlv reduced to slavery for a period of two years, and one hundred and eighty guns fell into the hands of the ilussulmans. Since that time Larash has successfully resisted the several naval demonstrations of the French in 1785, the Austrians in 1829, and the Spaniards in 1860. The entrance to the port of Larash, which lies on the south side of the estuary of the TTed-el-Khus (Xukkos), is obstructed by a bar inaccessible to vessels of over a hundred and tifty or two hundred tons. Nevertheless it is much frequented by Portuguese fishing-smacks, and by ships, especially from ilarsedles, which here take in cargoes of wool, beans, and other local produce, chiefly in exchange for sugar. The Libyan, Phcenician, and Eoman city, to which Larash has succeeded, has not entirely disappeared. On a headland overgrown with brushwood, and com- manding two bends of the river about 2 J mUes east of the present town, are visible the remains of Phoenician walls constructed of huge blocks like those of Arad, and extended by Eoman ramparts of smaller dimensions. These are the Lix, or Lixus hnes, now known to the Arabs by the name of Chemmkh. In the alluvial deposits of an inlet at the foot of the hill may still be detected the traces of a port Lirge enough to accommodate a few vessels. But none of the marshy peninsulas enclosed by the Lukkos can possiblv have been the " garden of the Hesperides " mentioned by the ancient writers. Tissot seeks for their site in an islet now connected with the mainland through a winding in the bed of the river. During the last two thousand years the whole form of the estuary seems to have been completely modified. Some menhirs and other megaliths visible farther east on the route fi-om Tangier to Ksar-el-Kebir date probably from a still more remote epoch. The famous town of Kasr-el-Kebir, or the "Great Castle," stands like its outport, Larash, on the banks of the Lukkos, in a marshy district often under water. The town is siuTOunded by vineyards, oHve and orange groves, and the neighbouring hUls afford pasturage for numerous herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. Kasr-el- Kebir, which notwithstanding its name is not enclosed by ramparts, is built of brick, and stands for the most part on ancient foundations. Here Tissot has found the only Greek inscriptions hitherto discovered in ^larocco. The battle known in history as that of Alkazar-Kebir, which in 1578 put an end to the Portuguese VOL. XI. f^ r 378 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. power in Marocco, appears to have been fought, not at the place bearing its name, but G miles to the south-east of Larash, on the banks of the Wed-el-Makhzen, a tributary of the Lukkos. South of Larash the monotonous seaboard follows an imbrokon line for 90 miles to the mouth of the Scbu. In the upper part of this river basin lies the central market town of Taza, at an altitude of 2,750 feet, and near the depression between the Rif highlands and the Atlas system. Thus commanding the line of commu- nication between the Sebu and Moluya basins — that is, between West Marocco and ^lo-cria — Taza occupies the most important strategical position in the empire. It belongs officially to the Sultan, although the garrison troops here maintained by Fig. 171. — El-Akaish akd CHEionsH. Scale 1 : 75,000. e-B West of breens^ich to 32 Feet. Depths. 32 to 64 Feet. 64 Feet and upwards. - 2,200 Yaids. the Government are practically at the mercy of the powerful Riata tribe, who hold the hills north and south of the town, and who are the true masters of the whole district. When Foucauld visited the place in 1883, the whole population, worn out by the oppressive exactions of this tribe, and hopeless of any further help from the Sultan, " were sighing for the happy day when the French would come to their rescue." Nevertheless, a little trade is done with Fez, the coast towns, and the Moluya district, through the intervention of the detested Riatas, who cultivate the hemp and tobacco which sujiply narcotics to Taza and the other towns of North ^larocco. FEZ. 879 Fez. Fes, the capital most frequently v-isited by the Sultan, and the largest city In the empire, occupies an advantageous geographical position about the centre of the depression separating the Eif from the Atlas highlands. It also lies on the natural route which skirts the western foot of the Atlas range, so that its basin is intersected by the two great historic highways of Western Mauritania. The district enjoys the fui'ther advantages of a fertile and well-watered soil and pleasant scenery, diversified with rich open plains and densely wooded heights. The city, encircled bv an amphitheatre of hUls, occupies a terrace of conglomerate about 650 feet high, di\'ided into secondary sections by numerous ravines. The Wed-el-Fez, rising in a rocky cirque a little to the south-west, and fed by innumerable springs, six miles Fig 172. — Fez axd Neighboubhood. Scale 1 ; 300,000. ^^ B^OOTdi* of fcfi e »^ '-'uTidLil-Hadj ?r '//est tff Gi-ee^wich 5 4-°;c' 6 Miles. below the town effects a junction with the Sebu, which is here spanned by one of the few stone bridges found in Marocco. Seen from the bluffs crowned with ruins which encircle it on the south, north, and west, Fez presents a charming prospect, " emerging like a white island above the dark green sea of its vast gardens." Above the irregular surface of the terraces rise the gUded summits of its minarets, the lofty walls of the citadel, and the glittering roof of the great mosque. Fez'is divided into two distinct towns, each with its single or double enclosure flanked by towers and buttresses. To the west Hes Fez-el-Bali, or " Old Fez,'' still comprising the greater part of the urban population ; to the east Fez-el- Jedid, or " New Fez," standing on the highest terrace, and towards the north connected with the old town by the redoubts of the kasbah. Immediately east of the palace in Fez-el- Jedid the river ramifies into two branches, one flowing through the imperial c c 2 380 NORTH-WEST ATEICA. gardens, the other falling through a series of cascades down to the lower town, where it again ramifies into a thousand rivulets. Unfortunately most of these channels are little better than open sewers, which, uniting below the town, flow in a fetid stream to the Sebu. Hence these damp quarters are constantly a prey to Figr. 173. — A Gateway in Fez. epidemics, the pallid complexion of the inhabitants sufficiently attesting the foul atmosphere in which they live. The Mellah, or Jewish quarter, situated near the citadel iu the new town, is outwardly Httle better than the Moorish districts ; but MEQUINEZ— YOLTJBILIS. 881 the houses are cleaner inside. The Jews here, as elsewhere, monopolise most of the tiade, but are obliged to conceal their wealth in order to escape from the exactions of their rulers. Fez, or the "Hatchet," has been so named, says Ibu-Batuta, from a stone hatchet discovered in a fissure of the soil, when the city was founded in the year 793. This was probably a stone weapon dating from pre-hifttoric times, when the people were troglodj'tes, as thej' partly still are. In the midst of the surrounding gardens numerous caves are found, in which the natives take refuge like wild beasts in their dens. According to local tradition and the statements of mediaeval writers, Fez had at one time a population of four hundred thousand souls, dwelling in ninety thousand houses. Of its 785 mosques not more than 130 now remain, and some of these are abandoned. Two are regarded as specially sacred, almost as holy as the sanctuaries of Mecca and Medina. These are the mosques of Mulai Dris and Karawin, the latter possessing a famous library and a zawya frequented by numerous students from Marocco and Algeria, who here study theology, juris- prudence, and astronomy, in accordance with the principles handed down from the time of the Almovarides, or "marabuts." Since that epoch Fez has been in a state of decadence, notwithstanding the numerous immigrants expelled from Spain. These " Andalusian Moors " were formerlj' powerful enough to constitute an independent faction which commanded naif the city. As a trading place Fez has always held a foremost position, its commercial relations being chiefly vrith. Tangier, Marrakcsh, E,bat, and Tlemcen. The local industries, grouped in several guilds, jealous preservers of their traditions and privileges, display a certain originality in weaving and embroider}^, in leather- dressing, and the manufacture of earthenware, of