^>t- AOcf p€ y^ 'A Js^ % Pks/' ffi '*^' .T^"* #.'#^'^ >:*■;■ ^^- THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBIiARY DIO V. /7 rlSiiwB^^f^. ^M^^''^ / i Li i INDIANS OF TECPAN, GUATEJL\LA. THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS THE UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY Bv ELISEE RECLUS EDITED By a. H. KEANE, B.A. MEMBER OF COUNCIL, AN'THROP. INSTIIUTE; COR. MEMB. ITALIAN AND WASHINGTON ANTHROP. SOC, ETC. VOL. XVII. MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS LONDON J. S. VIRTUE & CO., LmiTEU, 294, CITY ROAD 6 LONnON : rRINTFD MV J. S. VJRTt'K ANH CO., I.IMITFI). CIIY ROAD. CONTENTS. I. GEyEBAT, Slkvky Geological Changes, p. 2. Prehistoric Migrations, p. 3. Political Changes, p. 6. Aborigines and Xegroes, p. 8. p. 9. The Isthmian Begion, p. 12. Gradual Settlement, p. 4. Spaniards and Mestizoes, PAGS 1-13 II. Mexico 1 14—190 Central Contidcratioiit, p. 14. Progress of Discovery, p. 15. 2. Mexim Proper, Xorsh of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, p. 20. Mountains and Volcanoes, p. 20. Rivers and Lakes, p. 36. Climate, p. 4S. Flora, p. 53. Fanna, p. b6. Inhabitants, p. 59. Ijower California, p. 93. Sonora — Sinaloa, p. 95. Chihuahua — Durango, p. 100. North-Eastern States : Coahuila — Nuevo Leon — Tamaulipas, p. 102. Inland States: Zacatecas — Aguascalientes — San Luis Potosi, p. 106. Guanajuato— Jalisco and Tepic — Colima — Michoacan, p. 109. Queretaro — Hidalgo — Mexico— Federal District, p. il5. Vera Cruz, p. 129. Morelos — Guerrero— Oaxaca, p. 135. 3. Eatt Mexico, p. 142. Chiapas — Tabasco— Campeachy — Yucatan, p. 142. Physical Features, p. 143. Rivers, p. 146. Climate — Flora — Fauna, p. 153. Inhabitants, p. 154. Topography, p. 161. 4. EeoncFinie and Soeial Condition of Mexico, p. 170. 5. Government and Administration, 187. III. BETnsH Ho>"di:bas (Belize) 191- The Cockscomb Mountains, p. 193. Rivers, p. 194. The Seaboard, p. 195. Climate — Flora — Fauna, p. 197. Topography, p. 197. Adniinistrarion, p. 200. 200 IV. Cen-tbai, . Avfrt ca : GuAiEstALi, Ho>"BUBAS, Saivadob. XicAEAGri, CosTi Rica . 1. General Surrey, p. 201. 2. Guatemala, p. 206. Physical Features, p. 207. Rivers and Lakes, p. 213. Climate — Flora — Fauna, p. 217. Inhabitants, p. 218. Topography, p. 225. Material Condition of Guatemala, p. 238. 3. San Sahador, p. 244. Physical Features, p. 244. Rivers, p. 249. Climate— Flora — Fanna, p. 250. Inhabitants, p 250. Topography, p. 251. Economic Condition of Salvador, p. 254. 4. Honduras, p. 255. Physical Features, p. 256. Rivers— Islands — Inlets, p. 258. Climate — Flora— Fauna, p. 260. Inhabitants, p. 261. Topography, p. 263, Economic Condition of Honduras, p. 266. 2ul— 311 j^ CONTENTS. PAOB CHAP. 5. NicarayiM, p. 270. Physical Features, p. 271. Elvers and L.akes, p. 275. Climate —Flora— Fauna, p. 280. IiiLabitants, p. 281. Topography, p. 284. Economic Condition of Nicaragua, p. 289. The Nicaragua Canal, p. 290. Administration, p. 292. 6. Costa Rica, p. 293. Physical Features, p. 296. Rivers, p. 300. Climate— Flora- Fauna, p. 301. Inhabitants, p. 303. Topography, p. 30G. Economic Condition of Costa Rica, p. 308. V. Panama ■ 312—337 Physical Features, p. 312. Rivers— Bays — Islands, p. 314. Climate, p. 319. Flora —Fauna, p. 320. Inhabitants, p. 321. Topography, p. 323. The Panama Canal, p. 329. Administration, p. 337. VI. The Abierican Meditekeanean : Gulp of Mexico and Caeibbeant Sea . . . 338 — 353 Progress of Exploration— Soundings, p. 338. Catchment Basins, p. 341. Marine Currents, p. 343. Atmospheric Currents, p. 345. Temperature- Marine Flora and Fauna, p. 34S. Land Flora and Fauna, p. 349. Inhabitants, p. 350. VII. Ctjba 354—381 Physical Features, p. 355. Rivers, p. 359. Reefs and Cays, p. 300. Climate— Flora— Faima, p. 364. Inhabitants, p. 366. Topography, p. 370. Economic Con- dition of Cuba, p. 379. VIII. Jamaica 382—395 Physical Features, p. 383. Rivers— CUmate—Flora—Fauna, p. 384. Inhabitants, p. 385. Topography, p. 392. Administration, p. 394. IX. San Dominoo : Haiti and the Dominican Republic 396—422 1. General Survey, p. 396. Physical Features, p. 397. Rivers— Lakes — Reefs, p. 400. Climate — Flora— Fauna, p. 403. Inhabitants, p. 404. 2. RepulUc of Haiti, p. 410. 3. San Domiiiffo, p. 418. X. Pueeto Rico 423—429 Physical Features, p. 423. Inhabitants, p. 424. Topography, p. 425. Economic Condition, p. 428. XI. ViEoiN Islands and Santa Cruz 430 — 436 St. Thomas, p. 430. St. John, p. 433. Santa Cruz, p. 433. Tortola— Virgin Gorda — Anegada, p. 436. XII. The Bahamas 437—448 XIII. The Beemtoas 449—454 XIV. The Lessee Antilles 455 — 4S6 Sombrero— The Dogs— Anguila — St. Martin, p. 463. St. Bartholomew, p. 464. Barbuda, p. 465. Antigua, p. 465. Saba and St. Eustatius, p. 467. St. Christopher and Nevis, p. 468. Moutserrat, p. 470. Guadeloupe, p. 471. Dominica, p. 475. Martinique, p. 476. St. Lucia, p. 479. St. Vincent, p 480. Grenada and the Grenadines, p. 483. Barbados, p. 485. Appendix ............... 487 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS FIG. PAGE 94. Native Populations of Guatemala . . 224 95. The Altos Kegrion 226 96. Solola and Lake Atitlan .... 229 97. SnccessiTe Displacements of Guatemala 231 9S. Thickly-Inhabited Region of Guatemala . 233 99. Lake Peten 236 100. Density of the Population in Guatemala . 237 101. Chief Products of Guatemala . . .239 102. GcATESLsxis AjxiLDES, Altos Region . 241 103. Political Divisions of Guatemala . . 243 104. ArSOL AT AHTTiCHAPAir .... 245 10.5. Volcanoes of West Salvador . . . 246 106. Lake Ilopango 247 107. Volcanoes of East Salvador . . 248 105. San Salvador and its Environs .251 109. La Libkktad, Poet of San Salvadoe . 253 XIO. Density of the Population of Salvador . 254 111. Interoceanic Waterparting, Honduras . 256 112. Bay Islands 259 113. Puerto Cortes and Lake Alvarado . 264 1 14. Fouseca Bay 267 115. Comparative Debts of Various States . 268 116. Debt per Head of Population in Various Countries 269 117. Territory claimed at Various Times by Great Britain . ... 270 US. MosTBACHO Volcano .isd Shores of T.tin; XlCAEAGUA 273 119. Isthmus of Rivas 275 120. The Kiearagua Waterparting . . . 276 121. ilarrabios Range and Lake Managua . 278 122. Population of Honduras and Nicaragua . 282 123. Density of the Popidation of Honduras and Nicaragua 2S5 124. San Juan del Norte before the Construc- tion of the Pier 288 12-5. Projected Interoceanic Canals across Nica- ragua 290 126. Lower San Juan Canal . . . .291 127. Political Divisions of Nicaragua . . 292 128. Gulf of Columbus 294 129. On-e of the Thebe Ceatees or Poas . 295 130. SusDcrr of Mount Ieazu . . . 297 131. Plateau and Volcanoes of Costa Rica . 298 132 Gulf of Nicova 299 133. Gulf of DulJe 301 134. GrATTJSo Indian 304 135. YoirxQ T ir>M>v r»c; Indians . . . 305 136. Puerto Limon . ..... 308 137. Mill foe Huskino Coffee . . 309 138. Highways of Communication in Costa Rica 310 139. Administrative Divisions of Costa Rica . 311 140. Course of the River Chagrcs . . .314 141. Gulf of San Miguel. . . . . 315 142. GuU of San Bias 317 143. Caledonia Bay 318 144. Gulf of Panama 319 145. Isthmus of Chiriqui .... 322 146. Panama . 324 147. Paxama — View taken- feom Mount AxcoN 325 148. Colon 326 149. The "Mystery of the Strait ' at the Begi nnin g of the Sixteenth Century . 328 150. Docks and Course of the Panama Canal . 329 151. Sill of the Lock Canal . . . .330 152. Projected Artificial Lakes on the Panama Divide 332 153. Projected Cuttings across the Isthmus of Panama and Darien .... 333 154. Projected Canal between L'raba and San Miguel Bays 334 155. Cupica Bay 335 156. The Raspadura Divide . . . .336 157. Gulf of Mexico 339 158. Caribbean Sea 340 159. The Puerto Rico Abyss . . . .341 160. Slopes draining to the American Medi- terranean ...... 342 161. Main Currents of the American Medi- terranean ...... 344 162. Deep-Sea Temperatures in the Atlantic and West India Waters . . .346 163. Deposits on the Bed of the Atlantic and West India Waters . . . .347 164. Aneg ad I .-ind the Horseshoe Reef . . 348 165. Snake - Catchee and Chaecoal Giel, Maeti.mque 351 16G. Preponderance of the White and Black Races in the West Indies . . 352 167. La Coube (Cuba) and the Mer de LentiUe 355 16S. Western Division of Cuba . . 356 169. Eastern Division of Cuba . . 357 170. Cape S;in Antonio and Corrientes Bay . 361 171. Jardinillos 362 172. Isle of Pines 363 173. Plantation of Pineapples . . . 365 174. Political Divisions of Cuba before the Spauisb Conquest .... 368 175. ChobeebaTower ("Bvccaneers' Foef"), at the Mouth OP the Almendakes 371 176. C^ban Seaports West of Havana . 373 177. Matanzas 374 178. Trinidad and its Harbours 375 179. Central Isthmus of Cuba . .376 180. Santiago de Cuba 37b 181. Port of Guantanamo .... 379 182. Railways of Cuba 381 183. Hilly Region in West Jamaica . 383 184. View taken at the Newcastle Saxa- TOEmi, Jaslaica 389 185. District of Morant, Jamaica . . 391 186. Kingston and Port Royal . . . 392 187. Chief Towns of Jamaica . . .394 188. Chain of the Cayman Islands . . 395 189. Monte- Crisri Range and Vega Plain . 39S 190. View taeex feusi the Mole St. Nico- las Pextn-stla, Haiti .... 399 191. Ozama and Bmjuelas Basins . .401 192. Isthmus of the Lakes, San Domingo . 402 193. Chief Slave-Trade Routes . . .406 194. Scene of the War of Independence . . 408 195. Disputed Territory between Haiti and San Domingo 409 196. St. Nicolas PeniiLSula • . . .411 LIST or ILLUbTEATlONS. no. 197. Gulf of Port-au-Prince 198. South-West Peninsula of Haiti 199. Lcs Cayes Bay 20J. Geoup of Haiitass 201. .iVzua and Ocoa Bay 202. Santo Domingo 203. Samana Bay . 204. Puerto Rico . 205. San Juan Buutista, Puerto Rico 206. South-west Comer of Puerto Ric-. 207. St. Thomas I»Iand . 208. St. Thomas Harbour 209. Virgin Island .... 210. Santa Cruz .... 211. View tax ex in Santa Cbuz Island 212. Bemini Island and Banks 213. Tongue of the Oteau rACB Flu. 412 214 413 215 414 210 417 217 419 420 218 4>1 219 424 220 426 221 427 222 431 223. 432 224 433 225. 434 226. 435 438 227. 441 PAGE Nassau ....... 445 TVatling Lslund 446 The Bermudas . . . .451 View taken from Gibb's Hill, Bf.E- MLDAS ...... 453 St. Kitts 456 A JIaktixique Ckeole Woman . 461 St. Martin ...... 464 St. John's Harbour, Antigua . . . 466 St. Eustatiu.s ...... 467 St. Kitts— View taken fkom Netis . 469 Montserrat 471 Martinique ...... 477 Lines of Navigation and Submarine Cables in the West Indies .... 478 Geneeal View of Casteies, St. Ll-cia Island . .... 430 LIST OF TLLUSTPvATIONS. MAPS PRINTED' IN COLOURS. Mexico and Central America . Mexico and its Valley West Indies .... PAGE 16 118 344 Havana .... The Guadaloupe Aroliipelago 372 472 PLATES. Indians of Tecpan, Guatemala . Frontispiece Isthmus of Panama — View taken from the Cidebra .... To face page 12 Popocatepetl — View taken from the Thimecas Rancho ... .... 27 Indian Village — View taken at the Huexooulco . Pueblo, Province of Mexico . . .75 Panoramic View of Guanajuato . . .110 Street View in Morelia 115 City of Tida — General View . . . .117 General View of Mexico 120 The Chapidtepec Cypresses .... 123 Puebla — View taken from tlie South . .126 Vera Cruz and Fort of St. John d'Ulua . .133 Cenote of Valladolid, Yucat-.m . . . ISl Ruins of U.xmal — The Governor's Palace . 167 The Metlac Viaduct between Cordoba and Orizaba, on the Mexico-Vera Cruz ll:iilway 184 Belize — View taken from the Harbour . .108 View taken on Lake Atitlan . . . .214 Escuintla — General View .... 233 Indian Workwomen of the Hot Lands on the Pacific Slope 238 Ilopango Volcano . . . To face page 246 Honduras Scenery ...... 2G0 Tegucigalpa — View taken from La Concepcion 266 Ceiba 280 Leon — View taken in the Main Thorouglifare . 284 Port Limou and Uvas Island .... 307 Panama Scenery — the Rio Chagres at Matachiu 314 Indian Settlements, Islands of San Bias Bay . 316 The Panama Canal — View taken at San Pablo 330 General View of Havana taken from Casablanca 370 General View of Matanzas . . . .373 General View of Santiago, Cuba . . . 377 Turtle Island — View taken at the Moutli of the Tliree Rivers . . . . . .405 General View of Port-au-Prince . . .412 General View of San Juan Bautista, Puerto Rico 425 General View of Hopetown, Abaoo Island . 444 West Indian Scenery — View taken in the Saintes Islands ..... 473 View of Basse-Terre, Guadelupe . . 474 General View of Fortde-France, Martinique . 477 Kingston, St. Vincent Island .... 48i LIST OF ILLUSTfiATIONS. LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 1. the 10. 11. 12. 13. 11. Id. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2.'?. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 33. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. Central American Isthmuses and Inland Seas citlaltepetel — view taijen feom near Oeizaba ..... Political States of Central America Mexico before the Annexation to United States .... Predominant Races in Central America Canals and Routes across the Isthmuses First Mexican Itineraries, 1517 to 1550 Chief Positions scientifically determined in Mexico Regions studied by the Officers of the French Expedition Relief of Mexico Jonillo, according to Himiboldt Ori^iaba Peak .... Volcanoes of Mexico IgTieous Regions and Volcanoes of Mexico Convergence of the two Sierra Madres Various Altitudes of the Mexican Momi' tains and Towns .... Tamaulipas Coast Lagoons Coalzacoalcos Bar .... The Regla Falls .... Lake Chapala ..... Colorado Estuary .... Closed Basins of Me.xico Area of the Mexican Lakes at Various Periods Vertical Disposition of the Mexican Climates Isothermals of Mexico modified by Altitude Vegetable Zones in Mexico Extent of the Aztec Conquests . Aetlpiolal Pteamtd op Cholula Saceed Stone op Tizoc, in the Museum OF Mexico . . : . . First Conquests of Cortes . Port of Siguantaneo .... Scene of the War of Independence . Chief Native Populations in Mexico . Watee-Caeeiee and Toetiilas Woman Chief Native-Races in Mexico Prevailing Diseases in Mexico La Paz Guaymas . Mazatlan . Cathedeal of Chihuahua Tampieo . Zacatecas . San Luis Potosi- Goveenment San Bias . Manzanillo Ancient Mexico Palace 11 12 16 19 21 26 30 32 33 34 35 37 38 39 42 43 44 47 50 74 51 75 55 76 63 77 69 78 71 79 74 80 76 81 79 82 82 83 85 87 84 92 85 94 86 96 87 98 88 99 89 105 90 107 109 91 112 92. 114 93. 118 FIO. 47. 48. 49. 50 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 6U. 61. 62. 63. Cathedeal of Mexico Mexico and its Eu™onments . Tlalpam and Lake Xochimilco . Indian Maeket-Gaedenee's Canoe . Puebla in 1862 Orizaba ...... Successive Displacements of Vera Cruz From Vera Cruz to Anton Lizardo . Harbour Works in Progress at Vera Cruz Acapulco ...... Chief Ruins of Central Mexico . Isthmus of Tehuantepec . Salina Cruz, the new Port of Tehuantepec, Minatitlan, Northern Port of Tehuantep. Bank of Yucatan .... Alacran Reef ..... The Usumacinta — View taken at the Paso Talchilan, on the Guatemalan Frontiee ..... Mouths of the Grijalva and Usumacinta Terminos Lagoon .... The Rio of Yucatan .... Maya Youths ..... Chief Ruins of Yucatan Ruins in the Lacandon and Tzendal Coun tries ...... Merida and North-West Yucatan Density of the Population in Mexico . PuLauEEO Maouet Plantations, San Feauoisquito DisTEicT, NEAE Mexico Chief Agricultural Produce in Mexico The Worid's Yield of Silver . The World's Y'ield of the Precious Metals Y'ield of Gold and Silver in Various Coun- tries since 1492 . Chief Mineral Regions of Mexico The Boca del Moute Ascent Mexican Railway Systems in 1890 . Political Dirisions of Mexico British Hondxiras .... Parallelism of the Old and Recent Water^ courses ..... Belize and the Cockscomb Mountains Domains of British Honduius . Old Straits in Central America . Political Divisions of Central America Trend of the Guatemalan R mges Chain of the Fuego Volcano Antigua : Ruins op Cheistchukch, Agua Volcano in the Backgk und Pacaya Volcano .... Golfo Dulce and the Lower Motagua Landscape in South Guatem.ila — Bamboo JVNQLE PAOB 119 122 124 125 128 131 132 133 134 136 138 139 140 141 144 145 147 149 151 152 157 159 163 165 171 173 175 176 178 179 180 181 184 185 188 192 196 198 199 2(12 203 207 209 211 212 216 219 THE UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. CHAPTER I. GENERAL SUE^^:Y. HE insular and peninsular regions which are watered by the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea form with the Mexican triangle a perfectly distinct section of the New "World. Tender the latitude of the tropic of Cancer, which traverses the Mexican plateau and touches the extremity of the peninsxila of Lower California, the contiaent has still a width of 550 miles, or about a tenth part of the distance between the two oceans towards the middle of Xorth America. But south of that line the mainland tapers and expands successively, while developing coastlines parallel with the escarpments of the plateau. Between Mexico proper and Chiapas occm's a first contraction at the isthmus of Tehuan- tepec ; this is followed towards the south-east by other shrinkings and expansions, terminating in the slender neck of land between the Gulfs of Panama and Darien, which merges in the South American continent. The eastern chain of the American Archipelago, comprising the Bahamas and Lesser Antilles, forms a cordon over 1,800 miles long, which sweeps round from the north-west to the south-east in a serpentine curve roughly parallel with that of Mexico and Central America. This vast outer rampart, of coralline formation in the Bahamas, of volcanic origin in the Antilles, encloses the so-called " Medi- terranean" of the I^Tew "World, which, like the Mediterranean of the eastern hemisphere, is divided into secondary basins, but which in other respects presents little resemblance to that great inland sea. VOL. XVII. B 2 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, "WEST INDIES. The northernmost of these basins, that is, the Gulf of JSIexico, which develops an immense oval contour line between the peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan, is limited southwards by the long island of Cuba, and communicates with the neigh- bouring waters only through two passages with an average breadth of 120 miles. The southern basin, that is, the Caribbean Sea, is of less regular form, presenting between the Lesser Antilles and the Mosquito Coast a broad open expanse, which is again subdivided towards the north-west by two almost completely submerged ridges, indicated here and there by reefs and sandbanks. On one of these ridges stands the Grand Cayman Chain, while the other connects the Tiburon peninsula in Haiti through Jamaica with Cape Gracias a Dios. Thus the West Indies are attached to Central America by three transverse hills which might be called those of Cuba, of Cayman and Jamaica ; all three begin at the chain of islands sweeping round from Grenada and the Grenadines to Puerto Rico, almost presenting the appearance of being three branches thrown off from a single stem. All these lines of islands and peninsulas, which are interconnected in various directions between the northern and southern continents, give evidence of cosmic forces acting over vast expanses of the terrestrial crust. Nevertheless their somewhat symmetrical arrangement in intersecting curves is no proof that the upheaved lands were at any time continuous, or that the now partly submerged ridges themselves are the remains of isthmuses formerly stretching from continent to continent. On the contrary numerous indications drawn from the distribution of the animal and vegetable species seem to justify naturalists in concluding that certain contiguous islands have never formed continuous land during the geological record. Cases in point are the Bahamas and the Antilles, which by their natural history are more intimately connected with the distant Central America than with Georgia and the Carolinas. In the same way Florida belongs rather to the "West Indies than to the mainland of which it now forms part, while the Bermudas, lost amid the Atlantic waters, are connected with the Antilles by the Gulf Stream. The American Mediterranean lands, although lying almost entirely within the tropics, are perfectly accessible to man for all purposes of permanent settlement. In this respect they present an absolute contrast with the vast regions of Africa situated imder the same latitude. In the Old "World the desert, which begins with the Sahara, and which is continued across Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Turkestan, and Mongolia, comprises millions of square miles, whereas in Central America arid spaces are of limited extent, and in fact occupy that part of Mexico which lies north of the tropic of Cancer. Thanks to the humidity of the atmosphere and the moderating action of the marine waters, tropical America is almost every- where clothed with a rich vegetation. In some places are developed almost impenetrable forests forming a continuous mass of dense verdure, and wherever clearings are effected, economic crops may be raised in superabundance. The white race has even succeeded in perpetuating itself in the Antilles, notably in Cuba and Puerto Rico, adapting itself to the climate sufficiently to cultivate the land and engage in industrial pursuits. In Mexico and in Central America the mean elevation of the plateaux, offering GEXEEAJ. SUETEY. a climate analogous to that of temperate Europe, has enabled Spanish and other immigrants to occupy the land. Flourishing European colonies have been founded on these uplands, ■where they have acquired sufficient influence to impart their usages, language and culture to the great mass of the aboriginal populations. Within 100 miles of the coast Citlaltepetel, the "Star Mountain," which passing seafarers beheld glittering at sunset and sunrise like a flaming beacon above the arid and swampy plains of the seaboard, seemed to invite them to scale the inter- vening heights and take possession of the breezy inland tablelands. They under- stood the language of nature which attracted them to these uplands, where were afterwards founded Orizaba, Cordoba, and other flourishing cities of " Xew Spain." Kg. 1.— Central Ameeicas Isthmuses axd Inlasb Seas. • Scale 1 : t0,0O>,0O0. to 500 FaUioms. Depths. BOO to 2,000 Fathoms. 2,000 Fathoms and upwards. — 620Maes. "Wliile physically distinct from the continental masses of north and south, Central America itself is divided into secondary regions presenting such differ- ences that the inhabitants, grouped in separate tribes and nations, remained formerly almost completely isolated. Communications were rare and difficult, and no ethnical cohesion had been developed amongst these isolated elements. Before the conquest few migrations or interminglings took place, except in the Mexican regions, which lay broadly open in the north towards the plains of Texas, the pla- teaux and intermediate valleys of the Rocky Mountains and the CaKfornian slope. In the Mexican legends or annals are commemorated the peaceful or conquering movements of the populations following in successive waves of migration from b2 4 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. nortt to south, from the banks of the Colorado and Rio Bravo to the vallej's of the Sierra Madre, the Anahuac tablelands and southern isthmuses. But the same records speak of the formidable obstacles encountered by those peoples, obstacles by which they were often arrested for decades and even centuries, and at times compelled to retrace their steps to their original homes. To the difEculties created by the resisting tribes were added those of the rough routes over the crests of transverse ranges, and the changes of climate on their passage through the forests, or on the descent towards the hot regions of the seaboard and isthmuses. Some of those northern invaders were arrested in the various depressions of the Mexican plateaux; others continued their march as far as Tehuantepec and Guatemala ; while others penetrated southwards to the plains of Salvador and the Nicaragua volcanoes. There can be no doubt that at various epochs other hordes from the north pushed even still farther south. But no documents dating from the American mediteval period make any mention of such migrations on the mainland. In fact in the narrow neck of land some 600 miles long, which bends round to the north- west corner of the state of Columbia, the natural obstacles become almost insur- mountable. Here nothing could be attempted except slow maritime expeditions continued from age to age ; but of such migrations all memory has perished. The movements of the native populatioas must have been prevented or indefinitely arrested by the rugged highlands stretching from sea to sea, by the impenetrable tangle of tropical forests, the sudden freshets caused by tremendous downpours, or the flooded tracts skirting the banks of the Atrato. The numerous islands of all sizes stretching in chains between the basins of the American Mediterranean, or along the borders of the Atlantic, were destined by their very isolation to become the homes of communities either differing in origin or else slowly differentiated by long seclusion. During the course of centuries their common descent was necessarily forgotten even by kindred sea- faring peoples, whose knowledge of navigation was rudimentary, although some of their craft hoisted sails and were large enough to carry as many as fifty Indians. The great diversity of languages formerly spoken in the Antilles and still current in Mexico and the isthmuses is sufficient evidence of long isolation and dispersion in the fragmentary woi-ld lying between the northern and southern continents. For this region a certain unity, at least in a political sense, seemed to be prepared by the discovery of the archipelagoes and adjacent mainland at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. When they landed on this new territory the Spaniards acquired definite possession of the islands and isthmuses, if not, as they supposed, for the dynasty of Charles V., at all events as an inheritance of the Old World. The Antilles and Mexico never faded from the memory of Europeans, as had been the fate of the earlier Norse discoveries in Greenland, Helluland and Vineland. In virtue of Pope Alexander VI.'s Bull awarding to the Castilians and Portu- guese all present and prospective discoveries, all those white settlers had to become Spanish subjects. The vast continental amphitheatre sweeping round the double basin of the inland sea, as well as its numerous chains of islands, was consequently GENEEAL SURVEY. 5 at first comprised ^vitliin the Spanish domain. But the political unity of these lands was purely official, and often little more than nominal ; in many places the Conquis- tadores never even set foot, and down to the present time certain territories supposed to be within their jurisdiction have scarcely even been visited by the explorer. Xor were the Spaniards strong enough to retain political possession of all the regions discovered by their forefathers. The treasures which were brought to Fig. 2. — ClTLALTEPETEL. — TiEW TAKEN FEOII >.t:aE OsIZABA. Europe by the first conquerors and which were multiplied a hundredfold in the popular imagination, could not fail to excite the cupidity of adventurers from other nations. Thus it happened that, either with the consent of their respective sove- reigns, who furnished them with letters of marque, or else as roving pirates recognis- ing no authority, daring mariners swarmed on all the seas of the Spanish Main, capturing their vessels, wasting their plantations, or even seizing the islands them- selves after massacrins: the first settlers. Some of the famous navigators of the 6 MEXICO, CENTEAl AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. sisteentli and seventeenth centuries were mere corsairs, scouring the high seas and occupying islets, such as Tortuga at the north-west angle of Haiti. These islands became the undisputed possessions of the buccaneers, as they were called, from the Carib word boucan, smoked fish or flesh, doubtless in allusion to their ordinary fare. With the exception of Portugal, which already possessed the vast territory of Brazil besides the East Indies, all the European powers were anxious to secure a portion of the CastHian world either by conquest, purchase or treaty. Of her original American possessions, Spain now retains nothing but the two Islands of Cuba, the pearl of the Antilles, and Puerto Rico. All the rest has been forcibly wrested from her, and even her hold on these has often been impe- rilled by revolts or foreign wars. England, an heretical nation in whose eyes the Papal Bull had no value. Fig. 3. — Political States of Centeal America. Scale 1 : 62,000,000. Independent Republics. E. Spanish. A. Enilish. F. French. H. Dutch. D. Danish. , 1,240 Miles. became the mistress of tbe large island of Jamaica, of all the Bahamas, the Ber- mudas and most of the Lesser Antilles, beside a small district of the mainland on the south-east coast of Yucatan. To the share of France, Holland, and Den- mark have fallen some of the Lesser Antilles, and even Sweden till lately held the islet of St. Bartholomew. All were anxious to have their sugar and coffee plantations, and an independent insular depot for their colonial produce. When the American Republic was controlled in its foreign policy by the southern slave party, the Washington Government made repeated attempts to increase its territory by the acquisition of Cuba, most valuable as well as largest of all the Antilles, It also sought to establish a large naval station at the St. Domingan GENERAL SmVEY. 7 port of Samana, one of the most important strategical harbours in tropical America. Bat the opposition of the northern states, and to some extent that of the European powers, prevented the realisation of their projects, which had for primary aim the political supremacy of the slave-holding landowners. The only West Indian land belonging de facto, if not to the States, at least to an American trading company is Navaza (J^avassa), a rock covered with a deposit of guano, off the west coast of Haiti. As soon as the deposit is exhausted the Tiseless islet will be abandoned as several others have already been by the same company. On the mainland the aspirations of the all-powerful republic have been more abundantly satisfied than in the Antilles, and more than half of the territory formerly belonging to !New Spain, that is to say, Texas, California, New ilexico and Arizona, henceforth forms an integral portion of the northern confederacy. Kegotiations have also been entered into for the purchase of the right of free transit, in other words, of real sovereignty in the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Moreover, some filibustering expeditions, not officially sanctioned, but encour- aged in every way by irresponsible agents, were undertaken in the Central American republics, at the time when the rush was made from Xew York and the Xew England states to the Californian " Eldorado." In virtue of the same law by which riverain populations gravitate towards the mouths of the streams on which they dwell, the Americans claimed as belonging to them by " manifest destiny " the shortest route which at that period connected their settlements on both oceanic slopes. But if their essays in this direction proved abortive, they at all events suc- ceeded in thwarting the English, who, like themselves, were anxious to command the shortest interoceanic highways, and for this purpose had occupied the Bay Islands, near the Honduras coast, the so-called " Kingdom " of Mosquitia, a natiu'al de- pendency of Nicaragua, and even the port of Greytown at the mouth of the Lake Nicaragua emissary. Then came the construction of the transcontinental railways in United States territory itself, and this, combined with the energetic resistance of the Hispano- American populations, postponed, at least for a time, the accomplishment of the national aspirations for political ascendency in the Central American States. Since the epoch that followed the discovery of the Californian goldfields the independence of the Central American republics has not again been threatened by the United States. But the "Washington Government has steadily pursued a policy calculated to prevent European influence from replacing their own, and at the time of Maximilian's accession to the throne of Mexico they co-operated by their diplomatic action with the efforts of the natives to recover their autonomy. At present all the mainland of Central America. British Honduras alone excepted, is constituted in independent political states. Even in the archipelagoes held by the European powers, one large island is divided between two sovereign nations, the San Domingans, a mixed Hispano-Xegro people of Spanish speech, and the Haitians, of African descent and French speech. Altogether the insular world presents a marked contrast with the neighbour- ing mainland, not only in its political status, but also in the original elements of 8 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. its inhabitants. Within a few years of the Spanish conquest, the "West Indian aborigines had almost completely disappeared. The natives of Haiti and Cuba, by whom the first European mariners had been well received, have perished to a man. The Carib populations of the smaller southern islands are also everywhere represented, except in St. Vincent and Dominica, only by half-breeds. According to Bartholomew de las Casas " the Christians caused by their tyrannies and infernal deeds the death of over twelve million souls — perhaps even over fifteen millions— men, women, and children." However approximately Fio-. 4.— Mexico befoee the Annexations to the United States. Scale 1 : 27,000,000. West or bneenwich 90° ES3 Former Territory. Present Territory. . 620 Miles. correct may be this frightful estimate made by the famous " defender of the Indians," it is absolutely certain that the massacres and grinding rule of the Spaniards resulted in the extermination of the aborigines throughout the Antilles, while those of Mexico and Central America have held their ground. Hence the necessity of Introducing another race into the Islands of that " Carib- bean Sea," where the Carlbs themselves have been replaced by the negroes. African slaves were imported by millions to fill the void made by the wholesale mas- sacre of the natives. But no sj'stematic records are now available to determine with any accuracy the actual nimiber of "human cattle " thus transferred from the eastern GEXEBAL SUEVEY. 9 to the western shores of the Atlantic during the course of over three centuries. Some writers speak of ten or fifteen millions ; but in any case the slave trade has cost Africa a far greater number of lives than it is now possible to calculate. Xearly all the negroes imported during the early period of the traffic perished, like the Caribs, without leaving any posterity. Despite their ready adaptation to a climate which differed little from their own, most of them, being engaged chiefly in the destructive work of the mines, died out within a few vears. Thus it happened that the negro race was very slowly established in the Xew \Vorld, being gradually constituted of a thousand different ethnical elements drawn from every part of the African seaboard, and diversely intermingled with the blood of their European masters. Thanks to these endless crossings, the native dialects of the slaves disappeared, and amongst the idioms current in the Antilles only a few words can now be traced to an African source. The slaves rapidly adopted the languages of their Spanish, French, or English owners. But if in this respect, as well as in the usages and outward forms of civilisation, they were brought under European influences, their physical constitution was better suited for the environment of the TTest Indies, where they have now become the numerically dominant race. Except in Cuba, where the Spaniards form the majoritj- of the population, and perhaps also in Puerto Eico, the blacks and people of colour everywhere form by far the most numerous element. This part of the Xew "World, the first discovered by the Spaniards, has become an ethnological dependency of the African Continent, and by a sort of retributive justice, the negro race has even acquired political autonomy in the large island of Haiti. Such an event is not without a certain historic importance. The des- pised race, supposed to be doomed to everlasting servitude, has forcibly entered into the number of sovereign peoples. It has not only victoriously resisted the efforts made to again bring it under a foreign yoke, but despite a chronic state of intestine strife and the rivalries of ambitious chiefs, it has for a century main- tained its independent position amongst its powerful and hostile neighbours. To the preponderance of the negro race in the Antilles corresponds that of the Indians in ifexico and Central America. The Spaniards who at first played the part of truculent masters and treated the aborigines abominably, are now merged with them under the name of ladinos. So true is this that the mesti- 20s, or half-castes of the two races, constitute the chief element of the population throughout the northern Hispano- American republics. According to the official returns the white race is in a majority only in the State of Costa Rica. Thus history has resumed its normal course. For over three centuries the Spaniards had lived as parasites on the ilexican populations, and in accordance with a constant law of nature, this parasitic existence had incapacitated them for vigorotis action. Throughout this long period, the peoples of the colonial empire misgoverned by Spain remained without a history. Its annals were mainly reduced to a bald record of the appointment, recall, or death of public functionaries. But below a seemingly unrufiled surface, important changes were maturing in the social life of the nation. The heterogeneous racial elements were being 10 MEXICO, CEsTEAL AMEEICA, WEST EvDIES. graduallT fused in a conunon nationality, with like customs, ideas, and aspira- tions, and \ntli a growing capacity for acting in concert for the general welfare. Thus it was that when the metropolis, overrun with foreign armies, found itself unable to maintain its authority in the Xew "World, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and the other Central American provinces, were suddenly seen to develop into armed nations, in which the descendants both of the Spanish CHanquerors and of the conquered aborigines were animated by a common sentiment. This sudden appearance of new nations, or rather the revival of the old Ameri- can nation?, clothed in a vesture of civilisauon different from that which they had formerly worn, was not confined to the central regions, but took place also in Colombia, Venezuela, Equador, Peru — in a word, throughout the whole of Spanish America. By a curious irony of fate, the Napoleonic epoch, which was supposed to signalise the close of the revolutionary period, and the re-establishment of autocratic government, led in the Xew World, on the contrary, to the outburst of a general movement of independence for the Hispano- American race. From that epoch dates the modem history of the southern continent. But the new order of things had been prepared by the successful revolt of the British Xorth American colonies, which acquired their independence several decades before the uprise of the Spanish provinces. Xot only were the English settlements emancipated at an earlier date, but they have also far outstripped the mixed Spanish communities in social development and general culture. Their work, however, was more easily accomplished, and in some respects is per- haps of less significance in the history of mankind. The United States are, so to say, little more than an expansion of the Old TTorld ; in their ethnical elements, whether white or black, tbey reproduce the social conditions of Europe and Africa in another environment," where the aboriginal element has been mainly eliminated. The tribes that have not been extirpated, or that have not been effaced by complete absorption in the surrounding populations, are not merged in the social system, but live apart, either still in the wild state, or in reserves under Government control. But the conditions are very different in Spanish America, where the bulk of the population consists of "Hispanified Indians," who, while receiving European civilisation, and mixing in various degrees with their white conquerors, have none the less remained the representatives of the old American race. The Anglo- Saxons have destroyed or repelled the indigenous populations ; the Iberians have assimilated them, at least on the mainland. In Mexico, and in the other Spanish repubh'cs, crossings and common usages have effected a reconciliation between various races which were formerly hostile, and even totally alien, to each other. Latin America, where heterogeneous elements still persist, cannot yet be compared with Anglo-Saxon America for its relative importance as a factor in the equilibrium of the world. But the various republics of which it is composed are none the less increasing in power from decade to decade, and are already suffici- ently consolidated to resist foreign encroachments. Collectively, they occupy con- siderably more than half of the Xew World, for they comprise, besides the GENERAL SURVEY. 11 Antilles, all the southern part of North America. But they are divided by the region of the isthmuses into two distinct geographical areas. In her almost isolated position, Mexico serves as an advanced bulwark for the whole of Spanish America against the Anglo-Saxon world. "Wars and diplomacy have deprived her of all her northern territory, her outer ramparts, so to say ; but she still retains nearly in its entirety the domain where the Spanish-speaking populations are chiefly concentrated. Characteristic of the Mexican nation as a whole is the incessant struggle it is compelled to make against the growing influence of the United States. Doubtless, Pig. 5. — Pbedomtnant Kaces in Centeal Ameeica. Scale 1 : 00,000,000. of Intlians over whites. Full -blood Indiana. Predominance — of Indians of whites over whites over blacks, and blacks. of whites over Indians. of blacks over whites. . 1,240 MUes. of blacks over whites and Indians. the powerful northern confederacy has a large share in the changes which are continually going on in Mexico. Nevertheless, the Mexicans seek their allies in the rest of Spanish America, and especially in Europe, and even in France, which not so long ago sent an expedition to destroy their political autonomy. They call themselves and feel themselves " Latins," and the very term ladino has become syno- nymous with "enlightened," or "civilised" throughout Central America. Should the emancipated nations of the earth ever group themselves according to their natural affinities and regardless of distances, the Mexicans and the other Latinised peoples of America will inevitably become associated with the kindred Latin peoples oi Europe. As in England and the British Colonies a 12 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. stron- feeling has sprung up for a more intimate alliance of all English-speaking comm°unities, in fact, for the constitution of a "Greater Britain " encircling the globe-in the same spirit an "Ibero-American" society has been founded for the formation of a league between all Spanish-speaking states. At the first congress held by this association in the city of Mexico in 1887, as many as nineteen states were represented by their delegates. Belt's prophecy, that in a few centunes English would be the mother-tongue of all Americans, from the Frozen Isles of the great north to the Land of Fire, does not seem likely to be fulfilled. Jules Leclercq has even ventured to assert that in a short time all Mexico will be English. But this is a delusion, as shown, for instance, by the extreme slowness Fig. 6.— Canals and Eootes aceoss the IsiinniSES. Scale 1 : 20,000,000. Railways. Projected Railways. Canal in progi-ess. , 245 Miles. Projected Canal. with which the process of assimilation is proceeding in New Mexico, a territory where, at the time of the annexation to the United States, over forty years ago. there were only fifty thousand people of Spanish speech. Sooner or later, the region of the isthmuses must occupy a commercial position of the first importance, for here will assuredly one day be traced the great line of inter-communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Accordingly, the Americans might well suspect the European powers of the intention of seizing one or other of these passages. It was, in fact, the fear of such a contingency that inspired the « Monroe doctrine" of "America for the Americans," thereby for- mally reserving the possession of the isthmuses for the states of the New World. GENEEAL SURVEY. 18 The vital importance of these narrow tongues of land was perceived by Columbus himself, as he coasted along the shores of Veragua, vainly seeking for the marine channel through which the two oceans were supposed to communicate. But this channel, or rather these channels, for there existed more than one, have been closed by nature since the tertiary epoch, and the work of re-opening them must now be undertaken by man. Pending the accomplishment of this enterprise, roads, and even railways have been laid down from shore to shore. The southern series of isthmuses is already traversed by two railways, those of Panama and Costa Pica, and several others have been begun. Unfortunately, the land itself is still indifferently adapted to serve as a high- way of communication between "West Europe and the East Asiatic and Austral- asian regions. In many parts of Central America, journeys across the forests, swamps, and unexplored tracts are attended by imminent risk. Not a single explorer is known to have yet followed the direct overland route from Mexico to Columbia. Even in the narrow spaces between the two seas it is dangerous to deviate from the beaten tracks. So great were the difficulties of travel and trans- port that tni recently neither east Honduras, north Nicaragua, nor Costa Rica possessed any outlets on the Caribbean Sea. In a commercial sense, these states could scarcely be said to possess an Atlantic seaboard at all. All national life and activity was centred exclusively on the side facing the Pacific Ocean, and from this coast the communications have been very slowly developed across the isthmuses in the direction of the Atlantic waters. Regarded as a whole, the inter-oceanic region is still almost an uninhabited wilderness, where the average population scarcely exceeds ten persons to the square mile. CHAPTER II. MEXICO. I. — General Considerations. XCLUDINGr the Yucatan peninsula, the territory of the " United States of Mexico " is a triangular mass which forms the southern extremity of the North American continent properly so called. These Hispano- American United States are bounded on the east side by the long curve of the Gulf of Mexico, on the west by the shores of the Pacific, which describe a still more extensive arc of a circle. Both curves gradually converge southwards in the direction of the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec, where Central America proper begins, if not in a political, at least in a geo- graphical and historical sense. Both on the north and south sides, the frontiers are purely conventional, corresponding in no way with the natural parting lines of the fluvial basins. Doubtless, the north-east frontier, for a distance of about 750 miles, is traced by the Rio Bravo del Norte, which separates Mexico from Texas. But this narrow stream is not a sufficiently salient geographical feature to constitute a true dividing line ; on both sides the plains and hills present the same general aspect, and are subject to the same climate. No material change is perceptible for a long way beyond the Texan border, where the population grows more dense, and arable lands begin to replace the unfertile savannas. West of the Rio Bravo the frontiers, as laid down by the treaty between Mexico and the United States, are a mere succession of geometrical lines. At first they coincide with 31° 47' north latitude for a distance of 100 miles ; then they suddenly drop southwards to 31° 20' N., along which parallel they run westwards to 111° W. of Greenwich. At this point, the line is drawn obliquely to the Rio Colorado, 20 miles below the Rio Gila confluence, and then ascends this river to the confluence at Yuma, whence it follows a straight Hne across the neck of the Calif ornian peninsula to the Pacific coast, 12 miles south of San Diego. Despite the fantastic character of this geometrical frontier, it coincides at certain points with prominent physical traits in the general relief of the land. Thus it connects the upper Bravo valley with the head of the Gulf of California, not far from the profound depression between two distinct spurs of the Rocky Mountains traversed by the Rio Gila. At the other extremity of the Mexican territory, the political frontier is less EAELY MEXICAN EXPEDITIONS. 15 justified by the physical conditious. According to tlie treaty concluded ^vith Guatemala in 1822, the common frontier runs from the Pacific coast near the little river Suchiate, across the main range to the Tacana volcano, and the Buenavista and Isbul heights, and thence eastwards along the parallel of 1 6° 40' to the left bank of the Rio Usumacinta, the course of which river it shoidd then follow to within 15 miles to the south of the town of Tenosique. But in these roughly explored regions, the river valleys have not everywhere been accurately determined and certain points of detail still remain to be decided. Bej'ond the Usumacinta the line runs westwards to the Eio Hondo, which marks the boundary of British Honduras, and which falls into Chetumal Bay at the south-east corner of Yucatan. Comprising all the outlying territories, and the remote Revilla-Gigedo Archipelago, Mexico has a total area officially estimated at 790,000 square miles, with a population (1889) of over 11,000,000. In its main outlines, this vast region was already known about the middle of the sixteenth century. Within twenty- four years of the conquest explorers had visited all the coastlands, and had penetrated far inland from Yucatan to California and the "seven cities" of Cibola. In 1502, Columbus had already met Yucatan traders on the coast of Honduras ; but it was only in 1517 that the Cuban planter, Hernandez de Cordoba, during a slave-hunting expedition, discovered the first point on the Mexican seaboard, the present Cape Catoche, at the north-west corner of Yucatan. From that point he coasted Yucatan as far as Champoton, where a disastrous engagement with the natives compelled the Spaniards to re-embark. In 1518, the survey of the coast was continued by Juan de Grijalva, whose primary object was to punish the natives for the reverse of the previous year, but who pushed forward beyond Champoton some 600 miles to the spot where now stands the town of Tampico. A third expedition, under Cortes, followed in 1519 ; but instead of keeping timidlj' to the seaboard, this daring adventurer aimed at the conquest of an empire. How he effected his purpose, with what courage, sagacity, and prudence, but also with what perfidy and ferocious contempt of the vanquished, is now a familiar tale. In 1521, the capital and surrounding districts were finally reduced, and armed expeditions were sent in all directions to extend the bounds of " New Spain." Olid and Sandoval penetrated through the provinces of Michoacan and CoUma westwards to the Pacific. Alvarado pushed southwards through the high- lands as far as Guatemala. Cortes himself occupied the Panuco country on the eastern slope of the mountains skirting the north side of the Mexican basin. Then, being recalled southwards by the revolt of his lieutenant. Olid, who had crossed by water to Honduras, he advanced south-eastwards to Tabasco, Chiapas, and the territory of the Lacandons and Mopans. Of all the expeditions undertaken by Cortes, none was more surprising than this march across rivers, swamps, and uninhabited forests. In crossing the Tabasco plains he had to construct as many as " fifty bridges within a space of twenty leagues." Supplies fell short, and his followers had to subsist on roots, berries, and vermin. Even at present few travellers, with aU the resourceo of 16 MEXICO, CENTRAL A^iTEEICA, WEST INDIES. cmlisation at tlieir disposal, have the courage to follow the route opened by Cortes. After his time none of the Spanish conquerors took the trouble of occupying this wilderness. They were satisfied ^yith the reduction of Yucatan, the conquest of which, nevertheless, occupied fully fifteen years, from 1527 to 1542. Although the less wealthy and less densely peopled north-western regions had fewer attractions for the invaders than the southern provinces, expeditions were despatched in that direction also. Vessels, whose sails and equipment had been conveyed from "Vera Cruz across the Mexican plateau, coasted the seaboard towards the Gulf of California, the entrance of which was reached by a squadron under Fig. 7.