enamelled vases, and damascened arms. Its sumptuous garments — yellow for the ISIussulmans, black for the Jews, red for the women — find a ready sale throughout the empire. To its other industries has recently been added that of brandy, distilled from dates, figs, and other fruits. The surrounding district, which contains rich deposits of salt, besides iron ores and sulphur springs, is doubly holy, thanks to the efiicacy of its heaKng waters and the shrines of "saints" cro-miing the neighbouring heights. South of Fez the affluents of the Upper Sebu water the gardens of several small towns and hamlets, amongst which is the delightful town of Sefru, on the frontier of the territory of the Ait-Yussi Berber tribe. While Fez betrays every sign of decadence, Sefru, lyiug in one of the richest districts of Mauritania, presents the aspect of the greatest prosperity. Its wooded hills yield excellent timber, and its fertile plains supply vast quantities of olives, lemons, cherries, grapes for the local consmuption and for export. Excellent wines are here produced at a very low price. MeQUINEZ VOLUBILIS. Mehies or Mikiiasa, the Mequinez of the Spaniards, has often been called the " Versailles of Marocco." Lying 36 miles west of Fez, it is still comprised within the Sebu basin, its district being watered by affluents of the Wed Rdem, which join the main stream in its lower course. It covers a considerable space enclosed 882 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. by well-preserved ramparts, and like other towns of the empire contains a fortified kasbah, and a mellah, or Jewish quarter, surrounded by separate walls. These fortifications were built by Christian captives, who when worn out by fatigue were despatched and built into the masonry. The broad streets of Mequinez are Fig. 174.— IIecnes a^tj Volubilis. Scale 1 : 200,000. 30- West oT. Green w.ch 4^ e4-' 3 Miles. interspersed with gardens, " the finest in the world," which supply Fez with fruits and vegetables. The grand gateway of the imperial castle, with its marble pillars, horse-shoe arches, enamelled tiles, and ornamental inscriptions, is a noble specimen of Moorish architecture, although now much dilapidated. The mosque of Mulai WEZZAN. 383 Ismail, the "Saint-Denis" of Jlarocco, is also iu a half- ruined state. Within the park, over a mile in circumference, are comprised palaces and graceful kiosks, a stud of over a thousand high-bred mules, besides a labyrinth of underground galleries till recentlj' used as granaries. The Emperor was compelled to throw open these stores during the terrible famine of 1878, when the greater part of the corn was found to be mouldy. According to popular rumour, the palace of Meknes also contains the imperial treasure, guarded in secret crypts by three hundred Ne^ro slaves destined never to see the light of da3\ The Meknes district is the agricultural centre of the empire, and on the state of its crops depends the whole annual trade of the coimtry. Towards the north, between the Rdem and Sebu Valleys, rise the Zarliun hills, where is situated the town of like name, formerly one of the chief intellectual centres of Mauritania. The inhabitants of Zarhun, all of Arab stock, are extremely fanatical, and frequently entertain the emissaries of the Senusiya brotherhood. Here is the original home of the Aissawa, who yearly resort in large numbers to their zawya in Meknes, to which they are bound to make a solemn pilgrimage every seventh year. The kubba of Mulai-Edris, north of Meknes, is the most venerated spot in the empire. Hitherto no European traveller has ventured to enter the holj^ place, which occupies a savage gorge in the Zarhun hills near the zawj'a. During great feasts men and women, seized with fits of frenzy, hack themselves with knives and hatchets, while others fall with their teeth on any passing animal, such as dogs, sheep, or goats. Even human beings are said on such occasions to have been devoured alive. On a slight eminence over a mile north-west of Mulai-Edris stand the ruins of Easr Faraun, first visited and described by Windus in 1721. The name of Walili, borne by the neighbouring village, and the inscriptions found on the spot, identify this place with the Vohibilis of the Romans. Long used as a quarry by the builders of Meknes, Yolubilis has preserved of its past greatness two monuments only, a triumphal arch and the gates of a basilica. The marbles of this city are even said to have found their way across the Atlas to the distant oasis of Tafilelt. Tocolosidci, another Roman station, stood in the neighbourhood of Volubilis. Wezzan. Wczzan, the holy city on the northern slope of the Sebu basin, about midway between this river and Ksar-el-Kebir, was founded towards the close of the ninth century by Mulai Tayeb, a direct descendant of the Prophet. It is stiU exclusively peopled by Shorfa, who are held in great veneration throughout the Mussulman worid, but who in the city itself are the very humble servants of the great lord, the Sherif in a superlative sense, more holy than the Sultan himself. By origm a " saint," his vast wealth has made him almost a god, who, through the members of the Taibiya order, levies contribv.tions in money and kind in almost every village ui Marocco. In return he distributes these alms with a free hand, keeping open stores for all comers, and often entertaining hundreds and even thousands of 884 NOETn-W'EST AFRICA. i pilgrims, who come to kiss the hem of his garment. The Sultan is not fully recognised until he has received the homage of the saint of Wezzan, who is also a " refu<»e of sinners," and whose native place is a general sanctuary for culprits. The authorities themselves would not dare to seize a sujipUant at the tomb of Mulai Tavcb, even were he pursued by the personal wrath of the Emperor. The mosque attached to this shrine contains, amongst other treasures, a collection of nearly a thousand Arabic manuscripts. Recent events have somewhat impaired the religious influence of the Sherif, who is reproached for keeping a bodyguard of Fi". 175.— McxAi Tateb, Silf.eif of 'Wezzaii. "?^^'"' Spanish renegades, his friendship for Europeans, his marriage with a Christian lady, his palace in the Italian style, and his costume modelled on that of the detested Rumi. In 1876 his application for the favour of being made a French citizen was refused. Although the Sebu is the most populous and richest basin in the empire, the mouth of the river is occupied by no large seaport, the ancient Mamora being replaced by Mvhdiija, a mere village standing on a cHfE 500 feet above the right bank of the estuary. Leo Africanus was present when in 1515 the Mohammedan army surprised and put to the sword the six or seven thousand Portuguese SLA.-EBAT. 885 at that time occupj'ing IMclidiya. A hundred years later the Spaniards were more fortunate, but ia 1681 they ^^'ere compelled in their turn to evacuate Ihe fortress. Since then no military works guard the mouth of the river, which is ahuost com- pletely choked with sands. Sla — Rbat. All the trade of the country has been diverted to the twin towns of Sla (Sa/a, Saleh) and Rhat {Rabat), situated at the mouth of the Bu-Regrag, some 18 miles to the south-west. Sla, which stands on the right bank, preserves some traces of Portuguese architecture, but is not an old place, although bearing the name of the Phoenician city of Sala, which stood on the opj)Osite bank, and which was replaced by the Roman colony of CJwlla. The inhabitants are mostly Andalusian Moors, who have kept alive the traditional hatred of their Christian persecutors. Till recently, no non-Mussulman traveller was permitted to pass the night in Sla, and even during the day Christians and Jews avoided the place. Hence the trade and industries of the district have gravitated to Rbat, on the left bank, which has almost become a European seaport. Above the other buildings rises a graceful minaret, whose form, height, and style of ornamentation recall the famous Giralda of Seville. According to Arab tradition, both of these towers, as well as the Kutubia of Marocco, were constructed at the same epoch by Christian slaves, under the direction of the same architect. The Rbat women, heirs of the old purjjle- dyers who had made the name of CheUa famous throughout the Roman world, still weave woollen carpets and rugs of dui-able texture, but the colours of which soon fade. Owing to its dangerous bar, exposed to the Atlantic surf, Rbat does little trade with Europe, regard being had to the importance of the twin to\^Tis and of the river basin, of which they are the natural outports. Vessels are often obliged to ride at anchor in the open roadstead, unable to land their goods or passengers, or else pass on to Casablanca. Rbat has often been besieged by the independent Berber tribes of the surrounding district, and to them must doubtless also be attributed the destruction of the aqueduct by which it was formerly supplied with water. The kasbah, which is strongly fortified, mounts over a himdred and sixty guns, directed both seawards and against these marauders. In it is preserved the "holy key" of the city of Cordova, which during the last war with Spain was publicly exposed for several days. Recently, the neighbouring Beni-Hassem (Beni-Hassan) tribe has been com- pelled to recognise the Sultan's authority, and to allow its territory to be divided into sixteen sections, whose respective chiefs are responsible for pubKc order. But farther east the Zenimur and Zaian Berbers are absolutely independent, allying themselves with the Sultan on a footing of equality. Jointly with a few tribes of less importance, they occui^y the whole space from the coast to the Atlas, and from Meknes southwards to the Um-er-Rbia basin. This region, which is at least 1(J,U00 square miles in extent, is closed to all subjects of the central Government unpro- vided with safe-conducts. The Zemmurs, occupying an extremely fertile district, are partly engaged in agriculture. But the Zaians, who arc the most powerful 380 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. uution ou the maritime s ;lope of the Atlas, are exclusively stock-breeders, possessing move numerous tribe in the empire and finer herds of cattle, camels, sheep, and goats than any other CASABLAJSrCA— DEMNATA. 387 Casablanca — Demnata. Between the mouths of the Sebu and Um-er-Ebia, the chief settlement is Dar- el-Beida, better known under its Spanish form, Casablanca, or the " White House." Kg. 177. — Rbat and Sla. Scale 1 : 65,000. Deptlib. Sands exposed at low water. Otol6 Feet 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. 2,200 Yai'ds- Founded in the sixteenth century by the Portuguese on the site of the mediaeval to^vn of Anfa, Casablanca owes Its prosperity mainly to its roadstead, which, though badly sheltered, is deep enough to receive vessels of large tonnage. Its chief exports are maize, wool, and haricot beans, besides slippers, forwarded in thousands 388 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. through Gibraltar to Alexandria. Notwithstanding its unhealthy cHmate, a small European colony, chiefly French, is settled at Casablanca, which, owing to the total absence of vegetation, presents an extremely dreary aspect. In the upper Um-er-Rbia basin, the chief centre of population is Bu-el-Jad a \-illa"e of about two thousand inhabitants, ruled over by a ski, or religious sovereign, whose power is recognised by all the surrounding tribes — such as the Tadlas on the south and east, the Ait-Seri on the west, and the Shawia on the north-west. The " saint " and his kindred, nearly all of mixed blood, live on the " voluntary contribu-tions " of the faithful. No traveller can visit the country except under the protection of Ben Daud, " Son of David," lord spiritual of Bu- cl-Jad. At the end of the eighth century the whole of this region, now a hotbed of Moslem fanaticism, is said by Edrisi to have been peoi^led by Christians and Jews, and rimiour speaks of the ruins of a church still bearing a Latin inscription. The Tadla territory, occupied by nine nomad tribes, with a collective force of about twenty thousand horse, possesses a sort of common capital in the kastah of Et-Tadla, which stands on the Um-er-Rbia, at the foot of one of the best-constructed fortresses in Marocco. The river, here nearly 135 feet wide, is spanned by a ten- arched bridge : " the largest in the world," say the natives. The produce of the neighbouring salt-mines is exported far and wide. The fortress of Beni-Mellal, or Bel KusJi, IjTug in the Beni-Mellal territorj^ to the south-east, leads to the more important town of Bemnafa, which is situated in a fertile and highlj^ productive district on one of the southern aiHuents of the Um- er-Rbia. Formerly a flourishing trading place, Demnata has suffered much from its fatal proximity to llurrakesh, from which it is distant not more than 60 miles. The exorbitant dues levied by the Imperial Grovernment on all merchandise entering the town have compelled caravans to seek other markets. A third of the inhabitants are Jews, who live intermingled with the Mohammedans, but who were recently subjected to much oppressive treatment, calling for the intervention of European diplomacy. AZEMMUR MaZAGAN. After collecting aU the waters descending from the Atlas, the Um-er-Rbia flows north-westwards, between the territory of the Shawia Berbers on the north and the Dukkalas, mainly Arabs, on the south. The ancient town of Azemmur (Azamor), that is, " the Olives," which stands on the left bank of the estuary, is often described as a ruin, probably because seldom visited by Europeans. Nevertheless, its fisheries and industries are sufficiently productive to support an export trade at least with the inland districts. The dangerous bar at the river mouth prevents all access to shipping, which is obliged to cast anchor 4 miles to the south-west, at the port of Mazaijan, by the natives indifferently called El-JecUda, " the New," or El-Brija, " the Fort." Although smaller than Azemmur, Mazagan has more importance for Europeans, and especially the inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who draw their suj^i^lies of cereals, haricots, and other provisions through this out- port of the fertile Dukkala plains. On the cliff above Azemmur stand the still EL-GHAIB-SiFFI. 389 imposing ruins of the buildings erected here by the Portuguese, who held this place for over two centuries and a half, down to the year 1770. EL-GrH.\iB — SaFFI. South-east of Mazagan two breaks in the coastline, between this town and Cape Cantin, give access to the "SValidiya lagoon, the ancient port of El-Gliaih. According to Tissot, it would be easy to restore this harbour and make it the best on the coast. As in the time of Scylax, Cape Cantin, the Solis Mons of the ancients, is one of the Fig. 178. — iliZAOix A>-D AzEinnjE. Scale 1 : 380,000. 3f 6=23- We=* »f G'-eenvs.c'i Depths. 0to32 Feet. 32 to 64 Feet. 64 Feet and upwards. . 6 Miles. most venerated spots va the whole of Africa. Here are several zawj-as and a whole population of theologians. Saffi, the Asfi of the natives, lying south of Cape Cantin, although the nearest port to ilarrakesh, is less frequented than ilogador, the surf being more dangerous at this point than elsewhere along the coast. Thanks to its Portuguese fortifica- tions and citadel, with its pinnacles rising above the houses grouped on the slopes of an eminence, Saffi is the most picturesque place on the Atlantic seaboard. Its gardens are marvellously fertile, and the "House of the Seven Brethren," outside the town, is a holy place venerated by iloslem and Jew alike, and frequented by multitudes of invalids of all religions. Another place of j^lgriraage is Lalk j,9o NOETH-WEST AFRICA. Gobiistti, "Our Lady of the Olive," a gigantic tree with enormous branches, unrivalled in the whole of Western Mauritania. Marocco. Morocco or rather Marrahsh, the Tcmrakcsh of the Berbers, second capital of the empire, is the only city in the valley of the Tensift, -which reaches the coast between Saffi and Mogador. Seen from without, it presents a superb aspect, remindino- pilgrims of the Syrian Damascus. Approaching it from the north or north-east by the banks of the Tensift, which flows within a few miles of the city, the traveller passes through a vast plantation of several hundred thousand palms, inter- spersed here and there with the olive find other fruit-trees. Seen from the Mogador direction, whore the route traverses a bare and stony plain, a still more imposing effect is produced by its massive walls flanked with towers, the lofty minaret of its great mosque, and the long indented line of the Atlas, hazy below, blue and streaked with snow towards the summit, bounding the eastern horizon. Standing at an elevation of 1,660 feet some 30 miles from the spurs of the Atlas, Marrakesh is abundantly supplied with water, every house possessing a separate well, every garden irrigated with a purling stream. Its equable climate also, tempered