— FiBST MExiOAif Itdteeaeies, 1517 to 1550. Scale 1 : 30,000,000. 114* West or brcenwicH . 620 Miles. Cortes in the year 1533. To the great captain this burning region owes its very name of calidafornax (hot furnace), afterwards corrupted to California. In 1539, Francisco de Ulloa penetrated into the inner waters of the "Vermil- lion Sea," so named either from the red sea-weed abounding in some of the inlets, or, according to Pinart, more probably from the deep red colour of the sands lining its shores. The following year Alarcon completed the exploration of the gulf, and even penetrated 85 " leagues " up the River Buena-Guia, afterwards re- named the Rio Colorado. In 1512, Cabrillo, rounding the headland of Cape St. Lucas at the extremity of the Californian peninsula, sailed northwards along the Pacific coast to a pro- montory supposed to be the present Cape Mendocino, beyond 40° N. lat. On the mainland, Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, escaping from the perils of a daring march across the Floridas, reached Mexico from the north in 1536. Between '//^^^. ■^ ri-yl la„n It,- -?,— - X '^Ta.^it'i?^'*'^'^" '■"™^..,»„. ,„ ■-. S " =/— ^ («Wrf,„j, -i Victoria : iacatecaTjOjoCiUiTOU. \ i*- TUli° _ -, , .^„ ■^ _ Ai^uasCalientss jSjWPotosi ^Wontarey. CalOTc.J, pr^r..vn Ps^, '■b.-mMnfa ,u« .-?? -f 1' ft'-^'itiit Ojjl^ C'/A^r/o^^.i _^ «.^'*5^f:i.».* -^'^MlVn"-). i.Ai;SA>^^'''«"»»«S ^ M.5«*^ ,Moi„, ^ Chilpancirvfo: " ^t 1^ Scale, I 12,000.000^ 50 100 150 200 150 PRINCIPAL CAPITALS TOWNS Towns of 2"^0rder Other towns &Anila^es Heights Oto 3 000 feet 3 000 to 6 000 „ 6 000U) nooo „ 12C00tol8 00O „ 18 000 upwards 1891 ♦l,b 310 Miles. , Over lOO.OOOmhahitaiits a „ 50.000 „ 10000 „ .Dndfir 10.000 „ Depths • to 50 fsihijuis 500 ta 1000 „ 1 COO to 2 000 ., 2.000.10 3.00O „ S.OOO u 4..000 ,, 4-.000. upyrards e> 10 LCJippci*t':^i ^7^ ' * Qyliuinic"^ Ts /♦:*'ri JUHf-dae^-illi 'orWcac Vilumliia- ■\ •llrtwkiiu.-pillp J TlioiiuisvjII<- \ 'li ' Live Oak ,'f ■ ^arhnnl^^"^lI<' t 'liantM^tU- Is. />rviiu^ri£(^j 30 TftotpaU 0!.1TUiI)-m (0 2l f <|'Mn ^ \ ''".'-West f * HAVANA (rtUDidbarpvi ■'^ Jatrihiiltbir " -V Ti'ul * I.Xai"- 20 iiB,,im„.i..„. '■^i'rt.'i-Jc.i».i*- ^ ' —:i T,-l,...uif^,-Vi«hitfti ■^ . — .. . ._ t i,.„,cnr.e.c„^jrcd,ii;„ »;' .«vnr.Tk,;J3,„.„,„I.,.„, -— , " --'-VC, Chanipoloin Tikal foro; f.itfj^ 0:nuivi Oi^f^t r^rtiuiU ^-tnitreVLS ■fWmU< ''''"-y'''/>'-»'! T,-i,...u,f^,-Vi«hitft, ' -V «>i rA fTf '-^^ s<,iii».fv,.4 /.A''"'''-"*""" ■<■ "* . , JInalulcn , c o^S^^ -.%•''. "^z- ■--. il-nft/iH'.Sarllir: ^ "■''t f'tH-Jcscftiiiii 1 S.fhmAs »: .s.Bem(V ',•> .i¥«g„G U A T t IVI'A,C'A' 1 , -^'S U 8 "A' COa^ das a I>io ^ .S..Iuan iJpISuj- j. j/v "" C ' - - Libfi-ia ; %^7* ^ G.af Mfisfjui ^'■«-.^C^ 95" 90 Meridian' of Greenwich.. as*- ; Ue &. c- EXPLORATION OF MEXICO, 17 1530 and 1532 the atrocious Xuuo de Guzman had reduced the provinces of Jalisco and Sinaloa ; then, in 1539, the Franciscan friar, Marcos de Xiza, advanced far into the region which is now known as Xew ilexico, and which lies within the United States frontier. Here he claimed to have ?cen the marvellous Cibola, which was soon afterwards shown bjr the expedition under Coronado to be nothing more than one of those villages belonging to the Zufii nation, where the whole population dwells in one huge fortiiied building erected around a central court. Coronado's expedition, which lasted over two years, from 1540 to 1512, and which was intended to co-operate with Alarcon's sea voyage, resulted iu the occupation and settlement of Sonora, the north-westernmost state of the present republic. But although the ilexican territory, properly so called, had now been traversed in all directions, the itineraries farther removed from the capital had not yet been utilised for the construction of maps, nor could this be done with any ap- proach to accuracy in the absence of astronomic determinations. In 1542, the viceroy ilendoza was still engaged in fixing the position of the city of ifexico at 25 degrees, -12 minutes farther west than its real meridian, the calculations being deduced from the observation of two lunar eclipses. Even so late as 1579, the map published by Ortelius gives only the central district round about the capital with a fair degree of acciiracy. Despite all the explorations along the Califomian seaboard, it was even still maintained that California itself had been circiminavigated, and its iasular character thus fully established ; hence the Jesuit, Salvatierra, who began the settlement of this region in 1697, gave it the name of Lsia Carolina (Caroline Island). In fact, the researches of the early explorers were not confirmed till the begiuniag of the eighteenth century by the missionary, Kiihn, the Eino of Spanish writers. It appears from the manuscript documents possessed by the Madrid Academia de Sktoria, and from the collections preserved in Mexico, that as early as the seven- teenth century the national archives, unfortunately closed to the student, contained all the elements necessary for a complete and detailed description of Xew Spain. Nearly all the memoirs forwarded to the Council of the Indies were accompanied by plans. Xevertheless, even the best maps were disfigured by errors of half a degree of latitude, and from one to two degrees of longitude. Alexander von Humboldt's journey in 1803 and 1801 has been described as a " second discovery of Mexico." .AH the known parts of Xew Spain were certainly not visited by the great explorer ; but his vast knowledge and intelligence enabled him to co-ordinate the itineraries of his predecessors, comparing and controlling one with another, and deducing from them, at least for the region of the plateau, the true form of the Mexican relief. He also studied the physical phenomena of the land, its igneous eruptions and thermal springs, the vertical disposition of its climates and flora, the direction and force of the winds prevailing on this part of the planet, the extent of its rainfall, the variations of its magnetic currents. Besides all this, he compared the mineral, agricultural, and industrial resources of Mexico with those of other regions, and ttius determined its relative value amongst the civilised regions of the globe. VOL. XVII. C 18 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. After tlie long sleep imposed upon I^f exico by the system of absolute monopoly, tbe labours of Humboldt were a sort of revelation ; he showed what the Spanish colony was capable of at the very time when its emancipation was already at hand. The exploration of the country was necessarily interrupted during the revolu- tionary period. But when Mexico at last established its independence, travellers began again to visit this part of the American continent, henceforth declared free to all comers. After the wars Burkart followed in the footsteps of Humboldt, and spent nearly ten years in traversing most of the mineral regions of the republic. Burkart's work was continued by other explorers of every nationality, amongst Pig. 8. — Chief Positions scrENTmcAiLY detebmined in Mexico. Scale 1 : 30,000.000. West oF Gpeernfl!cf> Humboldt and his predecessors. Other observators down to 1S74. . 620 JUIes. them the Americans, Stephens and Cathcrwood, who carefully studied the re- markable monuments still standing in the southern part of the territory. But the Mexicans themselves also began to take an interest in scientific investigations ; and in 1839, a geographical and statistical bureau was founded in the capital. This association, which is one of the oldest of the kind, in the world, has issued valuable memoirs on nearly every part of the confederacy. It has also prepared the mate- rials for a general map of Mexico on a larger scale than that of Humboldt, which was partly produced in sections, and afterwards as a groundwork for Garcia Cubas' atlas, the first edition of which apjjcared in 1856. Then came the trigonometric survey of the Anahuac Valley under the direction EXPLOEATION OF MEXICO. 19 of Covarrubias, wliicli formed the starting-point for accurate geographical work. Men of learning, such as Orozco y Berra and Pimentel, also made exjiensive researches on the distribution of the aboriginal tribes of Mexico, on the history of their migrations, the origin, affinities, and structure of their languages. The American officers who penetrated into North Mexico during the war of 1846, and again in connection with the delimitation of the frontiers, also took part in the topographical researches ; the maps prepared by them for Sonora, Chihuahua:, Coahuila, Nuevo-Leon, and Tamaulipas still remain the best docu- ments for the study of those provinces. The chief marine charts, especially those of lower California, are also the work of United States surveyors. But works are now In progress with a view to the preparation of a topo- Fig. 9.— Regions studied by the Oi-ficees op the Fbench Expedition. Scale 1 : 620 Mjles. reenwich . 620 Miles. graphical map on the scale of -j-T'oV'oT' '^liich will be worthy of comparison with those of the most advanced states, and which takes as starting-points on one hand the Mexican Yalley and environs of Puebla, on the other the northern regions studied by the American and Slexican Boundary Commissions. The cartographic service in the army of the republic comprises as many as 120 persons trained for the work. The period of preliminary explorations is now all but closed, except perhaps for some parts of the border-lands towards Guatemala, where so recently as 1882 a " dead city " was discovered by Mr. Maudslaj' and explored by M. Chai'nay, c2 20 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. II. — Mexico Proper, North of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Taken as a whole Mexico properly so called may be regarded as a lofty table- land, on which stand mountain ranges and masses, which, despite Humboldt's oft- repeated generalisation, hare no kind of connection in their relief or general trend with the Andean sj-stem of South America. They should be grouped rather with that of California, though still with numerous interruptions. Mountains and Volcanoes. The mean altitude of the whole region is estimated at no less than 3,600 feet. A plane passing at this elevation above the ocean would detach from the sustaining pedestal an enormous triangular mass, whose apes would terminate in the south- east above the Tehuantepec depression, and whose base would be prolonged by two parallel horns projecting in the direction of the United States. The great central Mexican plateau is thus seen to be limited on the sides facing the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by border ranges, or at least by a succession of heights or ridges forming a more or less continuous escarpment. Both of these border ranges have received the designation of Sierra Ifadre, " Main Chain ; " a term, however, which recurs in almost every part of Spanish America, where it is freel}^ applied to the dominating crests of the country. Like all border ranges, the Mexican sierras present striking conti'asts between their opposite sides, those facing inland falling somewhat gradually down to the plateau, while those turned towards the oceans are far more abrupt, intersected by scarps and cliffs, furrowed by deep crevasses, continually modified by landslips, and scored by tremendous barrancas (chasms or gorges). The whole region, which contracts gradually southwards between the two border ranges, forms, so to saj% a large avenue terminating in a labyrinth. The successive waves of migratory populations coming from the north were attracted from stage to stage towards the southern angle, that is, towards the basin of Mexico aiid the plains of Pucbla, which are bounded on the south by the Junta, that is, the " Junction," or converging-point of the two sierras. To the triangular depression left between these sierras the expression Mexican "plateau" is often applied ; it is also occasionally called the Anahuac plateau, or simply Anahuac, „ terms borrowed from Clavigero and Humboldt. Nevertheless the mesa or " table " of Mexico presents no continuous level surface, as might be supposed from the current expressions. The depression A'iewed as a whole presents rather a succession of basins, for the most part of lacustrine origin, which follow at constantly diminishing altitudes in the direction from north to south. But the separating barriers present such slight obstacles to migrations and travel that during the last century a highway was easily constructed from the capital to Santa Fe in New Mexico ; carriages could be driven from one city to the other along this road, nearly 1,400 miles long. In the southern districts round about Mexico the basins are of relatively small MOUXTATXS OF MEXICO. 21 extent, but exceed 6,600 feet in altitude ; even the Toluca basin, in the angle formed by the two diverging main ranges, stands at a mean height of 8,500 feet above the sea. Going northwards from Anahuac the continually diverging sierras give more space for elevated plains, and in the northern regions the vast expanses enclosed by the encii'cling ranges present almost perfectly level surfaces, broken only by low ridges. As they stretch northwards these expanses fall in the direc- tion of the east, and the east sierra itself is much narrower, its mean elevation being 6,500 feet, or about 1,600 feet less than that of the western escarpment. A third range, parallel with, but completely separated from, the two sierras Fig 10. — Bkt.tkf of Mexico. Scale 1 : 30,000,t^ r/ C^ ^^£ Y; ^', -y' i^'ii^fef^-- , 120 Miles. on the flanks of Popocatepetl at an altitude of 12,560 feet, an altitude at which the natives of the lower regions sometimes find it difficult to live. The uplands, which form a south-eastern extension of the Anahuac plateau, present no kind of symmetry in their general design. They may be regarded as the remains of an ancient plateau carved into irregular masses by the running waters. These waters have eroded the rocks on both slopes, leaving erect the harder masses, which form irregular ridges disposed in various directions, some parallel with, others transverse to the border ranges. By the old Aztecs, these highlands were called Mixtlan, or " Cloud Land," and the Spaniards still call them Mixteca Alia, that is, L^plands of the Mixtecs, or " Cloud-dwellers." North of Oaxaca, the Cerro San Felipe del Agua, which may be regarded as !rHE MEXICAN UPLAJfDS. 85 belonging to the central axis of the mountain region, attains a height of 10,300 feet ; but the culminating point is the Zampoal-tejwtl, which lies on a secondary branch, and which, according to Garcia Cubas, exceeds 11,200 feet. From its summit a view is commanded both of the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico. South of these irregular uplands, which form the fractured stem of the central chain, the Sierra del Sur, a more continuous and better-defined range, stretches south-eastwards along the Pacific coast. This range, whicb is also sometimes called a Sierra Madre, is said to roach an altitude of 9,200 feet in the Cimaltepec district, Fig. IC. — VaKIOUS AlTITUBES of the MEXICiX MoTWTACfS iNTJ ToWTTS. Feeb 16,500 13.200 9.900 6.600 3,300 Popoc^t^p^ -p^Ori^^b^ •Ixiedhuai/ ti. cmpba/Iephs 'Tancitmro CP/ms/, Cumhre ^ •Toluca CHihu3^lua Zacalecos MEXICO Fresnillo. • .Apam Gwanajuato, 'PuebU OJrVngo' " ■ Moreira"« ' S.C.-1sl5bar ■ . SanLu.s" "Oueretapo Amcca Aguascalientes .TeJ,uacsn P I I - • .Oaxaca uuadalaiara ■^ Jalapa. •Santa-Crui ■ -Oo^aba Jorullo Collma* Monterey .S. Andres Tu«tla Vera-Cruz. Merlda. no- West oF Greer^wlcV. -SO* south of Oaxaca. Near Juquila, on the sea-coast, stands an isolated headland, tlic extinct Chacahua volcano, Mhose crater is now filled with sulphur. Another cone, one of the ten still active volcanoes in Mexico, lies farther east near Pochutla. Before 1870, when it suddenly ejected scorioc and vapours, it was supposed to be extinct, all memory of any previous explosions having died out. In the isthmus of Tehuantepec the Mexican ranges are continued on the Pacific side by a series of uplands which are crossed by six passes at a low eleva- tion. The lowest, which takes the name of Portillo de Tarifa from a neighbouring 36 MEXICO, CENTBAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. village, IS only 1,000 feet high. Most of tlio high grovmcls skirting the plains of the isthmus aifect the form of " tables " ; seen from the surrounding mountains, they merge almost entirely with the lowlands. According to Spear, a geologist attached to one of the numerous expeditions that have studied the isthmus of Tehuantepec, the terraced formations consist partly of cretaceous rocks deposited at a time when the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans were here connected by a broad channel. After their upheaval the flanks of these chalk cliffs became overlaid on both sides by more recent tertiary and quaternary formations. The land still continues to encroach insensibly on the ocean ; the Pacific Coast, formed of late alluvial matter, is continually advancing seawards, while the lagoons along the shore are gradually drying up. In the isthmus of Tehuantepec low-lying tracts occupy a larger space relatively to the whole region than in any other part of Mexico. The two oceans were also at one time connected farther north by another marine passage, and the so-called " Valley " of Mexico in the very centre of the Anahuac tableland is a remnant of this old branch of the sea. Towards the close of Mesozoic times the marine waters winded over these lands which at present stand over 6,500 feet above sea-level, and the volcanoes now surmounting them had not yet discharged their lava streams. At this epoch the contour line of the Gulf of Mexico also lay far more to the west than in our days. The rich silver mines are nearly all situated in the two Sierra Madres north of the " Valley," and are disposed along certain definite lines. Thus their main axis appears to run due north-west and south-east between Batopilas and Guanajuato, and the famous argentiferous lodes of Zacatecas, Fresnillo, Sombrcrete, and Durango all lie on or near this axis ; the lodes themselves are disposed in the same direction. Rivers and Lakes. The form of the Mexican plateau with its narrow escarpments, and its border ranges disposed parallel with the seaboards, combined with the dry climate of the northern and central regions, has prevented the development of any large fluvial systems with extensive ramifying arteries. Of all Mexican rivers the most impor- tant, if not for its volume at least for its length and for the part that it plaj's as the political frontier-line between the Anglo-Saxon and Hispano- American repub- lics for over 720 miles of its course, is the Rio Bravo, or Rio Grande del Norte. The Mexican part of its basin comprises about 94,000 square miles, or one-third of the whole area of its drainage ; but it receives scarcely any copious or perennial streams. Most of their beds are dry except during the rainy season, and their waters, ren- dered saline by lodging in shallow basins, give a brackish taste to the Bravo itself. The largest affluent on the Mexican side is the Rio Conchos, whose headstreams are fed for a distance of over 200 miles north and south by the eastern slopes of the great Sierra Madre between the States of Sonora and Chihuahua. From the Eastern Sierra Madre flows the Rio Salado, or " Salt River," whose very name indicates a prolonged period of drought. In the same range rises the Rio San THE MEXICAN EIYEES, 87 Fig. IT. — Tajiaulipas Coast Lagoons. Scale 1 : 2,500,000. Juan, -nliicli is formed of the numerous sparkling streams that water the more fertUe districts of Coahuila and Nuevo-Leon. One of these streams towards the southern extremity of the basin is the Puente de Dios, which plunges from a height of 200 feet into a profound chasm 70 or 80 feet below one of those natural causeways which are here called " God's Bridges." The alluvial matter brought down by the Eio Bravo has caused the land to encroach far beyond the normal coastline ; but it has failed to fill up the coast lagoons, so that here is de^'eloped a double shoreline ; the sandy strips, and the seaboard proper. Elongated back- waters, which continue those fringing the coast of Texas roimd the north-western shores of the Gulf of Mexico, are disposed parallel with the sea in a continuous chain, broken only by the alluvial banks which have been deposited bj' coast streams along: both sides of their chan- nels. These inner waters, which have a total length of about 200 miles, commu- nicate with the open sea only by narrow passages, which shift their position with the storms and rains. The water also varies in its saline contents according to the freshets of the coast streams and the irruptions of the sea. The lagoons are gradually silting up with the sediment deposited by the two little coast streams, the San Fernando or Tigre, and La Ma- rina, the old E,io de las Palmas. South of La Marina and of a few other rivulets, the Tamesi and the Pauuco, which formerly flowed in separate channels, are ^ now united in a district studded with lagoons and swamps above the bar of Tampico ; hence the name of Tampico sometimes given to the two united rivers. The Panuco, the more copious of the two, rises north of the Mexican Valley, and even receives some contributions through the Huehuetoca cutting; under the names of Tula or Montezuma it describes a vast semicircular bend towards the west across the Hidalgo uplands, beyond which it collects the various streams flowing from Queretaro. One of § ^ Depths. Oto 10 Fathoms. 10 to 23 Fathoms. 23 to 50 Fathoms. 50 Fathoms and upwards. . 30 Jliles. 38 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. these disappears near JaliDan in profound caverns about 2 miles long, wliich like the arch at Nuevo-Leon also bears the name of Puente de Dios. In these subterranean galleries human bodies have been found covered with stalactites. Another of these tributaries forms the famous Falls of Regla, where the water rushes over a breach opened in a cluster of basalt columns. On both sides the rig. 18. — COATZACOALCOS BaIS. Scale 1 : 60,000. 94° 25- West op Gree h 94° P5' CepUis. ^ otoie Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet .ind upwards. _ 2,200 YaiJs. columns are festooned with wreaths of lianas, ■nhile the white waters are broken into cascades, between which rise the hexagonal groups of bluish rock. The united Panuco and Tamesi have together almost completel}' drained the chains of lagoons formerly fringing this part of the coast ; but south of the Tampico river a small inland sea, the Laguna de Tamiahua, still exists, being 2)rotectcd by a narrow cordon of sands from the surf. This rampart does not take the slightly concave form presented by most of the other sandy strips gradually THE MEXICAN EIYERS. 