by the neighbouring mountains, is one of the most delightful in the world, reflected, so to say, in the vegetation, where plants of the temperate are intermingled with those of the tropical regions. Marrakesh-el-Hamra, or " the Red," was founded in the second half of the eleventh century, some 24 miles north of the ancient city of Aghmat {Armat), whose inhabitants migrated to the new settlement. The capital grew rapidly, and in the foUowiug century it was already one of the " queens " of Mauritania. Although now dethroned and outstripped in population, trade, and industries by its northern rival, Fez, it is still regarded as an imperial capital, visited yearly by the Sultan. The approach of his Majesty is grimly heralded by the despatch of a number of human heads, destined to decorate the front of the palace, as a warning to unruly spirits meditating revolt. About the year 1860 the Rahmennas, one of the powerful Berber tribes in the outskirts, ha^ving broken into open rebellion, had to be forcibly dislodged before an entrance could be effected. The Berber element is numerously represented even within the walls, and on market days Tamazight is more generally spoken in the bazaars than Arabic. The Negroes are also numerous, relatively far more so than in the northern capital. As in most other towTis of Marocco, the Jews, though now protected by the Israelitish Alliance, are still confined to a mellah, or separate quarter, enclosed by ramparts, which they cannot cross except barefooted and with downcast ej-es. Notwithstanding its imposing external aspect, Marrakesh presents inside the appearance of a decayed city. The ramparts, about 7 miles in circuit, not including the walls of the imperial park south of tie city, are interrupted by wide breaches ; the thoroughfares leading to the seven gates are in many places lined more with ruins than with houses ; more than half of the area comprised within the enclosiu'es MAROcco. sni is occupied with waste spaces and gardens often lying fallow. The streets, sufficiently wide near the gates, merge towards the centre in a labyrinth of narrow lanes encumbered with filth. Most of the houses have a mean appearance, and of 892 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. the monuments, mostly in ruins, one alone can be called fine. This is the mosque of Kutubia, or rather of the Kutsubia, that is, of " the Calligraphers," so named from the writers whose booths adjoin the sacred edifice. The loftj^ tower dominating the mosque, apjiarently raised by the architect of the Sevillian Giralda and of the Hassan tower at Kbat, is the finest and highest of the three. Two of the city gates. Fig. 180. — Maerakesh. Scale 1 : 350,000. Mussulman Cemetery West af; GreenA?ch . 1,100 Yards. one leading to the palace, the other to a mosque, are said to have been transported block by block from Spain. The local industries have greatly fallen off. "WTioIe streets, formerly inhabited by carriers, are now deserted, and the famous " Marocco " wares formerly prepared by the Moors exiled from Cordova are no longer produced in Marrakesh. The best leatherwork is now made in Fez, although the southern capital stiU does a large trade in skins witli the southern districts of the Atlas. The Marrakesh MOGADOE. 393 carpets are carefully woven, yet less esteemed than those of Rbat. At present the chief occupation of the inhabitants is gardening. One of the orchards comprised within the enclosures of the imperial grounds is said to yield a yearly crop of fruits valued at £''20,000. The zone of gardens stretches for miles in the direction of the hills, and the hamlets occupied by horticulturists are grouped in large numbers round the ramparts. One of these towards the north-west is exclusively inhabited by a community of lepers, who enjoy self-government, forming a little common- wealth, with its bazaar, prison, Je\^-ish quarter, and mosque dedicated to a patron saint. Towards the south are still visible a few vestiges of the ancient Aghmat, which was formerly capital of the Lamtunas, better known by the name of Mrabotio, that is, the Almoravidcs, or "marabuts." An upland valley to the east of Marrakesh is held by the powerful confederation of the Tiffas, of Zenaga stock. MoGADOE. At present the chief port of ^larrakesh is Siceira, "the Beautiful," better known to Europeans by the name of Mogador, from a shrine erected to a " Saint " Mogdal or Mogdul, over a mile to the south of the town. At this point a harbour formerly existed, as shown by a Spanish map dated 1G08. But the present town, which ranks as a seaport next in importance to Tangier and Casablanca, was built a little over a century ago, between the years 1760 and 1773, mainly by French prisoners captured at the time of the disastrous expedition of Larash in 1765. Laid out on a regular plan, Mogador presents a somewhat monotonous aspect, with its uniform blocks of houses, perfect cubes in form, and painted a dull grey colour. It stands at the extremity of a sandy spit stretching southwards, and separated by a channel from a fortified island, which defends the shallow and exposed roadstead. The guns spiked at the time of the French bombardment in 1844 have not yet been replaced, and the projectiles laimched by the French fleet stiU lie strewn at the foot of the ramparts. The commercial imiDortance of ^Mogador is due to the fact that it is the outport not only of Marrakesh, but of all the southern Atlas districts, its chief exports to Europe being such local produce as cereals, oils, fruits, hides, gums, wools, and alfa grass. Like that of Saffi, the coastline has here been modified either bj' erosion or by a subsidence of the soil. In the middle of the present century cattle could ea-sih' pass at low water from the Mogador peninsida to the neighbouring island, from which it is now separated by a navigable channel. The chief Arab, or at least Arabised, tribes in the Mogador district belong to the powerful Shiadma confederation, which, while refusing to pay tribute, allows free passage to caravans, and recognises the suzcraintj- of the Sultan. Its villages and convents are scattered over a large tract south of the Wed Tensift between the Jebel-el-Hadid and the advanced spurs of the Atlas. South of ^Mogador, in the direc<;ion of the headland terminating the main Atlas range, no more towns or even scattered hamlets are now to be seen. Here all the natives live in groups of four or five families in strong stone fortalices, generally of VOL. XI. D D 394 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. square form, flauked at two angles viitb. higli towers, and enclosed by a ditch. The ground floor is occupied by the cattle, whUe the upper story, approached by a ladder which may be removed in time of danger, is disposed in as many chambers as there arc families in the stronghold. Such are the means devised for their mutual protection by the local Ilaha Berbers, who are settled agriculturists exposed to the raids of the nomad Saharian Arabs. They, however, in their turn occa- sionally fall on passing caravans, so that traders never venture to enter their territorv miarmcd or in small bodies. The various idan, or clans, constituting Fig. 181. — MoGADOE AjfD Neiohbouehood. Scale 1 : 160,000. West or ureenwlch Depths. 0to32 Feet. 32 to 80 Feet. 80 to 160 Feet. IPO Feet .and upwards. 3 Miles. the Haha confederacy, have been estimated by Alvarez Perez at two hundred and eighty thousand souls. The well-watered and highly productive Sus valley abounds in large villages surrounded by palm, olive, and orange groves. The district is entirely occupied by an industrious peasantry free from the razzias of marauding nomads. Former!)' the well-defined basin of the Sus constituted an autonomous state, whose inhabitants were noted in racdiiieval times for their industrj', learning, and enterprising spirit. At present they are kno^vn in the Mussulman world chieflv as strolling dancers, jugglers, and snake-charmers, who emigrate in large numbers to every part of Mauritania, and even at times find their way to Europe. They constitute a sort of guild, placed under the patronage of a " Saint " Mohammed-beu-Musa, whose name is always invoked before beginning their performances. From the Sus country. TAEITDANT— AGADIR-SAKIET-EL-HAMEA. 805 according to certain local Mussulman prophecies, is one day to go forth the JIahdi, who is destined to renew the face of the earth, and who " shall fill the world with as much righteousness as it is now filled with wickedness." Taeudaxt. OSicially the Wed Sus belongs to the empire, and the Sultan's envoys are here received ^\-ith honour. Nevertheless most of the tribes are still independent, and the only effect of the suzerain's intervention, who divides in order one day to rule, is to increase their internal feuds and foment a perpetual state of intestine warfare. The natives are for the most part Berbers of somewhat mixed origin, although the Awaras, one of the largest confederations, caR themselves Arabs. They comprise seven tribes occupying the southern slope of the Atlas in the immediate vicinity of the Bibawan pass. Like the Hahas of the opposite declivity, they dwell in strong- holds erected on isolated bluffs and headlands, whence a view is commanded of the approaching enemy, or of peaceful caravans inviting attack. The Shtuga con- federation, which holds the whole region between the Atlantic and Tarudant, consists exclusively of Berber tribes. Tarudant, capital of the Sus basin, lies a Little to the north of the river, in a vast plain which rises gradually towards the hills occujjied by the Awaras, and towards the southern escarjjments of the Atlas. According to Rohlfs, Tarudant covers a larger area than Fez ; but far more gardens and olive groves than groups of habitations are comprised within its irregular enclosures flanked by earthen towers at intervals of 200 or 300 feet. Towards the centre, however, vegetation gives place to a real town, with narrow winding streets commanded on the north-east by a strongly built citadel. Its chief industries are leather-dressing, weaving, dyeing, and especially copperware for the markets of Kuka, Kano, and Timbuktu in the Sudan. This industry was originaUj' created by the copper mines of the neigh- bouring Atlas hills to the north ; but at present nearly aU the crude metal is imported from England. The sugar plantations, which in the time of Leo Africanus constituted the chief wealth of Tarudant, have long ceased to exist. Agadir — Sakiet-el-Hamra. The natural outport of the Sus basin is Agadir, standing a little to the north of the estuary which forms the best harbour on the ilarocco seaboard. The inlet is sheltered from the east and north winds on the north-west by Cape Gher (Jebel A'it-TTakal), the extreme headland of the Atlas range. At the head of the bay another cape, formed by a projecting lateral ridge, encloses the harbour proper, completely protecting it from the open surf. A group of huts at the foot of this ridge is supplied with water by a copious spring, and the port is commanded by an agadir, or "rampart," whence .ci.gadir-ne-Irir, or "Cape Rampart," the full designation of this seaport. Held by the Portuguese since the beginning of the sixteenth century, and by D D 2 39G NOETH-WEST AFEICA. them rc-named Santa-Cruz, Agadir rose to considerable commercial prosperity. Even under native rule it continued for a time to flourish as the outport of the produce brought by caravans from the Niger regions. But its distance from the centre of the empire tempting its inhabitants to strike for their independence, Agadir was destroyed by Sultan Mohammed and replaced by Mogador, lying farther north. As a military outpost, Agadir marked till recently the real limit of the imperial administration on the Atlantic seaboard. But the foundation of a Spanish settlement in the neighbom-hood has induced the Sultan to consolidate his power on this southern frontier by building the new town of Tiznit on a cKff some 12 miles farther inland. The village of Aglu (Agula), 18 miles south from the Fig. 182.— Taeudast. Scale 1 : 57.000, 50° XT L JL J} s A I. rji. rji West of Gr^eenwich 9° 8°58- 3,300 Yards. mouth of the Wed-el-Ghas, is destined to become the outport of Tiznit. In the twelfth century the power of the Almohades reached still farther south, and Abd- el-Mumen is said to have had the distance carefully measured between the two extremities of his empire, from Barka to the "Wed JYun. At present the imperial authority ceases altogether a little south of the Sus, although indicated on the maps as extending to Saldct-cl-IIfonm, south of Cape Jubi. An uninhabited tract even forms a sort of borderland to the south of the territory recognising the Sultan's jurisdiction. This is the upper valley of the Wcd-el-Ghiis (Raz, Wclghas), one of the best watered and most fertile in the whole of Mauritania, but condemned to desolation by frontier warfare and diplomacy. The petty states south of the Ghas are all peopled by Berbers and Kcgrocs, who serve as intermediaries of commercial intercourse between Marocco ILEGH— OGULMIN. 397 and Sudan. Most of them call themselves Guezzula, or Jeliila, a term analogous to the Gueshtida of Kabylia, and possibly identical with the Nmnidian Getulaj of ancient writers. Of all these petty maritime states the most important, although not the largest, is that commonly known as "the kingdom of Sidi Hesham," from a recently reigning sheikh, in whose family the supreme power is still centred. In virtue of its genealogical relations it even claims a right to the imperial crown. The proper name of the district is Tazzerult, which is also that of a stream flowing from the slopes of the Little Atlas. The natives cultivate barley and wheat, and also work some local mines ; but their chief pursuit is the breeding of camels, partly exported, partly employed by them in the caravan trade across the Sahara. Every three years a large mugar, or fair, is held near the zawya of Sidi-Hamed-ben-Musa, ancestor of the reigning prince, and on these occasions as many as four or five thousand camels are collected on the spot. The present sheikh has removed the former interdict excluding the Jews from this market, and in order to attract trade to his territory he even holds himself personally responsible for the public security, indemnifjing traders plundered on the route through the unsettled districts of the Awaras and other marauders. Ilegh — Ogulmin. Ilegh. capital of Tazzerult, standing, according to Lenz, at an elevation of 1,5'30 feet, is largely inhabited by Sudanese Negroes. The army of the sheikh, who is himself a black, is composed entirely of slaves from every part of Sudan, including even some Fulahs. As in Nigritia, blue garments are the prevailing colour, and, like the Tuaregs, the men go partly veiled, while the women walk abroad uncovered. Towards the source of the Wed Tazzerult an isolated volcanic cone is crowned by the impregnable stronghold of Agadir, marking the southern limit of " the king- dom of Sidi Hesham," here conterminous with the territory of the Mejad Berbers The waters descending from the southern slope of the Anti- Atlas flow to the "Wed Xim, whose basin is divided into several petty states, the chief of which near the coast usually takes the name of the river itself. The natives have for centuries been dreaded \>j the fishermen fi'oni the Canaries and other mariners, all vessels running aground on these inhospitable shores being regarded as legitimate prize, and the crews mostly enslaved. 0(julmin, capital of the state, and usually known as Wcd-Nun, stands at an elevation of probably over 3,000 feet, too high for dates to ripen. Beyond the oasis encircling the town nothing is visible except an amphitheatre of bare arid hills, said by the natives to abound in silver and copper ores. Ogulmin is one of the chief trading stations between Mogador and Timbuktu ; but it is above all a great depot for slaves from Sudan. To Mogador, besides slaves, it sends ostrich feathers, a little gold dust, horses and mules of good stock, and sheep. It belongs to the Ait Hassan tribe, with whom the local Jews are said to live on a footing 398 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. of perfect equality. They are probably Berbers converted to Judaism before the arrival of the Arabs; hence, having had no hand in the death of the "Lord Jesus," they are exempt from the load of reprobation weighing on the other Israelites. Tizzi — Santa Cuvz — Ifxi. Some 24 miles farther east lies the town of Tizzi or Fiun-el-Hossan, which belono's to the Maribda Arab commimity. It stands, according to Lenz, at an alti- tude of 1,600 feet, in an admirable position at the mouth of a rocky gorge commanded by pyramidal moimtains. An oasis of palms follows the course of a stream, whose waters sometimes reach the Wed Nun. On a hill to the north are some ruins attri- buted bv the natives, apparently with good reason, to the Romans. In the district occur other remains, such as continuous