89 formed by the action of the waves at the entrance of the inlets along the coast. Fi?. 19. — The Begll Falls. On the contrary it projects some 2o miles iu a convex cuive at the Cabo Eoso, or 40 ■ MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, "WEST ESTDIES. " Red Cape," a form evidently due to the presence of a group of rocks or reefs which has served as a support for the two converging beaches. In many pLices the shore is covered with dunes, which have been graduidlv raised above the beach, and which drift inland under the influence of the pvc- vailing trade winds. Thus the " Villa E,ica de la Vera Cruz," founded by Cortes, near Zempoala, is now to a great extent covered by dunes of shifting sands. The theory has been advanced that these dunes may perhaps have been raised since the coast reefs, which formerly stood some 6 or 7 feet above the surface, were removed by the builders engaged on the fortress of San Juan d'Ulua and the town walls. But this view is at variance with the fact that dunes even higher than those of Vera Cruz have been formed on many other parts of the coast, and especially near Alvarado ; one of the sandhills in the vicinity of Anton Lizardo is no less than 265 feet high. Beyond this point the Alvarado estuary, near the southern inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, receives a large number of converging streams, the largest of which are the Papaloapam, or "Butterfly River," and the San Juan. They are both very copious, thanks to the heavy rainfall produced by the trade winds on the northern slopes of the Oaxaca uplands. The Coatzacoalcos, or " Snake River," which flows from the opposite side of the Tuxtla volcano, and which had already been discovered by Grijalva before the expedition of Cortes, is also an extremely copious stream, regard being had to its length of about 220 miles. Its catchment basin is confined to the alluvial plain and the amphitheatre of low mountains which form the northern slope of the isth- mus of Tehuantepec. Nevertheless, its lower course is no less than 800 or 900 yards wide ; large vessels after once crossing the bar are able to ascend as far as Minatitlan, some 25 mUes from its mouth, while boats reach the village of Suchil, near the middle of the isthmus, and over 60 miles from the coast. But at the point where the fluvial and marine waters meet there is formed a dangerous sill, which, since the time of Cortes' expedition, has always maintained a uniform dejjth of from 12 to 14 feet of water. Many vessels have been wrecked at the entrance of the river, and it is mainly owing to this danger that engineers have abandoned the idea of constructing a ship canal across the isthmus of Tehuantepec. On the opposite side the rivers flowing to the Pacific are obstructed by similar formations. The large lagoon of Tilema, which lies just south of the narrowest part of the isthmus, and towards which converge numerous watercourses, has only from 7 to 10 feet of water on its bar, according to the seasons, and it is often inac- cessible, even to vessels of light draft. One of the caravals built by Cortes for the purpose of surveying the coast was wrecked at this point. The mouth of the Rio Tehuantepec, which reaches the coast west of the great lagoon, is completely closed by sands for a great part of the year. Shipping has then to ride at anchor either in the open roadstead well named La Ventosa, or "Windy," or near the dangerous granite reefs of the Morro de Tehuantepec, or else far from the alluvial lands of the isthmus in the Salina de Cruz inlet, terminus of the railway, and now sheltered by a breakwater. THE MEXICAA^ EIYEES. 41 Being sldrted by loftier ranges running nearer to the sea, the Pacific side of Mexico presents far less extensive low-lying coastlands and secondary beaches than the Atlantic side. Nevertheless, even here there are a few coast lagoons, especi- ally in the district west of Acapulco. Beyond it the sea receives the waters of the Eio Mexcala or de las Balsas, one of the chief Mexican rivers, whose farthest sources lie on the southern and some even on the eastern slopes of the volcanic range. The Apoyac, its principal headstream, which flows by Puebla, rises on the flanks of Ixtaccihuatl and is fed higher up by the snows melted by the thermal springs, lower do^'STi by several saline rivulets. The Eio de las Balsas, that is, " of the rafts," as indicated by its name, is, to a limited extent, navigable along its lower reaches ; above the bar it is accessible to small craft, which, higher up, are arrested by rapids, whirlpools, and a high cas- cade. For a space of 220 miles there occur no less than 226 obstacles of this sort, eddies, rapids, or dangerous reefs. The volume discharged through the two mouths of the Mexcala is estimated at 2,500 cubic feet per second. The Rio Tux- pam, or de CoKma, and the Aniecas, two less copious streams which reach the Pacific farther north, have a mean discharge of 1,100 and 750 cubic feet respectively. The Rio Lerma, or Santiago, the Tololotlan of the Indians, is also a considerable stream. By the riverain populations it is, in fact, known as the " Rio Grande," while the inhabitants of Michoacan call it also Cuitzeo, from the large lake situated in their province. It rises in the State of Mexico in the very centre of the Ana- huac plateau, and its farthest sources, issuing fi'om undergroimd galleries, descend from the Nevado de Toluca down to the twin lake of Lerma, the remains of an in- land sea which formerly filled the upper Toluca valley north of the Xevado volcano. At its issue from the lake, or rather marshy lagoon, the Lerma stands at the great altitude of 8,600 feet, and during its winding north-westerlj- course across the plateau, the incline is very slight. In this upland region it is swollen by several affluents, some of which, like the main stream itself, flow from lakes dotted over the tableland. After completiag half of its course at La Barca, the Lerma is stiU over 5,600 feet above sea-level. Here, some 280 miles from its source, it enters the large lake Chapala, near its eastern extremity ; but about 12 miles below the entrance it again emerges through a fissure on the north side of the lake, and still continues to flow throughout its lower course in the same north-westerlv direction. Chapala, thus obliquely traversed by the current of the Lerma, is the largest lacustrine basin in Mexican territory; but this flooded depression, about 600 square miles in extent, is very shallow, its mean depth being only 40 feet, and the deepest cavities not more than 110 feet. Everywhere, but especially on the north and east sides, its blue limpid waters are encircled by an amphitheatre of hills, whose slopes are covered with a rich growth of forest trees and lianas. The shores of this romantic basin present some of the loveliest scenery in Mexico ; but tin recently few travellers ventured to visit these almost uninhabited regions. At present a railway runs along the north-east side of the lake, and it has even been proposed to found a school of navigation on one of the inlets of the inland sea. Other lakelets dotted over the slopes of the moimtains about the western extremity 42 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. of Chapala seem to imply that its basin was formerly far more extensive that at present ; at that time it appears to hare discharged its overflow westwards through the valley of the river now flowing towards the Bay of Banderas, and some engineers have proposed to cut a canal through this old fluvial bed. At the point where the outlet was situated lava streams descended from the neighbouring heights in prehistoric times. The issue was thus obstructed, and the waters were forced to expand into a lake or else considerably to raise their level, and after- wards seek a new issue through the lowest breach in the cncii'cling hills. Fig. 20. — Laxe CnAPiiA. Scale 1 : 1,500,000. WestoF[.r.„... in2'2o" ; 30 Miles. These hills are in fact traversed by the Lcrma through a scries of gorges exca- vated by erosion in the eruptive rocks. To judge from the extreme irregularity of its course, this fluvial valley would appear to be of comparatively recent geological date. Its whole bed is disposed like a gigantic flight of irregular steps, where the stream develops a continued succession of high cascades and rajjids, all the way to the vicinity of the coast. These gorges begin with one of the finest cataracts in Mexico, named Juanacatlan from a neighbouring village. Rushing over a precipice 65 feet high, the current acquires a tremendous impetus estimated at 30,000 horse-power, and it is feared that the neighbourhood of Guadalajara may tempt speculators to convert the falls into a series of reservoirs and mill races. Desj^ite its abundant discharge, estimated at 4,000 cubic feet per second, the Lerma is not navigable, and its bed may in many places be easily forded. But its numerous ravines arc scarcely anywhere accessible to wheeled traffic or even pedes- trians ; hence roads and tracks have had to be laid do-\vn across the escarpments of the surrounding mountains. At Santiago, where the Eio Grande at last emerges on the low-lying coastlands, it is still 145 feet above sca-lcvel ; it enters the Pacific through a ramifying TILE MEXICAN EIVERS. 48 channel just north of San Bias Bay, opposite the Tres Marias islets, which continue north-westwards the normal trend of the coast, as indicated by the direction of the shore-line south of Cape Corrientes. The alluvial matter washed down by the Lerma has filled up a part of the space separating the mainland from this insular group ; both northwards and southwards the land is encroaching seaward, and the FijJ. 21. — CoLOILiUO ESTUAET. Scale 1 : 860,000. Diipilis. Oto 5 Fathoms. 5 Fathoms aud upwards. Banks exposed at low tides. =, 18 Miles. true coast at the foot of the hills is now washed by shallow lagoons which are pro- tected by sandy strips from the open sea. North of the Rio Lerma no other copious rivers reach the Pacific within the Mexican frontier ; even those which, like the Eio del Fuerte, the Rio Yaqui, and the Sonera, have large catchment basins, roll down very little water. This is due 41 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. to the slight rainfall and long droughts, dui'ing which the springs run dry and large rivers become impoverished, though their sources lie far inland on the interior of the plateau, and like the Rio Yaqui even on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre. Many noisy torrents rushing through foaming cascades over the heights of the Sierra Madre fail to reach the sea, and run out in the sands of the lowland plains. Others, especially in Lower California, are mere wadies which are seldom flooded, and their stony beds are the only roads in the country. To obtain a little water oozing up between the shingie deep holes have to be sunk, which are locally known by the name of bataques. The old estuaries have become salt pans, and the Rio Colorado, whose lower course alone is comprised within Mexican territory, resembles the rivers of Souora in the slight amount of its discharge compared with Kg. 22.~Closed Basins of Mexico. Scale 1 : EO.OOO.OOO. Lakes of the closed b.isins. —^.^—. C20 Miles. the vast extent of its drainage area ; however, this great watercourse is navigable for some hundred miles beyond the limits of the common frontier. All that part of Mexico which is comprised between the two converging border ranges is also too arid for all its watercourses to unite in perennial streams and reach the ocean through the Rio Bravo or any other large river. Most of them, being too feeble to surmoimt the heights enclosing or intersecting the plains, lose their waters in some shallow lagoon which rises or falls with the seasons. All the saline basins met in Chihuahua and Coahuila are depressions of this sort formed by torrents descending from the mountains. Such is the large Guzman lagoon near the Arizona frontier, where is discharged the exhausted current of the Rio Casas Grandcs at a lower altitude than the level CXOSED LACT5TEINE BASINS. 45 of the neighbouring Eio Bravo del Xorte. Other marshy tracts, like the lagoons of Santa Maria and dos Patos, have a similar origin, and the bed of the Bolson de Mapimi is also occupied by a closed reservoir, the Tlahualila lagoon. Farther south the Rio de Xazas, which is a somewhat copious stream in the upper valleys of the Sierra Candela, is arrested in the Laguna del iluerto, while the Rio d'Aguanaval does not always reach the Laguna de Parras. In various parts of these desert spaces occur numerous ojos or " eyes," that is, springs, some thermal, some cold, but nearly aU richly charged with chemical siibstances. Several have gradually raised circular margins of siliceous or calcareous deposits round their orifice, and in some places these accumulations are high enough to form veritable hillocks. Froebel saw a streamlet flowing from a knoll about thirty feet high, which had been built up in this way by the water itself. In the State of San Luis, where the plateau is already divided by the mountain ranges into numerous small basins, there are no extensive lagoons like those of the northern provinces ; but this district contains over one hundred small lakes or rather ponds, nearly all of which have become saline. The plains are largely covered with various kinds of efflorescences, some composed of saltpetre, others consisting for the most part of carbonate of soda. They still retain their old Aztec name of feqitesquite in Mexico, where the smelters use them in treating the various silver and argentiferous lead ores. Closed lacustrine basins arc also found in the valleys of the border range south of the plateau. Such is the Patzcuaro or "Greater Lake," in the State of Mexico, an island-studded depression encircled on all sides by mountaius, and containing a slightly brackish, but still potable water. Such is also the Cuitzeo, a deep reser- voir which is filled by the river Morelia, whose extremely salt water sterilises all the surrounding lands during the inundations. But of all these flooded depressions the most remarkable are those from which the Mexican plateau takes its name of Anahuac, that is, ^\jial-huatl, " Amid the TTaters," a term afterwards extended to all the upland plains of this region. These lakes, or rather shallow ponds, are disposed in a chain running north and south for a distance of about 46 miles ; but their superficial area varies from year to year and from season to season, so that they present different contour lines on maps constructed at different periods. The southern lakes Xochimilco and Chalco really form only a single sheet of water divided into two basins by a narrow dyke. Thanks to the copious streams descending from the neighbouring hills this depression has maintained its old outlines with little change. A canal, nmning northwards to the city of Mexico, discharges the overflow into Lake Texcoco, which occupies the bed of a periodically flooded basin from five to seven feet below the level of the capital. The northern Lakes San Cristobal, Xaltocan, and Zumpango stand like Xochimilco and Chalco above that level. Hence during the inundations, when the rivulets converge from the plaiu of Pachuca, descending from basin to basin towards the south, the city woiild be threatened with total destruction were the embankments to burst which have been constructed below each reservoir. 46 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. From tlic descriptions handed down by the Spanish conquerors, and the comparative observations made at different epochs, it is evident that the extent and volume of these Mexican lakes have continued to diminish duiing the last three hundred and fifty years. The capital was formerly represented as a " lacustrine city " surrounded by flooded plains, whereas at present it stands on dry land, the lakes no longer occupying even a third of the " vallej'." They have also become shallower, and the bed of the Texcoco basin is steadily silting up with the sands of the plains moving forward under the action of the winds. Its level woiild even be raised and its contents discharged on the city but for the excessive evaporation, by which the volume of water is gradually diminishing. In 1804, at the time of Humboldt's visit, its depth varied from 10 to 16 feet, but in 1885 it had fallen to 5 feet 6 inches in the deepest parts, with an average of scarcely more than 2 feet. In 1881 it was even much shallower, little over 12 inches in many places, and in exceptionally dry years Texcoco, San Cristobal, Xaltocan, and Zumpango have been exhausted. In fact this brackish depression would have long ago been emptied but for the flow from Chalco and Xochimilco. It is generally supposed that the local climate has really become drier since the time of the conquest. The disappearance of the forests from the slopes and plains would appear to have increased the evaporation by giving greater play to the winds, without a corresponding increase, perhaps even a decrease, in the rainfall. At present the contents of the lacustrine basins in the valley of Mexico are insignificant compared with their volume in a former geological epoch. The bed of the old lake, that is, the so-called " valley," consists of quaternary debris, sands, clays, pumice, scoriaj, organic remains, superimposed in successive layers so thick that they have not yet been pierced by the shafts of an artesian well sunk to a depth of 1,270 feet. In some places the calcareous strata of lacustrine origin have yielded spring water at a comparatively slight distance from the surface ; but elsewhere nothing has been met excejat the quaternary deposits.* The chemical composition of the Texcoco waters is itself an indication of their gradual concentration iu a continually narrowing basin. Xochimilco and Chalco are both fresh-water reservoirs, their contents being constantly renewed ; on the opposite side of the valley the other small depressions are also flooded with fresh- water. But the central lake is always brackish even after the heavy rains, when it covers a considerable surface. At a remote geological epoch, when the whole valley of Mexico was filled with fresh water, the overflow was discharged through a breach in the mountains northwards to the Tula or Montezuma, a headstream of the Panuco river. But * Supei-ficial area and relative altitude of the lakes iu the VaUoy of Mexico (18G5) : — Extent. Height. sq. miles. inches. Texcoco . . 100 . 77 below the capital Chalco . 46 . 48 above >> !. Xochimilco . 2.') . ■ 50 „ San Cristobal . 8 . • 63 „ .. Xaltocan . . 40 . . 68 „ )» J» Zumpango . 10 . . 165 „ Jt 1) CLOSED LACrSTEINE BASINS. 47 during the Listoric period, when a city stood on an island in the central lagoon at a lower level than several of the separate basins which had formed part of the original lake, it became necessary to protect the habitations and temples from the iuundations by which the lower part of the depression might have been fig-. 23. — Area or the ilExiCAx Laees at ViEiotrs Peeiods. Scale 1 : 530,000. fcA ^ . '','■■ •Aijicn^r: • ?5t O I Ve^f^wch IbX). leoo. 1700. 1S65. Highest Hoods. Norlhem Lakes in ISSO. . 13 Miles. flooded. The Aztecs had accordingly constructed strong defensive works, traces of which may still be seen near the cities of Ixtapalapa and Guadalupe. Eut these embankments at last yielded to the pressure, and under the Spanish rule the capital was for a time exposed to all lacustrine floodings. Towards the beginning of the seventeenth century the situation became so dangerous tliat it 48 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. was resolved to run an underground tunnel tHrough the sill which confined the flood waters on the north side. The viceroy summoned a vast army of Indian labourers in order to complete the work within a single winter or dry season from the end of November, 1607, to the middle of May, 1608. The Huehuetoca or Nechistongo gallery, as it was called, had a total length of 9,000 yards, and a mean height of 12 feet ; but it was not arched and the soil gave way. The outlet was completely closed in 16_'9, when a terrific storm burst over the city, flooding the streets to a depth of 10 feet. All traffic was carried on by boats, and five years passed before Mexico again stood on dry land. The works had to be resumed, but were carried on without any general plan and even on mutually destructive lines, in one place by underground galleries, in another by open cuttings. The latter system at last prevailed, and in 1789 the great undertaking was com- pleted. At several points the channel, excavated between high rocky walls, presents the appearance of some of the boldest cuttings executed by railway engineers in modern times. For a length of about 8G0 yards the height of the escarpments exceeds 165 feet, and the opening of the passage is more than double as wide. The river Cuautitlan, which discharged into Lake Zumpango a volume of about 400 cubic feet per second, was diverted to this desagi'tc, or emissary, and the northern lakes also sent their overflow through the same channel. But the friable parts of the cutting were frequently eroded, filling its bed with mud and refuse. Hence the works had to be incessantly renewed, and during the revolutionary wars they were abandoned altogether. Then came the great floods of 18G6, which threatened to swamp the capital with the swollen con- tents of the northern lakes rushing through breaches in the embankments, and during which the channel roUed down a volume of from 1,050 to 1,100 cubic feet per second. To prevent such a disaster a new emissary was projected, which was intended to carry off the overflow, not only of the northern lakes, but also that of Texcoco. But little more than a beginning was made with the gallery six miles long, by which the waters were to be drained off through the Tequisquiac Mountain. For twelve years all operations were suspended and not resumed till 1881; at present there is some prospect of the works being completed in 1893. But scientific men in Mexico are far from being of accord on the subject of drainage. According to L. de Belina the important question is not how to drain the "valley," but on the contrary, how to increase its humidity. Arid, dusty, and treeless, the surrounding plains must be transformed to a desert unless the running waters issuing from the uplands are husbanded for irrigation purposes, and unless the slopes of the hills be replanted to improve the climate and regulate the annual discharge. Ci.tMATE — Flora — Fauna. Taken as a whole the Mexican climate is one of those that present the greatest contrasts in a narrow space. Here the normal climate, as represented by the parallels of latitude, is profoundly modified by the elevation of the land, the aspect CLIMATE OF MEXICO. 49 of the mountain sloiacs, the force and direction of the winds, the distribution and quantity of the rainfall. Nevertheless, in certain regions a uniform climate prevails over vast spaces. Thus the northern states contain extensive plains remote from both oceans, where the extremes of temperature characteristic of the American Far "West are continued far to the south on all those plateaux where the prevailing vegetation are the cactus and thorny plants, which constitute a special zone combining the characfei'S of both zones. On the other hand the narrow region of the Tehuantepec isthmus belongs entirely to the humid tropical zone, even on the mountains which form the divide between the two oceans. The climatic contrasts caused by the different altitudes are produced in a large way only in the central part of Mexico, on the Anahuac plateau and the two border I'anges. The route from Vera Cruz on the Atlantic, across the plateau between the Puebla and Oaxaca uplands, and down to the Pacific at Acapulco, is the highway where these sharply contrasted climates may be studied to the best advantage. The low-lying maritime zone comprises both the swampy and unfertile sandy coastlands, and the well-watered plains and first slopes which arc thickly clad with leafy trees intertwined with festoons of lianas and surmounted by the tufted crests of tall palms. This is the tierm calimte, the " hot land," where the normal temperature exceeds 74° F. Some places on the^ Mexican seaboard are in fact amongst the hottest on the globe. Such is, for instance, the port of La Paz, which earned for California the name of the "Hot Furnace " given to it by Cortes. Above the coast zones, one facing the Atlantic, the other the Pacific, follow the tierras templadas, or "temperate lands," comprised mainly between the altitudes of 3,000 and 6,000 feet, but rising to a higher elevation in the southern than in the northern states of the republic. These are the regions which corres- pond to south-west Europe, at least in their mean temperature, vegetable products and suitability for settlement by the white race. The tierras fempladas are succeeded by the ficrras frias, or " cold lands," which comprise the plateau proper with the encircling highlands. The less elevated part of this region, growing maguey and cereals, is the most densely peopled region in Mexico, whereas on the higher grounds, some of which rise above the snow line, the climate is too rude to support a forest vegetation, or a dense human population. Sometimes these higher groimds are grouped together as a fourth zone distinguished by the name of tierras heladas, or " frozen lands." In many parts special conditions have placed the different vegetable zones in close proximity without any graduated transitions. From the suinmit of certain headlands, occupied exclusively by plants of a European type, the traveller sees at his feet palm groves and banana thickets. From the crests of the great volcanoes all three zones may even be seen superimposed one above the other. Thanks to the increased facilities for rapid travelling, it is now possible in a single day to traverse the three distinct zones, which elsewhere are separated one from the other by intervals of manj'' hundreds and even thousands of miles. VOL. XVII. E 50 MEXICO, CENTEAL AJSIEEICA, WESI INDIES. Eut although in some exceptional districts the zones are brought into sharp juxtaposition, they merge almost everywhere by successive transitions one into another. It is only in a very general -svay that any given region can be said to belong to such or such a zone, and the parting line oscillates greatly, especially about the base of the mountains. A zone of mutual overlapping has been developed under the thousand modifying conditions of soil, temperature, winds, the struggle for existence between the various species of plants. Certain glens and slopes even occur, which, in their vegetation, form tropical enclaves in the very midst of the temperate zone. Regarded as a whole, Mexico, which is intersected by the tropic of Cancer Fig. 21. — Veetioal D1SPOSI130N OF THE M.EXiciy Climates. Scale 1 : 12,000,000. 