ramparts like the waU of China, high towers with scidptured pinnacles, tombs and inscribed rocks Hke those found in laro-e numbers throughout Mauritania from TripoHtana to Marocco. These carvings comprise inscriptions in the Tefinegh (Berber) character, besides figures of animals, including the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, and giraffe. The human figure nowhere occurs, although arms, garments, and other works of man are represented on these mysterious petroglyphs. In the region comprised between the "Weds Ilegh and Nvm, Spain apparently intends to establish the centre of administration for the new territory acquired by the treaty concluded with Marocco in 1860. In virtue of a special clause, the Spanish Government reserves the right to re-occupy the port of Santa Cruz de Mar PeqiicTia {Mar Menor or Mar Chica), which it held for twenty years, from 1507 to 1527. But the very site of this former conquest can no longer be determined with certainty, and it is doubtful whether any vestiges remain of the Agadir or Gwader razed to the ground by the natives. Nevertheless, fearing to be involved in fresh complications through the incursions of hostile tribes, the Sultan's Government reluctantly ceded a strip of land in a territory over which it exercised no jurisdic- tion, offering instead either a large indemnity, or the Bay of Agnas, on the Mediter- ranean coast, over against the Zaffariue Islands, or even an extension of the Ceuta district. But Spain was obdm-ate, and a special expedition commissioned to discover the lost port of Santa Cruz has reported in favour of the Ifni inlet, 18 miles north- east of the Wed Nun estuary, near which were found some ruins of Spanish or Portuguese construction. The harbour of Ifni, the choice of which was ratified by the Sultan in 1883, has the great advantage of proximity to the Ogulmiu market, and of easy access to the rich plains of the Wed-el-Ghas and Wed Sus ; and if selected with a view to further conquest, it has also the advantage above all other places in dispute of lying most to the north, that is, nearest to the Marocco frontier. Ifni, however, answers in no respect to the description of Santa Cruz de Mar Pcquena contained in the documents of the sixteenth century. GaUano thinks he has found the true position of the old Spanish port at Boca Grande, on the mouth of the "Wed Shibika and about midway between Puerto Cansado and the Wed Draa estuary. THE DRAA BASIN. 899 The Dra.v Basix. This estuary exactly faces the island of Lanzavote in the Canary Archipelago, while the "STed itself has its source at least 330 miles east of Man-akesh in the Atlas highlands. The inhabitants of its basin, estimated by Eohlfs at two hundred Fig. 1S3. — Ifxi axd Neighboueixq Coast. Scale 1 : 1.000,000.. \^^ .- ..■ Roman Bridge '. mfl-a.:-':. fe^^'-^-3^- lO'po West of G'-een.vct^ Depths to 160 Feet 160 to 320 Feet. 320 to 3,200 Feet. 3,200 Feet and upwai-ds. , IS Miles. and fifty thousands souls, are almost exclusively of Berber stock and speech, and here is found the Beraber or Braber tribe which has preserved the very name of the race. A few hamlets, however, are exclusively inhabited by Shorfa Arabs, 400 NORTH-WEST AFEICA. members of the Trophet's famih', while some of the Beni-Mohammed (Beni-Mahmid) nation are scattered over the district. The Negroes also form small colonies in every oasis, and their blood is mixed with that of the other inhabitants. The Jews are represented in all the villages as artisans, although Jewish traders are comparatively less numerous on the southern than on the opposite slope of the Atlas. All the oases in the Draa basin arc independent, or at most 5'ieid a nominal submission to the authority of the Sultan. In many respects the natives of this reo-ion appear to be more civilised than those of the western provinces. Their dwellino's especially are more elegant, adorned with terraces and turrets, provided with balustrades and decorated with mouldings. All the Upper Draa Valley, from the Tagherut pass to and beyond the confluence of the Dades river, is occuinod by the Glawa people. Their chief place is Tikirf, on the northern verge of an arid stony plain stretching southwards in the direction of the Anti-Atlas. Before entering the gorge piercing this range, the Draa is joined by the Dados, whose banks are cultivated and lined -n-ith houses wherever sufficient space is afforded between the torrent and its rocky walls. Here every hamlet is guarded by a square tower 30 or 40 feet high, from which the inhabitants keep up a constant fire whenever war breaks out between two conterminous clans. These feuds are generally due to disputes about the irrigation canals ; otherwise the people are peaceful enough, the various villages appointing their delegates to a common jemaa or assembly, which takes measures against the hostile Ait-Attas. The natives of Dades claim to have long possessed a special remedy against ophthal- mia, and their eve-doctors yearly visit every part of Mauritania in the exercise of their art. Beyond the Anti- Atlas gorges both banks of the Draa are lined by an almost continuous village, to the point where the river enters the desert and trends to the south-west. The population, chiefly Haratins, or black Berbers, have converted the whole region for 120 miles, from the Mezquita to the Ktawa district, into a vast garden. Their palms yield the best dates in Western Mauritania, and in such quantities that at the time of Rohlf 's visit a load of 375 lbs. was sold for two francs. Besides dates, the country j-ields some cereals, cabbages, onions, turnij)s, carrots, tomatos, melons, and in the south liquorice-root. In the Wed Draa the chief town is Tamngrat, on the right bank of the stream over against the extremity of the Bani range. It is regarded as a sort of capital, thanks to its important market, and to the religious influence of its zawya, dedicated to Sidi Hamed-ben-Nasser. But a more populous place is Beni-Sbih, chief town of the rich Ktawa district and of the Beni-Moharamed nation. The village of ZK%i;;ffi L... '^?>>^3_=iM(' . \i'J, jv^i THE GUIE BASIX. 405 west of this verdant depression, which was formerly a lacustrine basin, the Guir is separated from the Zis basin by one of the dreariest and most dreaded regions in the desert. Although sometimes called the Hamada-el-Kebir, or " Great Hamada," it cannot compare in extent with many other plateaux of the Sahara, being scarcely 60 miles broad ; but it is extremely difficult to traverse, owing to the small sharp stones strewn over the surface. Its mean altitude is about 2,600 feet, rising very Fig-. 1S5. — ^El-Bahaeiai of the Wed Gitie. Scale 1 : 120,000. est oT 2° 40 . 1,400 Yards. gradually from the banks of the TVed Guir westwards, and falling suddenly towards the Tafiielt oases. On the verge of the desert between Tafilelt and the Algerian frontier stand the two religious cities of Es-Sa/te/i, on the upper Guir, and Konatsa, near the source of the Wed Kenatsa. The former is governed by a " chief of chiefs " of the Xassiria order, who has a right to a share in all the offerings made to the members of the other confraternities. Kenatsa also has a zawya of the Sidi Bu- 406 NORTH-WEST AEEIOA, Zian order, dating from the eleventh century, much revered by the surrounding nomads. On the route to the Boanam oasis west of Kenatsa, the Beni-Sitho Kab\-los work some lead and antimony mines in a neighbouring hill. The FiGuiG Oasis. In the upper Wed Guir basin the most populous oasis is that of Figuig, about 30 miles froin the conventional line accepted as the frontier between Algeria and Fig. 186.— Figuig Oasis. Scale 1 : lOO.OOn. CampoFArdja "^=C x,.,„;,;r.?,'.';%. ^"''^^'''^''■Z^J'-''!til:JZS:^,-^:s!'"-^^^^ s:=i=^.A 9 a 1 v< I (t Loiver El Kammam// ^ UowerEI Aht6 tr ,r^ o ^^ •% ''Jl L L J breenwick o 58 7° a'. . 4,400 Tarda. ilarocco.^ The fifteen thousand inhabitants of Figuig, nearly all members of the Amur tribe, bear a great reputation for prowess throughout tk Sihara, due to the belief that in the conflicts with the French they must have remained victorious, seeing that the oasis has not yet been seized by France. S0CIAL CONDITION OF MAEOCCO. 