102°40 V/est oF GreenwicK 97°40 Warm. Temperate. Cold. . 310 Miles. almost exactly in the centre, is a hot country. Assuming its mean elevation to be 3,600 feet, the average temperature of these latitudes would be about 60° F., or nearly the same as that of Nice or Perpignan in the south of France, but far below that of African regions, such as the Sahara and Nubia, lying under the same parallels. The Anahuac plateau may be described as a temperate region upheaved above the tropical zone. It corresponds to the temperate and cold regions of Abyssinia, which also dominate " hot lands," such as Massawah and the Danakil territory. But however favoured the Abyssinian plateau may be in its climate, it is vastly inferior to Mexico in the advantages of position and means of access. In its latitude, Mexico lies well within the zone of the trade winds, which blow regularly from north-east to south-west, or from east to west, on the shores CLIMATE OF MEXICO. 51 of tlie Gulf and the slopes of the mountains. But their normal direction is frequently modified by the great inequalities of the relief and the trend of the mountain ranges. The so-called iior/es, or northern gales, which prevail especially from October to March in the Gulf waters, and which are justly dreaded by skippers bound for Tampico or Vera Cruz, are nothing more than the trade winds deflected from their course, and attracted southwards bj^ the heated and rarefied atmosphere of the low-lying plains of Yucatan. United with the cold current which sweeps down the Mississijipi, the trades blow with tremendous fury along the seaboard, the storms often lasting for several daj-s, and even a whole week, to the great danger of the shipping on these exposed andharbourless coasts. The Fig-. So. — ISOTHEEJTAXS OF MEXICO MODIFIED BT ALTITITDE. Scale 1 : 30.000.000. 15' West dF GreenwicK • r^ ^1 0to50°F. 50' to 59= 69' to 68' 68=10 77° 77° and upwards. 620 Miles. full force of the norte is scarcely felt on the plateaux, and its strength is completely exhausted before it reaches the Pacific slope. The shores of this ocean have also their special atmospheric currents, which are determined by the disposition of the coastline, and the form and elevation of the neighbouring mountains. At irregular intervals during the sxmimer the aiid and superheated plateaux attract the aerial masses from the equatorial waters, and the Slexican uplands are at least once a year visited by sudden squalls sweeping along the Columbian and Central American seaboard. At times they assume the character of a veritable cyclone, blowing in a few hours from every point of the compass. In 1839, one of these gales wrecked twelve vessels in the port of Mazatlan ; and llanzanillo, the Port of Colima, was destroyed by another in 1881. e2 52 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. The southerly or south-easterly storms, which have received from the missionaries the curious name of Covdonazo dc San Francisco, or " Scourge of St. Francis," rarely penetrate far into the interior, although a town of Michoacan, near the verge of the central Mexican uplands, has with good reason been named Ario, that is, the " Stormy " in the Tarascan language. On the west side, the prevailing currents are the so-called papaffai/os, or north- easterly trades, and the south-western monsoons, that is, the trades of the southern hemisphere attracted to the north of the equator, and deflected from their original course. Owing to the contrasts in the relief of the land, the differences of temperature, and the irregularity of the winds, the rainfall is distributed very unequally through- out Mexico, though it is chiefly regulated according to the seasons. Towards the middle of May, when the sun stands near the zenith of the northern hemisphere, the rains begin to fall. The clouds, following the track of the sun along the ecliptic, discharge frequent torrential downpours, at least on the slopes facing seawards. Usually, the approaching storm is indicated by a great black cloud rising from the sea " like a huge torso with half -mutilated limbs." It is locally called the giganfon, or " Giant," who will soon swallow up all the heavens. In the afternoon the clouds are rent asunder, and Ht up by flashes of lightning accompanied with thunder, in which the ancient Aztecs recognised the voice of the god Tepeyolotl, or " Heart of the Mountain," rumbling in long echoes over the hills. The sudden downpours are followed by rain lasting usually till nightfall. Then it clears up, and by dawn the wiads have already dried the ground. On the Mexican j^'^^tcau the tropical rains, brought by the north-easterly winds, fall regularly only during the four months from June to September, and the showers generally last less than an hour. The rains are also interrupted, especially in July and August, by numerous fine days, and even by weeks of dry weather, " St. Anne's Spring," as it is then called. They cease altogether in Octo- ber, when winter begins, which however presents some of the features of a Euro- pean summer ; hence its name of estio, " summer," or finnjw de secas, " dry season." It is the lack of moisture in the groimd, rather than the low temperature, that strips the trees of their foliage, and thus imparts a wintry aspect to the land- scape. But the lofty ranges also assimie their snowy mantle at an altitude of 13,000, and even 12,500 feet. In exceptional j*ears, the Ahualco Pass (11,520 feet) has been covered with snow all the way from Popocatepetl to Ixtaccihuatl, and a few flakes have even at times fallen so low as Morelia (6,400 feet). Numerous irregularities, however, are everywhere caused by the differences in the relief and aspect of the land. Thus two contiguous districts will some- times have a totally different distribution of moisture. In certain regions, notably the temperate zone of Jalapa and Orizaba, from 1,500 to 8,000 feet high, the vapours brought by the northern winds are condensed In fogs which lie on the surface and precipitate a fine but persistent mist. This Is the so-called chipicJiipi, which is awaited with impatience by the natives, for whom it is the essential CLIMATE,— FLOE A. 53 condition of prosperity, tlie salutl del puchlo. During its i^revalence the sun remains clouded generallj- for a period of about eight da)^s. At all times the rainfall is more copious in the southern j)rovinces, where the land is contracted between the Atlantic and Pacitic inlets, and where the sun twice crosses the zenith of the earth. Here the annual fall ranges from 80 to 120 inches, gradually diminishing thence northwards to the regions beyond the tropic of Cancer. Thus in Sonora the rains scarcely begin before the month of Juh', and are frequeutl}" interrupted during the normal season. Those northern regions especially which lie between the two main ranges have a very dry climate, the moisture-bearing clouds being here intercepted by the slopes of the Sierra Madrcs. On these excessively arid plateaux a disjDlay of extremely vivid sparks is often produced by the friction of two hard bodies. A continuous crepitation or crackling sound is sometimes even heard escaping from all the rugosities of the rocky soil. As a whole the Mexican climate, if not one of the healthiest, is certainly one of the most delightful in the world. The zone of " temperate lands " on both oceanic slopes enjoj's an " everlasting spring, " being exposed neither to severe winters nor to intolerable summer heats ; in every glen flows a rippling stream ; every human abode is embowered in a leafy vegetation, and here the native plants are intermingled with those of Europe and Africa. Each traveller in his turn describes the valley in A^hich he has tarried longest as " the loveliest in the world," that nowhere else the snowy crests or smoking volcanic cones rise in more im- posing grandeur above the surrounding sea of verdure all carpeted with the brightest flowers. In these enchanting regions there is still room for millions and millions of human beings.* The Mexican flora is, so to say, a living illustration of its climate, for the plants thrive or droop according to the varied conditions of temperature, aspect, and moisture. From the character of the vegetation the botanist knows at once whether the heat or cold is excessive, the oscillations of the thermometer mode- rate or extreme, the rainfall abundant or slight. In these respects Mexico presents the greatest contrasts, deserts and steppes alternating with scrub, and mighty forests bound together in an inextricable tangle of creepers and undergrowths. In the northern regions the rocky Chihuahua and neighbouring provinces, where rain seldom falls, have an extremely sparse vegetation, consisting of greyish thorny plants with largo hard leaves, a vegetation which adds little to the * Meteorological conditions of some Mexican stations taken in the dii-ection from north to south : — StationK T^aHtude Height. Mean EainfaU. ftianons. J^atituae. j-^^j Temperature. Inches. Monterey (1888) .... 25° 40' 1,036 70= F. 137 Mazatlan (six years) . . 23° 11' 150 76° 39 Zacatecas (1888) .... 22° 47' 8,100 58° 19 San Luis Potosi (2 years) . 22° 05' 6,230 62° 16 Leon (1888) 21° 7' 5,920 65° 35 Guanajuato (1888) ... 21° 1' 6,645 63° 33 Guadalajara (6 years) . . 20° 41' 5,180 72° 34 Mexico (12 years) . . . 19° 26' 7,400 60° 30 CoUma (15 years) ... 19° 12' 1,655 78° 42 Puebla (2 years) .... 19° 7,110 60° 39 Oaxaca (1879) .... 17° 3' 5,108 67° 38 54 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. general aspect of the landscape. Nevertheless in spring their arid plains are suddenly decked with many-coloured flowers, the mezquito shrub is covered with a pale yellow blossom, clusters of white bells shoot up from amid the glossy foliage of the jaicca, the shingly tracts are enlivened by the bright red petals of the mamillaria. Thanks to its soft velvety turf, Europe may have more cheerful, but assured!}' not more brilliant, grassy meads. But this " flowery season " is soon over, and nature presently resumes its dull and sullen aspect, relieved here and there only by a few thickets of delicate green thorny shrubs. The prevailing species are the mezqultes (algarrobia glandulosa), for the most jjart very different from those found in the United States, but, like them, still exuding a substance resembling gum-arabic. In New Mexico they are mere bushes whose stems branch off directh* from the root ; in south Texas they develop into shrubs ; but within Mexican' territory, and especially in Sonora, they assume the proportions of veritable trees, here and there grouped in large groves. Elsewhere, notably on the slopes of the "Western Sierra Madre, in the states of Chihuahua, Sonora and Sinaloa, the oak is the prevailing species ; hence the term encinal, or " oak lands," applied in these regions to any extensive wooded tracts. The term chaparral, which, strictly speaking, should be applied only to the deci- duous oak, is in the same way given by the northern Mexicans to all spaces under scrub or brushwood ; in ordinary language every grove or thicket is a chajDarral, even where the mezquites and large cactus are the dominant types. Except along the river banks fringed by poplars and willows, the only woody plants in certain northern regions of Mexico are the cactus. Of these the most remarkable are the pifa/ia/jas, which assume the form of thorny fluted columns. The branches stand out at right angles from the stem, and then grow parallel with it, thus forming prodigious candelabra, some of which are 3-5 or 40 and even 60 feet high. Other species are reckoned by the hundred which have adapted themselves to the arid climate by developing an abundance of sap in their thick leaves, and protecting themselves against animals by thorny armour. Amongst these fantastic plants there are some which at a distance might be taken for blocks of greenish stone. In certain places the ground is completely carpeted as by a kind of green sward with dwarf agaves, which are still known by their old Aztec name, ixtk or ia;tli. The larger species of this useful plant, whose fibre is used for weaving coarse textile fabrics, and whose sap serves for the preparation of brandy and other national drinks, flourish especially in the inland states of San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Durango, Aguascalientcs, and even on the colder plateaux. In many districts the general character of the scenery is determined by these agave planta- tions, with their enormous thorny leaves, associated with hedges of other species, such as the organos, so named from their resemblance to the pipes of an organ. The three superimposed zones, ranging from the foot of the mountains to the upland valleys of the plateaux, are characterised by special types, which impart to the several floras their distinctive features. Thus on the coastlands of the hot zone arc seen extensive savannahs of dense herbage, magnificent palm groves and all the trees of the Antilles noted for their fruits or flowers, their wood, bark or FLORA OP MEXICO. do essences. Higher up follow those glorious woodlands where the European and tropical floras are everywhere intermingled ; here flourish the coffee shrub, the banana, the orange, and especially maize and beans, which supply the staple diet of the inhabitants. Then comes the cold region, yielding wheat ; a cereal, however, which is here of far less economic value than maize. On the plateaux the prevailing trees are the oak and pine, the former between the altitudes of 5,000 and 8,500 feet, the latter rising from 8,000 to above 13,000 feet. On most of the higher crests the conifers reach or even exceed the altitude of 13,500 feet. They are the last arborescent trees that grow on the flanks of the mountains, the space between them and the lower limit of perpetual snow being Fig. 2G. — Vegetable Zones in Mexico. Scale 1 : 30,000,000. Alpine Flora. Finns pondcrosi Prairie Flora. Sequoia, audedulis. Cere us piganteue. n Algarrobia glanduloaa. Pinus Quercus crassifolia Hfematoxylon Deserts, Australia. and reticulata. campechianum. G20 Miles. exclusively occupied by short herbage and grasses. But owing to the overlapping of the vegetable zones of different temperatures, the pines of the uplands have almost everywhere encroached upon the temperate regions, and have even descended below the line of 3,500 feet. The dominant types of trees are represented by a great number of si^ccies, about seventy-five varieties of the oak having been found on the slopes of Orizaba alone. The ahiiehuetes or "cypresses " of Chapultepec, Atlisco, Oaxaca, which belong to the same species as those of Louisiana {ta.rodium cUsiicJium), grow to a colossal size; they are classed by Humboldt with the giants of the vegetable kingdom. 5G MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Many of the numerous species of the Mexican flora have found a home in the eastern hemisphere. Fi'om Mexico comes the chocolate ph'int, which has pre- ser\-ed its Aztec name ; a species of arachis, the cacahuate, which also retains its native designation in a modified form ( tlacacahuatl) ; the jjine- apple, the tomato {tomatl of the Indians) ; the agave, and the various species of cactus, jalap, sarsa- parilla and other medicinal plants, balsams, gums, and resins. Both the potato and tobacco are also indigenous to Mexico. The European gardens, orchards, and conservatories are being continually en- riched by exotics from Mexico ; the naturalist Poyet alone has introduced into France as many as sixty species of fruit trees and ornamental plants from the single province of Jalapa. On the other hand all foreign species maj' be acclima- tised in the vast " botanical garden " formed by the successive terraces which rise from the seaboard at Vera Cruz or Mazatlan to the ujjlands of Guadalajara and Zacatccas. The banana, whose name is of Sanskrit origin, and which has no original designation in any American language, was probably introduced into the New World through the Canaries and Ilaiti. Wheat was brought by a negro slave belonging to Cortes, and Bernard Diaz tells us how he himself planted seven or eight orange pips which grew to be fine plants, the " first " in Mexico. The conquerors also planted the first vine in this fertile soU, where every industry depending on the products of the vegetable kingdom might be practised. At a comparatively recent epoch, that is, during tertiary and quaternary times, the Mexican fauna comprised several species of large quadrupeds comparable in size to those of the Old World. Bernard Diaz had alreadj- noticed certain " giants' bones," which he attributed to the predecessors of the Aztecs, and to similar finds are due such names as cerro, Ionia or Uano del (jigante, now occurring in various parts of the republic. These remains, which have from time immemorial been used in the native pharmacopoeia, and which appear to be really efiicacious in several maladies, are for the most part those of mastodon.?, rhinoceroses, elephants, deer, and horses. Under the Tequisquiac hill, north of Mexico, a new species of gigantic armadillo has been discovered, which has been named the gli/pfodoii clavipcs. The present Mexican fauna belongs, like its flora, to the North American zone, so Ear as regards the plateau regions, and to the Antilles in respect of the coastland round the Gulf, while that of the Pacific seaboard is intermediate between the Califoruian and South American. In the general aspect of its terrestrial animals, Mexico is connected more with the United States, whereas in its marine forms the reverse movement has taken place. Thus the prevailing species in the Gulf of Mexico as far as Tamaulipas and Texas, and the Pacific coast northwards to Sonora and Lower California, have migrated from South America. The species in the two oceanic basins differ almost completely, and despite the proximity of the Pacific and Atlantic shores, their shells are quite distinct. In the hot lowlands, where the atmosphere is most charged with vapours, are concentrated the largest number of genera and species ; but this maj' be due to the fact that here the populations are less dense, and the work of extermination conse- quently less advanced than in the temperate regions. Three species of monkeys FAUNA OF MEXICO. 57 dwell in the tropical forests, where the vampire hangs from the boughs of the trees, and the humming-bird, the " solar beam " of the old Mexicans, flits from flower to flower. Every town has its organised bands of " scavenger " vultures, (cat/tarfcs atvatus, zopilote or black vulture), while the king zopilote or white vul- ture {sarcoramjjJius papa) holds sway in the rural districts ; when the royal bird swoops down on the carrion, the other species stand respectfully round, awaiting their turn to share in the banquet. In the thickets have their lair the pon^erful carnivora, puma, jaguar or tiger- cat, as well as the tapir, largest of the Mexican ungulata. All the emydida?, terrapins or mud tortoises, are found in the shallow marine waters along the coasts, while the lagoons, and especially the fluvial estuaries, are infested by the alligator ; the seashore and forests of the coastlands are also the haunts of the gecko, basi- lisk and iguana. A large number of the snake family, poisonous or harmless, is confined to the hot zone, which also swarms with batrachians ; here are found most of the numerous characteristic species of toads and salamanders. The waters of the estuaries and coast streams teem with fishes, all the numerous varieties of which difEer on the two oceanic slopes, but still present a certain analogy in their general distribution. The marshy plains and dark forests of the hot lande are also infested bj' clouds of mosquitoes. To escape from his tormentors the ox plunges into the nearest quagmire, leaving muzzle alone exposed ; on this presently alights the pretty little " commander " bird, which lives on mosquitoes, and thus the unwieldy beast and dainty winged creature combine against the common enemy. The temperate lands have also their special fauna, and certain species of snakes and tortoises are found only in this zone ; such is the boa-imperator which ranges to an altitude of over 4,000 feet, and whose deified image formerly adorned the temples of the Aztecs. Specially characteristic of the northern provinces which form a prolongation of the American Far West, are the lizards met nowhere else in Mexico. TTithin a recent period bisons were still seen on the uplands of Chi- huahua, but this animal has disappeared altogether from the Xorth Mexican provinces. On one occasion Froebel witnessed the passage of a herd of antelopes, num- bering at least a thousand head, in the neighbourhood of Lake Encinillas in the north-west of Chihuahua. The grey bear of Oregon, and the wild sheep, preyed upon by three species of the coyote, by tlie puma and the jaguar, also penetrate into North Mexico and Lower California, as do also the Virginian opossum and the prairie marmot. The peccary dwells in the forests, and lays waste the neigh- bouring plantations. This animal is much dreaded for the furious way a whole herd will sometimes precipitate itself on the wayfarer. But of all the Mexican fauna, two only have been domesticated : the huaholoil {meleagris mexicana), which is a species of duck, and the turkey, introduced into Europe by the Spaniards from the ""West Indies," hence by the French called " coq d'Inde." The techichi, an edible dumb dog, was soon exterminated when taxed by the Spanish authorities. The other farmyard animals have all been intro- duced into Mexico by the conquerors. 68 MEXICO, CENTRAL Ai£EEICA, WEST INDIES. Scorpions are one of the plagues on the plateaux, where the fields are also ravaged by various species of acrita. The nights in the tropical zone are lit up at night by the firefly (cociiijos), flitting and flashing in the air like coruscations. The ant is represented by numerous species, one of the commonest of which are the arrieros, or "muleteers" (cecodoma mexicana), who excavate their crater-like habi- tations in the hardest rock. One of the most interesting of the lower organisms observed by naturalists on the Anahuac plateau is the curious axolotl, which has been the subject of pro- found studies in connection with the theory of evolution. It aboimds especially in the saline and sodic waters of Lake Texcoco, and has rarely been met in other parts of the New World. It is a species of amphibious lizard, furnished with bronchial tufts or gills, but liable to such Protean changes that its classification presented great difficulties to the first observers of this eccentric creature. They gave it all sorts of scientific names, even that of lusus aquarum, " sport of the waters," and it was then constituted a separate genus under the title of siredon. Nevertheless, many zoologists already pronounced it to be the larval form of a large species of anib/i/stoiiie, and this view was at last proved to be correct by Dumeril, who gradually transformed the axolotl to an arablystome. Most of the axolotls remain for several generations in the larval or tadpole state, and a few only develop into the perfect animal. The Indians consider its flesh a great luxury, and they also greedily devour the eggs deposited by two species of the axayacatl fly (especially the corixa femovata) amongst the sedge of the Mexican lakes. These eggs are pounded and mixed with other ingredients to form cakes, and nests of other larva;, clustered together like sponges, are also eaten. According to Virlet d'Aoust the eggs of the axayacatl deposited on the bed of lakes, hardens to a kind of oolitic limestone exactly similar to that of the oolites of the Jura, which were probably formed in the same way. The marine waters on both sides of Mexico abound in animal life. Amongst the cetaceans that visit its shores are some manatees. Hundreds of new species of molluscs have been discovered on the Pacific side, amongst others the aptisia (Icpilans, which would aj^pear to be the same as that from which the Tyrians extracted their purple dye. The Indians of Tehuan tepee use it for dyeing their fibres, without requiring a mordant to fix the colour. In the Gulf of California, and especially near Paz and the neighbouring archi- pelagoes, extensive beds of jDearl oysters are fished. Some other islands in the same gulf are frequented by myriads of various species of aquatic birds, and have already yielded many hundred cargoes of guano. It is noteworthy that the Pacific islands lying at some distance from the coast have all a fauna different from that of the mainland. Thus the little Tres-Marias group, about 60 miles off the coast of Jalisco, has a special species of humming- bird. The Revilla-Gigedo archipelago also forms a separate zoological zone, and the island of Guadalupe, 155 miles distant from Lower California, has eleven species of land birds, every one of which differs from the corresponding species on the adjacent continent. TXHABITANTS OP MEXICO. 