407 ' Figuig, which stands at a mean elevation of over 2,400 feet, is encircled by hills rising irregularly on the plateau from GOO to 1,300 feet above the palm groves on the plain. A river, or rather a watercourse, with a few pools here and there, winds north of the oasis, sweeping round west and south to its junction with the Zusfana, one of the main branches of the Guir. At Figuig it is known as the TTed- el-Halluf, but this name changes from gorge to gorge, and from confluence to confluence. Figuig, which still produces excellent dates, stands on the natural Kmit between the region of the plateaux and the Sahara, where alfa grass begins to be replaced by drin, the characteristic plant of the desert. The largest village within the common enclosure of the oases Kes at the south-west angle, and bears the name of Zcnaga, recalKng the ancient confederation of the Zenagas or Sanhejas, whose members are scattered over Xorth Africa from Tunis to Senegal. So precious is water in this oasis that a Jcharruba, that is, the right to a third of a spring twice a month for an hour each time, costs £24 in Zenaga. The natives are distinguished by theu- handsome features and dignified bearing. Amongst them, as amongst so many other Berber communities, light hair and blue ej-es are by no means rare. Beyond the enclosure they hold two other villages, Taria and Beni-Unif, lying to the south, while numerous groups of tents are scattered over the slopes of the hills. All the jalis, or outer oases, belong to the Zenagas, who, being imable to cultivate all their plantations, allow them to remain unproductive every third year. The whole group of oases, containing about two himdred thousand palms, constitutes a little commonwealth, whose affairs are administered by a general assembly of all the villages, which usually meets four times a year. Every village has its mosque and school, frequented by students from far and wide. Lying close to the Algerian frontier, and ser^ing as a refuge for rebels and deserters, Figuig has naturally a political importance out of all pro- portion with its size and population. The natives emigrate in large numbers. They are said to be excellent builders and skilful miners, and their women occupy themselves with dyeing, weaving, and embroidering cotton and woollen textiles. A few Jews reside in the oases, but they are forbidden, " imder pain of death," either to lend money or acquire land or houses. Figuig lies near one of the future highways of the Sahara. But here the vital point is Icjli, at the junction of the Gruir and Zusfana, whose united waters form the "Wed Saura. The oasis at the confluence forms an indispensable caravan station, where converge the main routes fi-om Algeria, Marocco, and Twat. Igli is inhabited by members of the Dui-Meni andUlad Sidi-Sheikh tribes. Between it and Figuig the largest palm groves of the Zusfana Valley contain about one hundi-ed thousand dates belonging to the rich Beni-Gumi tribe, vassals of the Dui-ilenias. Social Coxditiox of Marocco. It is impossible, says Hooker, to speak too highly of the natural resources of Marocco. It enjoys all the advantages of a mild climate, abundant water, fertile 408 XORTH-W'EST AFEICA. soil, varied products, and happy commercial position between two seas at tte angle of a continent. Although under the same latitude as Algeria, it far exceeds that region in its general physical prerogatives. With the exception of a few tropical species, Marocco might cultivate all plants useful to man, while its mountains are as rich as those of Spain in mineral deposits. Yet how little does this favoured land coimt in the general balance of nations ! But in few other countries are the inhabitants more enslaved by a Government with boundless arbitrary power. Fortunately most of the inland Berber tribes have been able to maintain their independence, while in the seaports the Sultan's officials are held in check by the European consuls. Thus is explained the fact that the Government, although at times aided by drought, locusts, and cholera, has hitherto failed to transform the country to a desert. Nevertheless it would be unfair to repeat with many writers that this " African China " is barred from all progress. The reports of travellers show that during the last half-century great changes have taken place. Europeans traverse without risk the whole of the settled parts ; they easily find teachers of Arabic, and the former fanatical hatred of strangers has in many districts given place to more friendly sentiments. If it is still daugei'ous to travel among the Berber tribes, this is due not to their jealousy of the foreigner, but to their mistrust of all ^"isitors, regarded by them as spies. Marocco is being gradually' brought -n-ithin the sphere of European influences. Every seaport has its little colon}- of traders, and in Fez there are no less than five hundred Spaniards, for the most part, however, renegades or deserters. Politically protected by the mutual rivalry of the Western Powers, Marocco is being gradually conquered by international trade. There is not a Berber village in the Atlas or the southern regions bordering on the Sahara in which the tea introduced by the English from China has not found a market. Agriculture — Industries — Trade. Agriculture, oldest of industries and the slowest to change, has been but little modified in its traditional methods. The exportation of wheat and barley being forbidden, the cultivation of these cereals so well suited especially to the province of Gharb, makes little progress, while the area under maize, pulse, and other grains whose export is permitted, continually increases. But no vegetable species has rccentlj' been acclimatised ; nor has any effort been made to introduce European animals, or improve the native breeds by crossings. The export of horned cattle is limited to a few thousands to each of the West European states, while that of sheep and horses is still rigorously interdicted. The native industries, specially protected by the Government, have been better jireserved than in any other Mohammedan country. The carpets, textiles, Marocco ware, arms, glazed faience, are still produced according to the traditional processes, and some of these products, such as the white haiks with silken warp and fine woollen weft, are extremely beautiful. But the heavy duty of 10 per cent, is not INDUSTEIES—TRADE. 409 sufficient to exclude foreign goods from tlie Miu'oeco markets. The lines of steamers plj'iug on the seaboard, the caravans obtaining their supplies in the interior, all tend to further the industrial revolution in progress throughout the cinjiire. Far more rapid must be the changes as soon as the countrj' is opened up by a regular S3'stcra of communications. At present the ambassadors jirocccdinf from Tangier to Fez usually take twelve to fourteen days to accomplish this short journey of 120 miles ; and although the projected railway from Fez to Lalla Maghnia has been arrested by diplomatic difficulties, the barrier of seclusion along the Algerian frontier must soon j'icld to outward pressure. The two nations that have developed the most extensive commercial relations Fig. 187. — ^A School m Fez. with Marocco are England and France, the former absorbing about half of the whole foreign trade of the country. But to the share of France should also be added the brisk contraband traffic that has sprung up between Tlemcen and the borderlands. In virtue of the ^Madrid Convention, signed in 1880, the right of all foreigners to hold property is fully recognised. But the jiurchase of land can only be made with the preliminaiy consent of the Government, a consent which is never granted. Except in the towns where foi-eigners are settled, the changes effected in the habits and ideas of the people are not sufficiently pronounced to reveal themselves in the local institutions. The schools of the interior still continue to teach little VOL. XI. E E 410 NOTiTH-'W'EST AFRICA. beyond the chanting of verses from the Koran, although the standard of public instruction is gradually rising, thanks to the increasing relations with strangers, temporary emigration, the pilgrimage to Mecca, and the example set by the Jewish schools established in some of the large towns since 186'J. In 1884 these were attended altogether by eleven hun- Fig. 188. — Feostiees of Axoeria ajtd MaeocCo. Scale 1 : 950,000 dred and fifty students, receiving their education in French, which has become the cultured language of Jewish and European society. No papers however are yet pub- lished anywhere, nor are works any longer composed in Arabic. Polygamy is as rare as in Algeria, except amongst the grandees, who are obliged by their position to keep a large harem. The Emperor has hundreds of wives, and every Friday a new bride is said to enter his household. The old forms of slavery still exist ; and although the traffic in white captives was formally abolished in 1777, the stream of Negro slaves still continues to flow from the Sudan across the Sahara to the very gates of the European con- sulates in Tangier. Their public sale is officially interdicted, but of late years the trade has more than doubled, and the mutilation of children is still practised by all the dignitaries of the empire. GoVERXMEXT AdMIXISTRATIOX. The sovereign, a member of the Tafilelt Shorfa family, whence the title of "his Sherif ilajesty," is absolute master, as far as permitted by the Koranic law. Even of this law he is the interpreter, being at once temporal ruler and spiritual guide of his subjects. His imperial will is thus the only law. He may condescend to take counsel and act through agents ; but he lias no ministers, in the strict sense of the word. Nevertheless he need but turn his gaze towards Tangier to IS Miles. GOA-ERXMEXT— ADMIXISTEATIOX. 