69 Inhabitants of Mexico. The hypotheses that hare hem advanced regarding the origin of the various populations found hy the Spaniards in Mexico at the time of the conquest are ahnost as numerous as the works written on the ethnology of this region. Naturally, the early writers, being obliged to harmonise their fancies with the Biblical texts, had to trace the Mexicans back to one of Noah's sons, arriving either by sea with the waters of the Deluge or by land after the subsidence of the flood. Even during the present century certain authors have endeavoured to show that these natives are descended from the Jews " dispersed over the earth " after the Babylonian captivity. According to them, the kinship is attested bj' the physical appearance, the national character, the religious manners, customs, myths, traditions, even the very language of the Mexican nation. Other writers sought in classical antiquity, amongst the Egyptians, Phoenicians, or Carthaginians, for some indications of a former immigration into the New "World, and Plato's Atlantis could not be overlooked in the conjectural history of the old Mexican races. " The Atonatiuh, that is to say, the Atlantides," says Alfredo Chavero, " are the mother people of the civilised nations of Europe and America ; the Spaniards and the Toltecs alike descend from them." Brasseur de Bourbourg even fancied he had made out from the Xahuatl manuscript known as the Codex Cliimal- j}ojMca that an " eruption of volcanoes stretching over the whole extent of the American continent, which was at that time double its present size, blew up the globe, and between two risings of the morning star engulfed the richest regions of the earth." Fortunately, the Atlantides of the present Mexico escaped the disaster, and survived to record it on those monuments of American literature and architecture which no savant had hitherto been able to interpret. But putting aside these vagaries, the most accepted hypothesis, expounded under various forms by Guignes, Humboldt, Prescott, Quatrefages, and Hamv, regards the Mexicans as immigrants from Asia, arriving either by Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands, or else directly across the ocean, or from group to group of the Polynesian Islands. The relative proximity of the two continents of Asia and North America, and the imdoubted fact that Japanese junks had actually been cast ashore on the Califoi"nian seaboard during the historic period, could not fail to suggest such views, and commend them to the serious consideration of many superficial enquirers. There is, however, no authentic proof that the mysterious region where grows ihefusaiig, and which was supposed to have been discovered by a Chinese expediiion at the beginning of the seventh century, is really Mexico or Central America ; nor does the description of the country given by the old Chinese writer agree very well with that of the Anahuac plateau, still less with the habits and customs of the natives as described by the Spanish conquerors. The religion of the Aztecs differs also too profoundly from Buddhism or any other east Asiatic system to recognise in it the teachings of any Chinese mission- aries. On the other hand the fancied coincidences of symboKcal signs and figures are far too vague to establish anything more than the faintest presumption ia GO MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. favour of former relations between peoples separated from eacL. other by tbe broad waters of the Pacific. The communications that may have taken place at various epochs, and even the resemblances noticed between the Mexicans and Chinese, can in no way justify the assumption of the common origin of the two races, or even of their cultures. As far as history and tradition go back, the Mexican lands have always been inhabited ; whether aborigines or not, these populations would have been spoken of by the Greeks as "autochthones," or indigenous. As in other places, such as the neighbourhood of Puj', in the south of France, geologists have also discovered the fossil remains of a quaternary man on the Anahuac plateau, near the city of Mexico. These interesting remains, dating from an epoch long anterior to Aztec civilisation, were brought to light in 1884 at the foot of the Pehon de los Bancs in the saline plains formerly flooded by the waters of Lake Texcoco to the east of the capital. The bones were found in the vegetable humus imder a layer of lava in association with some kitchen refuse. The osteoloo-ical characters of this fossil Mexican man are the same as those of the pure indigenous race of Anahuac, in which the canine teeth scarcely differ from the incisors. The man of Penon was contemporaneous with the elephant, deer and horse which inhabited the same region at a time when the level of the waters in the Texcoco lagoon was 10 feet higher than at present, and when vol- canic eruptions anterior to history had not yet taken place. Elsewhere, flints or cherts, evidently worked by the hand of man, have been found amongst deposits also containing the teeth and other remains of the Ameri- can elephant (elephan Colomhi). These primitive races must consequently have flourished many thousand years before the present time. At a time when Rome was hastening to its fall, and the barbaric peoples of North Europe were overrunning the empire, the Anahuac tableland in Central America was already the seat of an advanced civilisation. Doubtless, it is far from easy to classify peoples as barbarous or civilised according to their various degrees of culture ; but the latter term, which has so often a purely conventional meaning, may justly be applied to the Aztecs, or Mexicans, as well as to the Mayas of Yucatan, the Chibchas (Miiiscas), Quichuas, and Aymaras of Soutli America. It might even be extended to the Pueblo Indians, and perhaps to other native communities in North America. Amongst the loss advanced nations, whom thej', nevertheless, resembled in their political and social evolution, the Mexicans were distinguished by their national cohesion, by their highly developed economic system, their arts and sciences, as well as the knowledge of numerous technical processes enabling them to facilitate labour. Like the early civilisations of the Old "World, such as those of Egypt, Chaldasa, India, and China, that of Mexico took its rise at some distance from the ocean on the uplands encircled by lofty border ranges or steep escarpments. It had neither a Nile nor a Euphrates, by which the riverain populations could be merged in a compact nation ; but it had its lakes, far more extensive than at present, whose shifting levels, periodical floods and subsidences IXHABITANTS OF MEXICO. CI Imposed on tlie inhabitants the necessity of co-operation, of mutual aid and soli- darity, in which lie the germs of all progress. Nevertheless, compared with the early historic civilisations of the eastern hemisphere, that of ^Mexico had the disadvantage of remaining, if not completely isolated, at least almost entirely encircled by barbai-ic communities. It lacked the proximity of other centres of progressive life, with which to exchange those recip- rocal influences whence might spring another and a higher culture. Despite the vertical disposition of the climates, rendering the hot lands highly dangerous for the inhabitants of the plateaux, the Aztecs had doubtless established distant rela- tions with the 3Iayas and the various groups of Nahuas dispersed over Central America ; but elsewhere they were cut off from contact with all cultured peoples, imtil their seclusion was suddenly and violently invaded by the Spanish conquerors. Henceforth, civilisations and races became forcibly intermingled. So rapid was the work of destruction which followed the first arrival of the Spaniards that antiquarians might well have feared the complete disappearance of all documents relating to the ancient history of Mexico. Such records were often deliberately destroyed, as by Archbishop Zumarraga at Tlatelulco, Xufiez de la Vega at Chiapa, and others who, aping the zeal of Paul at Ephesus, burnt, as suspected of necromancy, all the Mexican works they could discover. Later they were satisfied with concealing the precious manuscripts, which they kept locked up in their libraries, neither able nor willing to make any use of them. Fortunately the ancient lore had been kept alive in a few noble families allied by marriage with the Spanish conquerors. The aid of these men could thus be secured in the later attempts made to restore the annals of Anahuac. Many natives contributed in this way to rescue from oblivion the early records of the Aztecs and the allied peoples. In the year 1-348 Tadeo de Xiija, an Indian of Tlaxcala, at the request of the viceroy, composed a history of the conquest, which was attested by the signatures of thirty Tlaxcaltec nobles. Gabriel d'Ayala, of Texcpco, wrote in the Aztec language a history of Mexico from the year 1243 to 1-362. Contributions to the history of her native land, now unfortunately lost, were even made by a Mexican lady, Maria Bartola, Princess of Ixtapalapa. Several pure or half-blood natives, such as Tezozomoc, Chimalpahin and Camargo, have also left important historic manuscripts ; lastly the family of the Ixtlilxochitls, descended from the old kings of Mexico and Teotihuacan, had several representatives amongst the national historians, and one of them, Fernando de Alva Cortes, had even the courage to exalt his ancestry and denounce the "frightful cruelties '' of the conquerors of Mexico. But even amongst the Spanish missionaries men were found who recognised something more in Mexican history than the artifices of the devil, and who went to the trouble to procure explanations of the pictorial records, and collect the ancient traditions of the people. Such were Bartolome de las Casas, Sahagun and Torquemada. The historians of the present century have also been able to throw further light on the pre-Columbian history of the Mexicans, thanks to the 62 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. discovery of new manuscripts, the partial interpretation of the hieroglj'phics, and a more careful study of the early writers. Aided by these resources the student may now roughly trace the sequence of events for at least a thousand years before the conquest, and dimly contemplate the first glimmerings of national life amongst the Mexican populations. At this epoch the land was already occupied by most of the half-civilised Indian nations, such as the Otomi, Chichimecs, Huaxtecs, Totonacs, Mixtecs and Zapotecs, by whom it is still inhabited, and according to the national tradition, it was in their midst that the Nahuas, that is, the " Clear-spoken People," made their appearance in the twofold capacity of conquerors and civilisers. These intruders, coming from the " Seven Caves " of the north, divided into seven tribes, each with seven sub-divisions, and advancing southwards in seven successive expeditions, had to vanquish a race of giants before securing possession of the " Terrestrial Paradise." Then the demi-god, Quetzalcoatl, a mythical legislator, coming iip from the sea, appeared amongst them, and after instructing them in the arts, sciences and social institutions, suddenly disappeared with a promise some day to return. This was the long-awaited Messiah, and when Cortes emerged, as it were from the bosom of the deep, and presented himself at the head of his followers, the prophecy was supposed to be at last fulfilled, and the people looked forward to the dawn of a new millennium. The sixth century of the new era is usually regarded as about the time when a, group of Nahuas arrived in Anahuac, after a long series of wanderings from Huehue-Tlapallan, a city or region which the commentators have hitherto failed to identify. Some place it in the north, others to the south, of Mexico. Never- theless, most of the indications point to the northern regions as the cradle of the Nahua race ; the very form of the Mexican tableland, broadening out northwards, and contracting southwards to a labyrinth of separate districts, shows the direction in which the migrations must have taken place. The whole group of these con- quering Nahua tribes is represented in the legends as issuiug from the " White Dove of Cloudland," a personification of the northern regions. Towards the close of the seventh century, the Nahuas, commonly designated under the name of Toltecs, are already found grouped round a city constituting the centre of their power. Modern archccologists have rediscovered this city in the ruins of Tollan, now known by the name of Tula, which lies fifty miles, by railway, north-west of Mexico. These early Nahua invaders were themselves replaced by others of the same race, vanquishers of the Quinames, or " Giants." The Olmecs and Xicalancs, as they were called, are represented as coming from the east, where they had doubt- less already constructed several of those monuments which were later attributed to succeeding tribes of different speech. In any case there can bo no doubt that the so-called Toltec epoch Was one of the richest in works which still attest the culture of these early Nahua peoples. The very word toUccatl, whatever its original meaning, had become synonymous with a craftsman of skill and taste, an "artist," as we should say. The same term was also applied to those traders ESTSABITANTS OF MEXICO. ea \vho made long joiirnevs to distant lands, and vrho were tlie " torehbearers " of JS'ahua civilisation in Central America. Altogether it would seem probable that " Toltec " was not the name of any particular people, and that the " artists " were simply Nabuas like their Aztec successors. The term Colhua, or " ancestors," which is also applied to them, is also an indication of tbeir common ethnical unity. The Tula domination lasted till the second half of the eleventh century, when the strength of the powerful Xahua tribes was for the first time broken by intestine strife, foreign wars, and the invasion of the Chichimecs, or Barbarians, Fig. 27. — EsTEST or the Aztec CosairEsra. Scale 1 ; 13,000,iX)0. Aztec Conqiiests. . 1S6 Miles. accompanied by famine and pestilence. The chronicles speak of milHons perishing amid all these disorders, and, for whatever reason, after this date no further mention is made of the " Toltecs," or else they are represented as fugitives dispersed amongst the surrounding populations, or else going southwards to found new states in Yucatan, Chiapas, or Guatemala. Numerous migrations are also related of the Chichimecs, who displaced the centre of Xahua power southwards to the Anahuac plateau properly so called, first to the shores of Lake Xaltocan, then to the plains around Lake Texcoco not far from the present confederate capital. Lastly, the royal residence was estab- 6i MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. lished at Texcoco or Acolhuacan, tic "Ancestral City"; but in 1325 the rival city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan rose on an island amid the waters of the lake. The Aztec founders of this place were themselves of the same Nahua race as their Toltec and Chichimec predecessors. They had reached the Anahuac plateau towards the close of the twelfth century, having a hundred and twenty-five years previously quitted their insular home of Aztlan, which has not yet been identified with certaint}- by geographers. During those years of wanderings they had dwelt in the mj'thical land of Chicomoztoc, that is, the " Seven Caves," and traversed many strange regions in search of the " Land of Promise." The legend also speaks of them as the " inventors of fire," that is, as an ingenious people, rivalling the Toltecs in their knowledge of the arts and sciences. Thanks to its insular position, easily defended against all sudden attack, the lacustrine city grew rajjidl}-, and round it were formed the famous chinampas, or floating gardens, which supplied the people with provisions during times of siege. Even after it was divided into two hostile towns, the old and democratic Tenochtit- lan and the modern trading town of Tlatelulco, it continued to develop rapidly,thanks to the inflow of immigrants from all parts, seeking refuge in these sti'ongholds. "When the Chichimec ascendency was finally destroyed, in 1431, by intestine wars and the revolt of the oppressed populations, Mexico succeeded to the power hitherto exercised by Texcoco. It stood at the head of the confederacy formed by the three cities of Mexico, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. Under the hegemony of the A-ztec capital their conquests soon spread beyond the limits of Anahuac proper. The annals of this period, which agree on all the essential points, despite the partial accounts of writers of different nationalities, describe the Mexicans as reducing the surrounding populations for the twofold purpose of increasing their store of gold, precious stones, and ornamental feather- work, and procuring victims for the altars of their gods. "Westwards they failed to subdue the tribes of Michoacan, and towards the north-west they scarcely advanced beyond the limits of the Anahuac valley. But in the direction of the south and south-east they had conquered the whole region as far as the coast, from the mouth of the Panuco to the Alvarado bar. But on the plateau they left the independent nation of the Tlaxcalans, who, with hundreds of revolted tribes, greatly facilitated the overthrow of the Mexican empire by the Spanish invaders. Prodigies and scourges of all kinds, say the chronicles, foreboded the approaching ruin of the Aztec power, which had already been seriously threatened by the insur- rection of its own subjects, when Cortes and his Tlaxcalan allies presented them- selves before the doomed capital. Nevertheless the name of this opulent city has been extended not only to all the surrounding territorj', but also to an aggregate of provinces or states far more extensive than the empire of Montezuma. The term " Mexican," formerly restricted to a fraction of the Aztecs, themselves merely one of the numerous branches of the Nahua race, is now claimed by a great nation of about twelve million souls. The Spanish conquerors could not fail to recognise in Mexico an empire like that of their native land, where the will of a potent ruler was implicitly obeyed MEXICAN CULTUEE. 65 throughout his wide dominions, where he nominated the provincial governors, imposed tribute and levied troops. They fancied that here also aU. authority- emanated from the imperial power which was regularly maintained in the same dynasty by a sort of right divine. They were unable to understand that the Aztecs, after having lived in family commimities without any private ownership of the soil, had established a military democracy formed of kindred groups who selected their own "speakers," that is, chiefs. Surprised, on the other hand, to find in the New World a great city, larger and wealthier than their own capitals, the conquerors naturally exaggerated the resources of Mexico and the culture of its inhabitants. Nevertheless certain docu- ments relating to the native language, the sciences and the art of transmitting thought, the care also bestowed on agriculture and irrigation, lastly, the objects preserved in our museums, and the monuments still standing in the neighboui'hood of the cities or buried under dense forest growths, make it evident that Mexican civilisation had raised itself far above the level of barbaric populations. The Aztec language, which was probably identified with that of the Toltecs and Chichimecs, and certain dialects of which were and still are spoken far to the south in Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua, was by far the most prevalent idiom in Mexican territory. It was current throughout the greater part of the Anahuac plateau, on the Gulf of Mexico as far as the Coatzacoalcos delta, and on the Pacific coastlands from the Gulf of California to that of Tehuantepec. It is still in use, side by side with Spanish, in all these regions, although the modern dia- lects scarcely retain a third of the stock of words in the literary standard. As the exclusive medium of civilised intercourse Aztec had become the language of diplomacy and trade ; as each province was conquered, the speech of the ruling people assumed an official character, and the inhabitants were compelled to learn it. Aztec belongs to the polysynthetic order of speech, and of this class it is a tvpical specimen ; the words of the sentence are fused together by modification to an extraordinary extent, and in accordance with many subtle laws of euphony. The language is wonderfully plastic, and those writers who have studied it thoroughly vie with each other in vaunting its varied qualities of grace, subtlety and wealth of descriptive terms ; in his work on natural history Hernandez enumerates two hundi-ed species of native birds and twelve hundred of plants, all of which have distinct names in Aztec. It also abounds in abstract terms to such an extent that translators have had no difficulty in finding Mexican expressions for such metaphysical or religious words as occiu' in the New Testament, the Imitation of Christ, and other works of a like character. Its finest literarj' monu- ments are of an ethical order, moral exhortations breathing a lofty sentiment imsurpassed even in Hindu classical literature. A remarkable indication of the high degree of civilisation attained by the Mexicans is afforded by their knowledge of astronomic phenomena. They were able to describe the movements of the sun, moon, and some planets, and the exact duration of the solar year ; the retvirn of each " new plant," as they expressed it, was more accurately known to them than it is even now in official Russia, where VOL. XVII. ■£ 66 MEXICO, CEXTEAL .UIErjCA, WEST INDIES. the present calendar is twelve days behind time. Like that of their Zapotec and Michoacan neighbours, their year was divided into eighteen months of twentj' days, to -n-hich were added five sujaplementary days, often regarded as of bad omen. But in order more completely to harmonize the conventional with the astronomic year, after every cycle of fifty-two years a period either of twelve or thirteen days was intercalated according to the necessities of the calculations. The numeral system was vigesimal, that is, four times five, the days being also grouped in fives, the fifth answering to our seventh, and possessing a certain importance as set apart for feasts and markets. But the j-ears were differently divided, each tlalpilli, " knot " or " bundle," consisting of thirteen, and four of these, that is, a series of fifty-two years, constituting the xiultmol2}iUi, or cycle. In the eyes of the Mexicans this formed the chief period of time, and with it were accordingly associated certain mystic ideas on the government of their daily life and of society. To them the normal duration of human existence seemed to coincide with the xiuhmolpilli, and from the few men to whom the gods granted the privilege of living through two of these periods, the double cj'cle took the name of huehuetilitztli, or " old age." According to a law — which, however, was not always enforced — the Toltec chiefs shoidd rule for exactly a cycle, and when a chief died before completing the period, a council of elders assumed the government in his name. On the other hand those who exceeded the term had to abdicate, and their successors began their reign from the hour indicated in the calendar. As amongst the peoples of the Old World, the solar had been preceded by a lujiar year ; hence it was that the revolutions of the moon continued to regulate the religious calendar of feasts and observances, which are always more faithful to established usage. In the same way, in the various European religions the great feast of Easter, which had originally been the feast of the spring-tide, that is, of renewed nature, is still determined by the revolutions of the moon. Although the Mexicans had not invented a writing sj^stem in the strict sense of the term, they were still able to perpetuate their records, to draw maps by "painting in a natural way all the rivers and harbours," to establish their genealogies, to publish their laws and edicts, to describe the industrial arts, the occupations of the household, lastly, to transmit even abstract thought, by means of hieroglyphical figures. Usually these figures, of square form with rounded angles, were painted in vivid colom's on a kind of paper made from the fibres of the maguey and anacahuite, the "paper tree " (cord/a boissicri), or else on skins or strips of cotton covered with varnish and bound together like a fan, forming an amatl, or book ^■ith wood boards for covers. The public buildings, and here and there the face of the rocks, especially in the Western Sierra Madre, were also embel- lished with hieroglyphics inscribed on the stone. A careful study of these documents shows that in the employment of such characters the Mexicans had advanced beyond the purely figurative and symbolic sense, in many combinations already using them as phonetic signs, so as to form a kind of rebus ; in this way were written, for instance, the names of cities. From the earliest historic times the Toltecs possessed extensive libraries of these painted MEXICAN CULTURE. 67 manuscripts, which, however, the Aztecs are said to have destroyed through jealousy of their predecessors' fame. In their turn the Aztecs were themselves the victims of the iconoclastic zeal of their conquerors, who burnt nearly all the older documents. Most of the extant manuscripts date only from the end of the sixteenth century, a period when the Church, already reconciled with what remained of Nahua civilisation, permitted the faithful again to practise the traditional hieroglyj)hic system. But the manuscrijjts of this epoch consist mostly of religious confessions, catechisms, land surveys, and judicial endorsements. The industrial arts were highly developed, although the Nahuas had not reached the age of iron, the only metals known to them being gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead. Very thin plates of copper were used as currency, as were also cacao berries and a multitude of other objects, differing in every province. Cutting implements were made of an alloy of copper and tin nearly as hard as steel. Nevertheless, nearly all their weapons were still made of hard stone, and especially from chippings of iztli, or obsidian. Knives of this substance were also employed by the priests for immolating human victims. The agricultural implement which most resembled the Eurojjean plough consisted of a wooden apparatus to which were attached hard-wood sticks tipped with copper. The Spaniards were amazed at the skill of the native lapidaries and jewellers, who excelled especially in carving small animals and insects. According to contemporary chronicles, the European goldsmiths could not pretend to rival the artificers of the New World in perfection of workmanship. One process has certainly been lost, that of making little hollow figures of thin gold without any soldering. These objects, of which even the museums contain but few examples, seem quite inexplicable to the European craftsmen. Mexico had also its potters, millers, and paper-makers. The various plants of the cactus family, the palms and cotton trees, yielded their fibres for weaving textile fabrics, some of which were extremely delicate. In the art of dyeing the natives were also past masters, employing cochineal, besides a large number of herbs, barks, and fruits, the knowledge of which has been lost since the Spanish conquest ; in this respect Mexican art has deteriorated during the last three centuries. One of its triumphs was the application of feathers to the adornment of textiles, garments, tapestries, and coverlets. This feather work, which has been preserved in a degraded state by numerous families of artists, was regarded as one of the liberal arts. The " council of music," a sort of academy founded to encourage art, comprised the workers in feathers amongst its members. Architecture also flourished amongst the Nahuas, whose low, solid houses, for the most part only one-storeyed, rested either on a platform or on piles. The towns were regularly planned with narrow streets running at right angles and large spaces round the temples ; they were abundantly supplied with water by means of aqueducts and reservoirs, and had also their quaj's and embankments, while the rivers were crossed by suspension bridges made of lianas, and the rivulets by stone causeways. Some of the cities were fortified, and the great wall, six miles long, which closed the highway, leading through a defile, to the republic of Tlaxcala, F 2 68 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. •was pierced by an ingeniously constructed gateway terminating in a parapet, behind wliich its defenders could keep under cover. But the chief architectural works of the Nahuas were the temples and pyramids, such as those of Teotihuacan and Cholula ; these with the strongholds are the only structures which in certain places have survived to our times, though careful exploration has revealed a few traces of the private dwellings formerlj'- occupied by the Mexicans. The religious monuments were constructed on a plan analogous to that of the Babylonian temples, being like them step pj'ramids formed by a series of rectangular parallelepipeds, superimposed and receding upwards ; but as a rule the American were proportionately much broader at the base than the Asiatic structures. Some were of prodigious size, a proof that human labour was little valued on the Anahuac plateaux. At the time of the SiDanish conquest the native civilisation was already on the wane, a fact recognised by the people themselves when speaking of the Toltec age as the flourishing epoch of the arts, sciences, and industries. Hemmed in on all sides, without any regular communications seawards, and relieved from the necessity of foreign trade by the great variety of products yielded by its three superimposed climatic zones, the Aztec world had been reduced to live on its own resources ; there was no inflow of commodities, no interchange of thought to renew the vital forces ; the social system gradually became foul and stagnant, like the floodwaters that lodge in the depressions of a level plain. Trade was doubtless held in high honour, so much so that caravans could traverse the land without danger even in time of war ; but the trafEc was always confined to the beaten tracks affording communication between the plateau and the lower zones on both slopes. Thus shut out from free intercourse with distant countries, Mexican civilisation was unable to find the elements of renewed life within itself, with the result that the people gradually lost all spirit of enterprise, enslaved by traditional and increasingly oppressive formularies. A rigid etiquette regulated all relations between the classes, and society became, so to say, petrified, while public worship grew more and more atrocious. Yet at its origin the Mexican religion had been exempt from all sanguinary rites. The first of the gods, bearing the name of Teotl, in a pre-eminent sense was Atonatiuh, the " Sun of the Waters," whose rays, heating the seas, caused all things to rise out of chaos. Tlaloc, issue of the sun, yearly reviver of the spring- tide, is the trade- wind bearer of the fertilising rains, the bird that comes from the sea, the snake that glitters in the lightning flash, and glides into the fissures of the earth, emblem of the running waters. At the time when the Aztecs founded Tenochtitlan, the memory was still preserved of a mild religion, at which suiDpliants offered to " Father Sun," to "Mother Moon," to " Brother Earth, " and to the wind-god nothing but seeds and fruits, to obtain a blessing on the future crops. Hopes were even cherished that, in a coming age of gold, these placid rites might yet be restored ; at least they were associated with the advent of another Tlaloc, Quetzacoatl, the "Plumed Serpent," who comes from the east with the east wind and thither returns. MEXICAX CULTUBE. 69 Many of the vanquished nations, such as that of the Totonacs, groaned under the burden of having to supply human victims to the Mexican gods, ■while their own divinitv, " Mother of Men," demanded only seeds and flowers. Even in the Aztec temple of Texcoco, raised by Xezahualcoyotl to the " unknown god," public worship was confined to the burning of incense at the altar of the deity. But elsewhere wars, and the practice of adding captives to the other offerings, had Fig. 2S.— AKnnciAL PrsAinD of Cholttla. gradually imposed a religion of blood on the whole Xahua nation. !Xot the symbol of life, represented by the first-fruits of the earth, but life itself has now to be incessantly offered on the altars of the gods. Even when corn was presented it had first to be reduced to a paste, kneaded with the blood of children and maidens ; a dough was also prepared from the ashes of the fathers mingled with the flesh of their offspring. To appease the wrath of the wicked gods, to avert the evil machinations of the to MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. unseen world, the Mexicans had recourse to sacrifices, in this differing in no way from Aryans, Semites, Negroes, and all other races. But their saiiguinary rites probably surpassed in horror those even of Dahomey itself. Even the most timid practised self-torture like the fakirs of the East and the Aissawas of Algeria ; they scarified their flesh with the cruel maguey thorn ; they prolonged their fastings for days together ; they abstained from sleep till the mind wandered. The Benedictine friar, Camillo de Monserrate, explained the dento-liquid sounds tt, etl, which seem so strange to most European ears, by the Mexican habit of piercing the tongue with large cactus thorns during their fits of religious frenzy ; thus he supposed might have been produced a sort of stammering which became hereditary in the course of ages. But it was maiuly by proxy that they sought to conjure the caprice of the gods ; the stain of sin was vicariously cleansed by immolating alien victims. In the Old World, which abounds in animals of all kinds, their blood was usually regarded as sufiiciently efiicacious. But on the Mexican plateaux there was little except men to torture and mangle in honour of the jealous deities. Human hearts were torn from the still-warm breast by the gory hands of priests, and held up towards the invisible spirits. To Tlaloc were immolated sucklings or children killed with fright, and their flesh was then consumed by the nobles at a religious banquet. The necropolis of Tenenepanco, discovered by Charnay, at an altitude of over 13,000 feet, on the northern slopes of Popocatepetl, contained nothing but the remains of hundreds of children, probably the victims offered to Tlaloc, god of the lofty heights, whence descend the winds and the clouds. At the great ceremonies, blood was shed in torrents to flood the trenches dug round the teocaUi, that is, the temples, literally "God's house." Towards the close of the fifteenth century, at the consecration of the great temple of Mexico to Huitziloputzli, the war-god, which had been begun by his predecessor Tizoc, King Ahuizotl immolated nearly eighty thousand captives. But despite the statement of the chronicles, this tremendous butchery must have been made, not on one occasion, but at numerous successive ceremonies, as has been shown by Charnay. Each sovereign, on ascending the throne, had to begin his reign by a vast man-hunting expedition, in order to provide food for all the sacred shambles ; each of the eighteen months of the year had to be blessed by a massacre. Accord- ingly " holy wars " had been formerly established by treaty between the various states in order to secure sufiicient victims for the altars. Every temple washed its foundations in the blood of captives mingled with offerings of the precious metals, of pearls and the seeds of all useful plants. These temples, stained with black gore, full of human flesh, fresh, charred or decomposed, presented a ghastly spectacle ; some were entered through a door in the form of a throat, in which thousands of skulls lined the jaws of the monster. Close by rose pyramids, " each containing over a hundred thousand skulls." One of the yearly feasts was that of the " flaying," when the priests traversed the various quarters of the city clad in the dripping skins of the victims. But the very multitude of the offerings rendered the gods insatiable, and their wretched MEXICAN CTJLTTJEE. 71 devotees sought for still nobler subjects to propitiate tbem. In the Christian religion, a Son of God, God Himself, expiated the sins of the elect on the cross ; but those who crucified Him vreve at least unconscious of His divinity. The ilexicans, on the contrary, created gods to immolate them to still more powerful deities. During the great national ceremonies, a scion of the royal house would not have satisfied them ; they required a son of God, and the young men whom they offered up were raised by them to the divine rank. Before slaying these gods incarnate, the priests followed in the triumphal procession, falling down in worship before them. Then, after the sacrifice, those who tasted of the sacred flesh, and who " ate god," as indicated by the very name of the feast, assimilated the divine substance, and thought they thus became participators in the nature of the gods. Such was the hideous form that " god-eating" had assumed in Mexico. Such religious practices were naturally completed by a ferocious legislation, yet the people seem to have been of an extremely kind disposition, mild and affectionate. " My dear son, my jewel, my fair feather ! " thus spoke the mother to her child. According to Ixtlixochitl, a theft exceeding in value seven maize cobs was pimished with death. For whole commtmities, a violent seemed far more probable than a natural ending ; this alone would sufficiently explain the sense of sadness that had fallen on this unhappy nation, from which the divine favour seemed to be withdrawn in inverse ratio to the number of their victims. The emperor Xezahualcoyotl, sovereign of Texcoco, the crowned poet, who staked his throne on a throw of dice, to show how little he cared for power, this emperor expressed the tmiversal sentiment when he depicted "the approaching day when the gloomy fate, the great destroyer will be revealed." Even the Spanish conquest, with the massacres and other scourges which accompanied it, and the servitude by which it was followed, was a relief for the nations of Anahuac j 72 MEXICO. CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. it rescued them from a hopeless fatalism ; it introduced them, though douhtless through a thorny path, into the new world of common human interests. This era of transformation began in a terrible way for the populations of Anahuac. The Spanish conquerors acted in Mexico as they had acted in the Antilles ; they massacred the natives that resisted, and reduced the survivors to a state of merciless slavery. " A long experience," said Peter Martyr Anghiera, " has shown the necessity of depriving these men of freedom and giving them guides and protectors." Thanks to these "protectors," whole provinces were nearly depopulated in a single generation. The siege of Mexico, " where men were numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands of the seashore," is said to have cost the lives of 150,000 persons ; and according to Pimentel, the native population of Nueva Galicia, which has become the present state of Jalisco, was rapidly reduced from 450,000 to 12,600. In the swift work of conquest and enslavement, the Spaniards were aided by the very apathy of the wretched inhabitants themselves. The conquered multi- tudes, whom their former masters had crushed beneath an intolerable burden of oppressive laws and statute labour, seemed indifferent to a change of tyrants. They even found it easier to bend the neck to the yoke of the demi-gods armed with thunder, than to rulers of their own race. The change, or at least apparent change of religion which went on, so to say, simultaneously with the conquest, was also effected without difScxilty. When the Franciscan Friars, soon followed by the Dominicans and Augustinians, offered to the Mexican populations the baptism that cleanseth from sin, a rite which in any case scarcely differed from the analogous purifications of the Aztec religion, the surprising success of their propaganda is not to be exclusively attributed to their prestige 'as conquerors, or to the support which they received from the secular arm. Allowance shoidd doubtless also be made for the happiness of being at last released from the terrorism that the native religions had imposed on the people. Toribio de Benavente relates that nine million Indians were baptised during the fifteen first years that followed the conquest. The priests found themselves surrounded by hundreds of kneeling suppliants, and such was the eagerness of the candidates " suffering from the thirst of baptism," that the oificiating clergy lacked the time to perform the prescribed ceremonies, and satisfied themselves with moistening the brow of the neophytes with a little saliva. The names of saints supplied by the calendar no longer sufficing, the Indians were grouped in batches each of which received collectively the same name. Apart from the sanguinary rites the two religions differed so little in their outward forms that the natives felt little difficulty in conforming to both. When called iipon to overthrow their idols, and rejjlace them, in the same temples and on the same sites, with the statue of the Madonna and her Child, the caciques had merely to set up the image of Tecleciguata, the " Great Lady," and the change was effected. But no crucifix was erected, says the Dominican monk, Eemesal, "because the Spaniards, claiming immortality for themselves, were reluctant to teach the neophytes that their God could die." RESULTS OF THE CONQUEST. 73 Multitudes accepted baptism without any intention of abandoning tbeir old rites, and continued long to celebrate the pagan mysteries in the depths of the forests. Thus a chapel was built and a cross set up immediately above the spot where had been hidden the proscribed image of an idol. TVhen boM^ing before the cross it was to the god that they addressed their invocations. But by force of habit the two cults became gradually merged in one ; at present when any of the old idols happen to be disinterred, it is in perfect good faith that the natives call them sanfos antiguos, " old saints." The same pious souls that crowd the Christian churches and devoutlj^ kiss the relics of the martyrs, secretly assemble in the woods to crown the images of the former deities with garlands. But the conversions, in virtue of which they could claim to be the spiritual brethren of the " Christians," that is, of the Spaniards, did not raise the natives to a position of equality with their conquerors. In the converts the latter at first saw only inferior beings, useful especially when dead, as their fat then served to staunch the wounds of men and horses. They addressed the natives whip in band, and even in the lifetime of Bernal Diaz a new saj'ing had become current amongst the whites : " Donde nace el Indio nace el hejuco ! " or, as we might say, " Where the Indian is born there grows the cane." Even in recent times the poet Galvan could exclaim : " I am an Indian, that is, a worm cowering in the grass, avoided b}^ all hands, crushed by all feet." Accordingly the children of the Aztecs may well have more than once sighed for the old order of things. " Why were we happier in the days of barbarism and debasement than since our conversion to your faith ? " the elders of a native community asked Bishop Zumarraga. The period immediately following the conquest was the most terrible for the natives. At first some districts were transformed almost to solitudes by those maladies which nearly always break out when distinct races are brought suddenly into contact. The first epidemic of smallpox, said to have been introduced by a negro in the expedition of Narvaez, and which struck down Cuitlahuatzin, Montezuma's successor, was more destriictive than the SjDanish arms. But far more terrible was the matlazahuatl, probably scarlet fever, which raged in 1576, and which, according to Torquemada, carried o£E nearly two millions in the dioceses of Mexico, Michoacan, Puebla and Oaxaca. In a period of two hundred and seventy-five years as many as seventeen great epidemics visited Mexico, from all of which the Spaniards remained exempt. According to the missionaries the race itself seemed to have become physically decayed, as if doomed to extinction. Those who escaped the plague were more than decimated by the oppressive burdens imposed on them. Although protected from slavery properly so called by the " laws of the Indies," they still remained serfs attached to the soil, and thus fell in tens of thousands with the large estates into the hands of the religious orders by which they had been converted, or else into those of the great capitalists the responsibility of the proprietors being in all cases merely a legal fiction. I^or were the laws themselves enforced, for the province of Panuco was nearly depopu- lated by its own governor, Nufio de Guzman, who openly sold men and women to the traders from the Antilles, after first branding them with the hot iron. 74 MEXICO, CENTEAL MIEEICA, WEST INDIES. Under the Aztec regime tlie lack of pack animals had introduced the custom of making captives and outcasts tlamcmes, or carriers, for the transport of goods and supplies. This service the}' continued to perform under the Spanish administration, though the law fixing the load at " two arrobas," or about sixty pounds, was too often violated. The landed proprietors, more ignorant than the natives of the climatic conditions, often employed bands of porters in zones where the tempera- ture was fatal ; those descending from the plateaux perished in thousands on the hot coastlands, while others, transferred to the bleak uplands, yielded to the cold. But while the race of aborigines was rapidly diminishing and even disappear- ing in certain districts, another race, that of the Mestizoes, was being developed and acquiring over-increasing imi^ortance. The conquerors, having brought no women with them, soon formed alliances with the natives, Cortes setting the Fig. 30. — FlEST CoNaUESTS OF COETES. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. .«o™.«„ 'J-^jlA. ^^A^ k-M,^ ^ \^ .P^ompan ^t^Vgf.^- -^.^4te.„- ^,./..^v. / ) 30' 60 Miles.; example by his connection with Malitzin or Dona Marina, who proved so useful in times of extreme peril. All his captains and soldiers were presented with native wives ; all Indian chiefs, whether pleading for favour or concluding an alliance, sealed the treaty by cementing unions between the new arrivals and the women of his household or kindred ; every tribe suing for peace brought women as presents for the conquerors. Even after the conquest the adventurers and traders attracted to the New World by the fame of the treasures of Mexico were seldom accompanied by Spanish helpmates ; hence most of the unions continued to be made with native women, despite the decrees which declared null and void all grants of land made to whites who left their wives behind them. Thus the Mestizoes continued rapidly to increase, and soon outnumbered the Spaniards. In ordinary language this term " Mestizo " indicates rather the class than the origin, and is applied exclusively to the proletariates who do not keep aloof from o o X o O z > o 05 o" ea Ph o o o o 5 ta o S EESULTS or THE COXQUEST. 75 the Indian communities. But taking it in its true sense, the Mestizo element may be said at present to constitute over four-fifths of the population. Even the "^nld" Indians are slightly mixed, while the so-called "pure" whites -will occasionally boast of their descent from the ancient rulers of the land. Ko less than three families jealously preserve in Mexico and Spain the records tracino- their lineage back to Montezuma. On the other hand the African element never acquired any importance in Mexico, although negroes were introduced fi"om the first years of the conquest. But after an insurrection, suppressed by drastic measures, the Spanish landowners were forbidden to purchase Africans in order to replace the natives. In any case the black race coiild scarcely have become acclimatised in the cold regions of the plateau. At present the negroes are almost exclusively confined to the towns of the seaboard, and these have come for the most part from Cuba and Jamaica. In the whole of Mexico they do not appear to exceed 20,000 persons. During the three centuries of colonial administration between the fall of Tenochtitlan and the proclamation of Mexican independence, the one great event in the national history may be said to have been this slow formation of the Mestizo race from Nahua and Iberian elements. Doubtless the full-blood Spaniards, constituting the first social caste, continued to keep haughtily aloof, claiming the exclusive right to the title of ge»fe de razon, or "rational beings." But they were divided amongst themselves; to the Spaniards born in the Peninsula were reserved the lucrative offices, as well as all honours and authority. But the Creoles, however pure their blood, however great their merits, were kept in the background ; they were even refused admittance to a large number of the monastic establishments. By the very fact of their birth in the Xew World they seemed to have almost ceased to be Spaniards and were insulted at every turn. But this treatment was bitterly resented, and until recently the term usually applied to the Spaniards by birth was Gachupines, derived from two Xahuatl words meaning "Men of the Spurs." "JTuerau Jos Gachiqrines" ("Death to the Gachupines ! ") was the war-cry of the insiirgents. The Indians properly so called, whether wild or mamos, that is, "civilised," were also regarded as inferiors, beings intermediate between man and animals. On some rare occasions acts of courage or devotion might perhaps earn for a native recegnition as a brother, and then he was raised to the rank of homhre bianco or " a white," as if great qualities were incompatible with the nature of the red man. But the true feeling was embodied in the current Mexican saying that an Indian would never rule the land so long as there remained a muleteer from La Mancha or a Castilian cobbler. However, the lack of "reason" attributed to the natives at least exempted them after about the middle of the eighteenth century from the privilege of being burnt by the Inquisition. They were regarded as possessing too little human responsibility for their heresies to rouse the anger of the Inquisitors. But the terrible tribunal had long been at work, and three years after its introduction in 1571 had begun operations by an auto-da-fe of five persons. 70 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. It should be noticed that the transitions between Spaniards and Mestizoes, between Mestizoes and Manses, are far less abrupt about the capital than in the northern regions, where the populations are scattered over a much wider area, Kg. 31. — Poet of SisuANTAifEO. Scale 1 : 42,000. lorji- Wesr F Gfe enAficK lOrsS' to5 Fathoms. Depths. 5 to 10 Fathoms. 10 to 25 Fathoms. 25 Fatlioms and upwards. . 2,200 Yards. and where the divisions between the races are more sharply drawn. In those regions miscegenation has taken place to a smaller extent ; till recently the struggle between the hostile elements was still continued, and was occasionally attended by massacres on both sides. THE spa:^ish administration. 