4 1 1 understand how greatlj- his power is henceforth limited by the mere i^resence of the Pig. 189. — FEZ-GiTEWAT OF THE KaSBAH. foreiffn consids. Tbe Portug-uese order of " the Tower mid Sword "' ^-till rcniiiids E E 2 412 NOETH-ATEST AFEICA. the natlvps that (he conquest of Fez and its towers continues to be the goal of their nortberu neighbours. The empire is even already invaded by Spain, which possesses strono-holds on the seaboard and has secured a firm footing at the Mediterranean entrance of the Strait. On the Algerian side the frontier is well defined, at least along its northern section, nor does France hold any enclave within the JIarocco borders. But tliis conventional line, coinciding with no natural, strategic, or ethnical limits, has already been repeatedly violated by French detachments in pursiut of hostile tribes, such as the Amurs, Beni-Iznatens, or Sidi-Sheikhs. Eiio-land also has in her turn played the part of a protecting power, often subsidising the imperial Government, and in 1860 even preventing the victorious Spanish army from advancing against Tangier. The very treaties of commerce have been dictated, so to say, clause by clause, and the Cape Spartel lighthouse, at the threshold of the empire, has been built by the foreigner and is maintained by the European consuls. The Sultan is well aware that he has no longer the strength to withstand the win of Europe, and that the best security for the permanence of his rule Lies in the mutual rivalries of the Great Powers. The consular jurisdiction is at times extended to the Mohammedans themselves. Natives in litigation with a European must plead before the protecting consul, and abide by his decision. On the other hand, foreigners imder like circum- stances appeal to the cacH ; but if dissatisfied with his judgment, they may bring their suit before the emperor, that is, indirectly before their respective ambassadors. But the local administration of justice is a much more summary affair. The sentences, or rather judicial acts of vengeance, are incrediblj' barbarous and cruel. If the penalty of death is rarely inflicted, the victims only suffer all the more, being reserved for a slow physical agony. In the State prisons they are often confined with the neck passed through an iron collar obliging them to maintain a standing position day and night. Many of these prisons are foul dens where the}' are forgotten and left to perish of hunger. Thieves have sometimes their hands closed for ever, the nails penetrating the live flesh through slits made with a knife, and a fresh skin gradually spreading imtil the hand grows to a stump. More ordinary punishments are the bastinado and fines, always imposed by the cadi, from whom there is no appeal. The supreme judge of the empire is the Cadi of Fez, generally a member of the imperial family appointed by the Sultan. He selects the district cadis, who in their turn nominate those of the various tribes or communes, without reference to their superiors. Army. The army is recruited somewhat at haphazard. In principle, each tribe forming the makhzen or military section of the population is boimd to supply one man for every hearth. But in practice the kaids called on to furnish troops seize all within their reach, sending them in chains to the ranks, where they remain for life unless redeemed by a substitute. The forces tlius raised form a total of 25,000 men, of whom 7,000 are infantry ; but in time of war thcSxdtau could raise probably 40,000 infantry and an equal number of horse. The so-called Ij/ltfITlOlf lA^mMok Kamui Secau'^ (r-'" tee? ^ ^'^^,n D.; Zftla jbnaighi. Jflnrf 1 ^A^ -i.Ma ,, ...A, • R >^^...w,u.A I T BirSir*un o aTaUrrbo £rb«/uia v4 k 4- ^ iFflj^qimhM; Air or A sben. A«Ttd*«' ^ , ! Aruxiut /Desert- flatfaii- Afayen/ laaama,^ \ _Johdi/L Dame t% \l mt] V ■..A.,Skij., A^donia j^or* ^.t" rr««'* — s J 20° I TIBESTI— BOKKU. 425 ranges. All are eruptive cones, which have risen above the crevasses of the plateau while covering the original sedimentary rocks with lavas and ashes. Over the slopes is strewn a fine layer of grit, as pleasant to walk on as the sandy paths of a garden. Mount Tussideh, the culminating cone in this district, rising to an elevation of over 8,300 feet, shows on one of its slopes a secondary cone which formerly emitted Fig. 191. — Routes of the Chief Exploeers m the Eabtebn Sahaea.. Scale 1 : 20,000,000. Est oT Greenw'rch Depths. to 3,200 Feet. 3,500 Feet and upwards. 300 Miles. smoke. Near the southern talus, about 1,000 feet below the summit, lies the mouth of a crater, which according to Nachtigal has a circumference of " three or four hours," with a depth of over 160 feet. From the level surface of the ground at its mouth the fall is sudden at first, then diminishing gradually towards the bottom. Ridges of black lava converging from the circumference to the centre are separated fi'om each other by iutervening lines of saline efflorescence, resembling the streaks of snow in the crevasses of a mo"-ntain cirque. The centre of the crater is occupied by a smaU volcanic cone, which also terminates in a basin filled with a whitish substance called " natron " by the Tibbus. VOL. XT. F F 426 NOETH-"^TEST AFRICA. The volcano and the crater at its foot are not the only indications of former igneous action in the district, now almost quiescent since the disappearance of the ancient inland waters that washed the western foot of the hills. A thermal spring, famous throughout the eastern Sahara, flows in a ravine east of the main range, some thirty mUes to the south of Bardai, the chief oasis in Tibesti. This spring, known as the Yerikeh, or " Foimtain," in a pre-eminent sense, is said to be so hot, and to emit such continuous jets of steam, that it cannot be approached. The reports of explosions are also incessantly heard in the midst of the vapours. Nachtigal was not permitted to visit this hot spring, which was described by the Fig. 192. — NoETHEEN Tibesti. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. 21' ■itiiftoatt nrhitr*!^ m L t oT b'^eenwlch Q\ 20' . 60 Miles. natives as their " only wealth." They doubtless feared he might obtain by magic art the gold mines supposed to be concealed by the jins in the neighbouring rocks. The cavities in the immediate vicinity are filled with deposits of sulphur. Although the breadth of the Tibesti range cannot yet be determined, it seems certain that towards the central part it shows a development of over 60 miles transversely to its axis, from the plain of Borku to the Libyan desert. On the whole, the southern slopes are less abrupt than those on the opposite side. Here begins the broad plain which stretches away without perceptible incline in the direction of the Eufra oases. Towards the north-west the range is interrupted by wide depressions, separating from each other some groups of steep or even inacces- sible rocks. One of these, to the north-west of Tarso, is composed of sandstone blocks, which assume the most varied architectural forms — Roman amphitheatres, Bj'zantine churches, frowning fortresses. Interspersed among these more regular structures, which have a mean elevation of about 200 feet, are the fantastic outlines of men and animals. Farther on, along the same north-westerly prolongation of the Tibesti range, rise the mountains of Abo, 1,830 feet high, followed successively by those of Afafi, CLIMATE— FLORA— FAUNA. 427 whose highest peaks attain an altitude of 2,320 feet, and, lastly, those of Tuninio, standing at about the same elevation. The last-named, howe