77 The exclusive mercantile system to wLich the country was subjected during the Spanish rule had the effect, so to say, of sequestrating New Spain, and of concealing from the eyes of the world the changes that had been accomplished sLace the daj-s of the conquest. It was ia fact a system of absolute monopoly. From the standpoint of the Spanish Government, the Aztec populations existed only for the purpose of eni'iching the treasury and the commercial " farmers- general." But these vast monopolies, and the incessant manipulation of the customs, combined with the oppression and empoverishment of the natives, natui'ally resulted in. exhausting the sources of all trade. All violation of the fiscal laws was severely punished, and often involved the death of the offender. All trading relations with strangers were interdicted under pain of death ; even shipwrecked mariners were thrown into prison, and occasionally even executed, to prevent them from entering iuto commercial relations with the natives ; the very highways leading seawards were systematic- ally abandoned, and the Mexican seaboard became a wilderness. Thus the EngKsh navigator, George Anson, warned by the Indians of the neighboui-hood, was able to put into the port of Siguantaneo (Zehuatanejo), between the two hostile garrisons of Zacatula and Acapulco, and wait quietly for the sailing of the valuable galleon freighted with ingots for Manilla. The system was at last pushed so far that the fleet destined for Spain was only allowed to sail every third j'ear, and to make for any other port but Seville or Cadiz was declared to be a crime against the State. The search for quicksilver mines was prohibited in order to maintain the monopoly of the Almaden mines in the south of Spain. TiU the year 1803, the Mexicans were forbidden to cultivate the vine ; it has even been asserted that Hidalgo first raised the standard of revolt in the Dolores district, because this revolutionary parish priest had been compelled to destroj' his vineyards. The olive was also interdicted, as well as many other plants whose products might replace those introduced from Spain ; even these were imported only in small quantities to keep up the tariff of high prices. At one time the people were forbidden to brew any more pulque, the national drink extracted from the maguey plant, the sale of which interfered with that of the Catalanian brandies. In the same way certain trades were officially abolished as being prejudicial to the national industries of the Peninsula, or rather to the interest of a few private speculators. Even so late as 1819 a royal decree pro- hibited foreign vessels from entering the port of Yera Cruz " under any pretext." Such an administration could end only in the total ruin of the colony, or in a revolution. The moment the mother coimtry became engaged in a war of inde- pendence against the French, and was thus obliged to leave her ultramarine posses- sions almost entirely to themselves, a change of the political equilibrium became inevitable. The imprisonment of the Si^anish Viceroy, Itturigara}', in 1806, by the other members of the State Council, may be said to have been the first act in the Mexican Revolution. Doubtless the Creoles were far from being unanimous in their opposition to the old order of things, and many even allowed themselves to be seduced by titles. 78 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, "WEST INDIES. privileges, or money. But they entertained the most divergent views on the general situation. The more daring ventured to foster the idea of independence, which to others seemed a dream, while the majority aspired to nothing higher than a share in the administration of their native land, and the abolition of the absolute commercial monopoly enjoyed by the Cadiz traders. On the other hand the great bulk of the native poioulation felt little interest in the form of government. What they wanted was the possession of the land, a little light to relieve their gloomy lives, a modest share of liberty. Under the Sjianish regime they had never attempted to revolt, although for two hundred years after the conquest the armed forces consisted only of the Viceroy's bodyguard ; even under the Bourbon dynasty the " greens " — as the regular troops were called, from the green facings of their uniforms — never exceeded 6,000 infantry and cavalry. Nevertheless the Indians themselves had also a vague instinct of political inde- pendence, as is evident from the persistent legend about King Montezuma. The name itself they obviously learnt from the Spaniards ; but they eagerly rallied round it as a watchword, and adopted his colours, blue and white, for their standard of battle. To him were attributed all the ruined monuments of the country, and it was said that, like a second Quetzalcoatl, he slept in some cavern awaiting the great day of national awakening. We know with what fury the natives fought during the early days of the revolution. Impelled by the frenzy of certain triumph, armed with nothing but clubs or knives, they fell upon solid regiments of well-equipped troops ; they even threw themselves on the guns in order to stop the touch-holes with their rags or straw hats. Such was the confusion of ideas and of factions caused by the prevailing ignorance, and the long debasement of the populations, that the revolution began by a rising of some fanatical Indians of Dolores, " in the name of the holy reli- gion and of the good King Ferdinand VII." On the other hand the insurgents suffered their iirst defeat by troops composed of Creoles and led by a Creole. In 1813, two years after the first conflict, independence was for the first time proclaimed by a congress of refugees wandering from mountain to mountain. But this voice of freedom sounded like blasphemy to those accustomed to servitude, and the moderate party hastened to return to obedience. No Indians in the more remote provinces had risen, and the seat of war had hitherto been confined to the central districts, which were more densely peopled than elsewhere. The insur- gents no longer formed regular armies, and had been reduced to mere guerilla bands ; nearly all their prominent leaders had been shot, or were lurking in the woods and marshes ; all seemed lost when, in 1817, Mina, a Spaniard twenty-eight years of age, who had already fought bravely for freedom in Spain, crossed the seas and devoted himself to the same cause in llexico against his own fellow-countrymen. But after gaining a few victories he also perished, and the struggle for inde- pendence, so fiercely begun in 1811 by the priest Hidalgo and his extemporised armies, was reduced to a handful of outlaws and brigands. Nevertheless the old regime suddenly fell with a crash, so to say, under its own weight at the very time when the Viceroy Apodaca was proclaiming the final restoration of order in b THE MEXICAN EEVOLCTIOX. 79 1820, and when the victorioiis Spamsh forces were sweeping the last " herds " of rebels before them. To effect the transformation all that was needed was the treason of the ambitious Colonel Iturbide, in whom destiny " selected the least worthy to be the successftJ champion of independence." Kg. 32. — SCESE OF THE TVaE OF LsDZPEXllESCE. Scale 1 : 11,I>X>,0». ihu. ^N^V'V WWi^J^:. \test o"" bi-eenvv^c^ 1S6 Miles. Now the whole nation enthusiastically adopted the " plan of Iguala," that is to say, the project of a new constitution proposed in the town of Iguala, de- manding full and complete autonomy for the Mexican people under a monarchical form of government. The new order of things was accepted throughout the whole extent of the land, and the capital itself was suiTendered by O'Donoju, 80 MEXICO, CEXTE.iL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. last of the viceroys. This was in 1821, and two years later the republic was at last proclaimed. The vcrj'- term Guadalupcs given to the insurgents in opposition to that of Gachupines, by which the Spaniards were known, is a pioof of the influence exer- cised by the clergy over the bulk of the Mexican population. The multitudes of native rebels were regarded merely as devout pilgrims enrolled under the banner of the Madonna of Guadalupe, whose worship had been confounded with that of Toci or Tonantzin, the " Notre-Dame " of the Aztecs. But the priests, like the other whites, were themselves divided into factions according to their origin, alliances, wealth or poverty. Hidalgo, who first raised the standard of revolt, was a Creole priest with a mixture of Indian blood. Morelos, another priest, was the chief hero of the war on the side of the national party. Even a nun, Maria Quitana, was seen to leave the convent and take part in the struggle. But bishops and the officers of the Inquisition had in the name of the Pope hurled excommunications against the rebels, and it was in honour of the Church that on Good Friday in 1814, Iturbide, at that time in the service of Spain, caused several of these excommunicated patriots to be shot. Hence the clergy were unable to contribute towards fostering such a common national sentiment as might have ensured internal peace. On the other hand the political revolution was of no service in improving the condition of the native peasantry, for it made no change in the system of land tenure. The soil still con- tinued, as heretofore, to be monopolised by the great proprietors, whose power was exercised over hundreds or thousands of the agricultural jDopulation. Doubt- less an agrarian revolution seemed imminent at the very outset of the insurrection, when the domains of the Spaniards were sequestrated in the name of the nation, and were freely occupied by the Indians. But the whites forming part of the rebel forces hastened to put a stop to these confiscations, which might have had fatal consequences, and the elements of the social struggle were thus maintained on the same lines as before. These profound inequalities, which largely coincide with racial distinctions, sufficiently explain the state of chronic revolution which was the normal condition of Mexico for the half-century following the proclamation of independence. The nation sought without finding some new principle of economic equilibrium. By a curious parallelism each civil war corresponded to a fresh outbreak both in Spain itself and in her other revolted colonies, as if the dismembered branches of the old empire were still connected by a common social life. In Mexico the accomplishment of national imity is aU the more difficult that a considerable section of the Indians are associated with the civilised populations only in terms of official documents. None of the natives still grouped in tribes living apart in remote provinces, speaking the old languages, and practising the old customs, can be regarded as yet forming part of the Mexican nation. But they become assimilated in increasing numbers from year to year, thanks to the develop- ment of education, industrial centres and highways traversing their territory. Even the Indians of the Califoruian peninsula who are most removed from the THE MEXICAN INDIANS. 81 centre of Mexican civilisation have acquired a knowledge of Spanish, and those settled in the vicinitj" of the missions and the mining stations differ in no respects from the Indios inansos in other parts of the territory. But they are a mere handful, scarcely mustering 3,000 altogether, and the Pericu tribe, recently mentioned as still living at the southern extremity of the peninsula, has completely disappeared. The other two who still survive, Cochimi in the north, and Guaicuri (Guayacura) in the middle, of the peninsula, are related to the Arizonian Yumas, and, like them, formerly occupied the northern plains which are now inhabited by the Cocopas, and from which they were gradually driven west of the Colorado. Both Cochimi and the Guaicuri lead an extremely nomad existence, shifting their camping grounds at least a hundred times during the year. At night they shelter themselves against the wind under some brushwood or line of rocks, but their only roof is the canopy of heaven, though a few dens or lairs are constructed for their sick. Formerly the Cochimi regarded with shame any kind of raiment ; but they wore necklaces and bracelets, and encircled the head with an arrangement of skins, reeds, or feathers. The Cochimi and all other tribes of Lower California are grouped by Pimentel with the Xahua family, that is, with the Aztecs, on the ground of their physical appearance and speech. But other authorities hold that the Lower Californian languages show no resemblance to Aztec or any other known language. Nearly all the Indians occupying the north-western region of ^Mexico, from the Arizonian frontier to the moimtains skirting the right bank of the Eio Lerma, belong to a widespread family commonly named from the Pimas and the Opatas, two of their most powerful groups. The term Pimeria, or " Pima-land," is even still, though incorrectly, applied to the north part of Sonora. The conventional frontier laid down between the American and llexican republics is not an ethnical parting-line, and north of it the Pimas and the kindred Papagosare, in fact, repre- sented in the largest numbers. The Opatas also, who are said still to number 35,000 souls, dwell especially in the Sierra iladre in the upland valleys of the Sonora and Taqtii rivers. They are an agricultural people, who have been half assimilated to the Spaniards, and who have always sided with the whites in the racial wars. Hence the ilexican writers have always praised their valotir, sobriety and steadfastness, and have given them the title of " American Spartans." The Yaqui and ilayo tribes, who occupy the east side of the Gulf of California, that is, the almost desert regions watered by the two rivers named from them, are fully as brave as the Opatas, but they are no friends of the whites, and have even frequently risen in revolt. In 1825, after the proclamation of ilexican indepen- dence, they also proclaimed their own autonomy, and declared themselves exempt from all taxes. Since that time their territory has remained somewhat inacces- sible to strangers. Yet the Yaquis and Mayos, who are sometimes collectively called Cahitas from their common language, are by no means a numerous nation, probably not exceeding 20,000 altogether. Despite the wars they have had to wage against VOL. XVII. G 82 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. the whites, they are naturally of a peaceful disposition, energetic, and industrious. Like the Kabyles of Algeria, their young men emigrate every year in large numbers, seeking employment in the farmsteads of Sonora or Sinaloa, or as porters and menials in the towns. But they still remain attached to their homes, and those who are not too far removed make an annual visit to their native valleys. They are said to be excellent musicians, and, like the Hungarian gipsies, learn to play the fiddle, guitar, or harp, merely by listening to the village minstrels. The Sori people of Tiburon Island and the neighbouring mainland appear to form a distinct subdivision, with a few other scattered family groups known by various names. Orozco y Berra has compared them with the Caribs, adding that 'Fig. 33. — Chiep Native Poptjlationb in Mexico. Scale 1 : 30,000,onr). 90- 620 Miles. he would not be surprised to find that they belong to the same race. These natives, who are now reduced to a mere fragment, defended their homes and valleys with great vigour ; their poisoned arrows especially were much dreaded, and Spanish expeditions had often carefully to avoid their territory. Amongst the numerous north-western populations the Tarahumaras, or Tarumaros, are one of the most remarkable for the tenacity with which they have preserved their ancient customs. The inhabitants of Chihuahua give the name of Tarumaros to all the mansos, or " civilised " Indians, of the state ; but the true Tarahumaras, who still number about 40,000, live in seclusion in the upland valleys of the Sierra Madre on both the Atlantic and Pacific slopes. Their villages, most of which end in the syllable c/«c — "place," "town" — are scattered over the highland region of the three states of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Sinaloa, and according to Pimentel penetrate even into Durango. THE MEXICAN INDIANS. 8S Some of their groups are still cave-dwellers, and numerous caverns are shown which were formerly inhabited. According to many writers the old troglodytic customs explain the legend of the Aztecs regarding their residence in the " Seven Caves." The Tarahumaras who have settled in the towns of the whites now speak the language of their rulers ; but the full-blood communities of the Sierra Madre have preserved their old tongue. Discovered in their remote retreats by the Jesuit missionaries at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Tarahumaras have never offered any serious opposition to the Mexican Government ; nevertheless they have always refused to accept Spanish institutions. According to the traditional custom marriages are contracted after a novitiate of the bride in her future husband's house and under the surveillance of his parents. The land has been preserved from confiscation, and is still held in common. Each group of villagers is collective proprietor, and, as in the Russian mir, the arable land is parcelled out amongst the families according to their numbers. One portion is reserved for the sick and aged, and this is cultivated by all the members of the community in their turn. The maize, wheat, haricot beans, potatoes, and other produce are then stored in a public granary imder the eyes of the more honoured men and women of the village, and the residents draw what they require from this common store. They call themselves " Christians " and erect a cross at the foot of their fields at sowing time ; but the parish priest is not allowed to assist at the feast, which concludes with the sacrifice of a sheep or a calf. Those of the southern districts near the common frontier of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Sinaloa, are said still to practise the old religion. They keep entirely aloof from the Mexicans, and when their villages are forcibly invaded, they refuse to answer the questions put to them by the intruders. They decline all payment for the provisions they may be called upon to supply, and even allow their cabins to be plundered without protest ; in fact the only force they understand is that of passive resistance. They are said to be a gloomy, sullen people ; nevertheless when they fear no disturbance to the national feasts they amuse themselves cheerfully, and " dance with their gods." They are specially fond of tilting and racing, whence their tribal name, which is said to mean " Runners," though the etjTnology is somewhat doubtful. At times whole tribes spend days in contending for the prize, women with pitchers of water being stationed at regidar intervals along the course to revive those overcome by fatigue. Some of the southern valle3-s of the Sierra Madre are inhabited bj- the remains of another Indian nation, the Tepehuans, or "Lords of the Mountains," a name, however, to which they are no longer entitled. After some conflicts with the missionaries, they were almost exterminated by the Spaniards of Durango. These natives, who are now Christians, and gradually merging M-ith the populations of the Sierra, have in some districts preserved their language, which by certain authors is said to contain a large proportion of terms analogous to those of the North Asiatic tongues. The full-blood Tepehuans have a dull yellovv' complexion, prominent cheeki g2 84 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. bones, and oblique eyelids, features wbicb are all cbaracteristic of the Kergbiz and Kalmuck types. Like some Siberian peoples, tbey also plait the bair in a single tress, ■wbicb falls over the nape of the neck. But whatever be said of the hypotheses affiliating these tribes to the Asiatics, both the Tepehuans and their southern neighbours, the Coras, have been classed by Buschmann and Orozco on linguistic grounds in the same family as the Pimas, Opatas, and Tarahumaras. On the other hand the Sabaibos, Acasees, and Xiximes of Durango, as well as the Conchos of Chihuahua, who dwell on the plain watered by the river Concho, would appear to be rather Nahuas. The space comprised between the Rio Grande and the east slope of the Sierra Madre belongs to the various Apache tribes, who form a separate family related in speech to the Athabascans of the Mackenzie basin. Their name, which is probably of Opata origin, is said to mean " Bad Dogs" ; but they call themselves Shis luday, or " Men of the Woods." Till within a recent epoch, all the northern provinces of the republic were exposed to the raids of these ferocious Indians, and even in Durango, over 360 miles from the American frontier, crosses set up on the outskirts of the towns recalled the murders committed by the Apache savages. Districts which, during the first j'ears of the conquest, the Spanish troops were able to traverse without fighting, and where peaceful colonies had been founded, were afterwards invaded by the marauders, and all security disappeared beyond the fortified towns and stations. Journeys could be made only by large companies or caravans, and the armed men, whose track was followed by the savages lurking in the surrounding brushwood, took care not to lag behind the main body. How were these irrepressible foes to be got rid of ? Mounted on their swift and hardy horses, they could cover 60 or even 120 miles in a single day. Everywhere they found shelter in the cactus scrub or thickets, and the shepherd, aware of their presence, dare not betray them. The system of large lauded estates, which had brought about the invasion of Italy by the Barbarians, also facilitated the incursions of the Apaches by suppressing the little centres of culture and resistance formerly scattered over the land, by replacing tillage with stock-breed- ing, and lastly by leaving the defence of the country to mercenaries who had often strong inducements to come to an understanding with the plunderers. To get rid of the Apache robbers, a war of extermination was proclaimed against them. A pi-ice was put upon their heads, the tariff being regulated accord- ing to the age and sex of the slaiu. The Apaches on their part put to death all adult men that fell into their hands, sparing the women and children to recruit their bands, which, by this process of miscegenation, at last became a mongrel group of all tribes and races. In this atrocious war, it often happened that the heralds themselves were not spared. The military authorities, jealous of their privileges, contributed on their part to prolong the "reign of terror" by arrogating to them- selves the exclusive right of carrying on defensive operations, and absolutely prohibiting the municipalities from combining against the common enemy. But the regular troops proved insufficient for the task they had undertaken, and an appeal had to be made to foreign mercenaries. Thus in 1850 a band of Texans THE MEXICAN IXDIAKS. 85 was enlisted in CMliualiua for the purpose of hunting down tlie Apactes ; but it was soon discovered that these dangerous allies found it more convenient to plunder peaceful travellers, and bring their scalps to the Government for the stipulated rewards. At last Indians were hurled against Indians, and the extermination Fig. 34. — 'WATEP.-C.iEKIEB AXD ToKTILLAS WoMAX. of the Apaches was entrusted to their hereditary foes, the southern Comanches, who roamed over the Bolson de iTapimi plains. The few survivors have become shepherds, " cowboys," horse-dealers, even guards of the stations on the railways that now traverse their former hunting-grounds. The north-east region of ^Mexico comprised between the Rio Bravo and Tampico, 86 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDEES. and between the central plateaux and the Gulf of Mexico, has been an exclusive domain of Spanish speech since the last century. Scarcely any traces still survive of Nahua or other native languages, and the " one hundred and forty-eight nations " of Coahuila, the " seventy-two " of Tamaulipas, the " thirty-one " of Nuevo Leon, the Manosprietas, the Irritilas, Tamaulipecs, Cuachichils, and Zacotecs, have all been merged in the general mass of the Mestizo populations, abandoning their old usages and distinct idioms. Wherever the people were in the nomad state the native tongues almost invariably disappeared, but held their groimd much longer among the settled or agricultural classes. In the very neighbourhood of the capital the more secluded hiUs and upland valleys are still inhabited by scattered groups of the Otomi, an Indian nation which seems to have undergone little change since the epoch of Toltec rule. The designation of " Eed-haired " often applied to them has probably reference to their practice of dyeing the hair red when on the war-path. Round about Queretaro, which may be taken as the centre of their domain, they occupy nearly all the mountainous parts of the Anahuac plateau between San Luis Potosi and the Sierra Nevada; hence the term Serranos, or "Highlanders," commonly applied to them. The Otomi are estimated at over 600,000, including those who have exchanged their language for Spanish or Aztec, and at probably 1,000,000 if the Fame and Mazahua branches be included. Despite their name, which in Aztec means " Wanderers," the Otomi are a very sedentary people, little given to travelling except between their mountain villages and the market towns. Physically thoy have large heads with coarse black hair, swarthy complexion, heavy carriage, yet are excellent runners. By some writers these rude loutish populations have been regarded as the remains of an old Chinese colony, an hypothesis scarcely in accordance with the view that assigns a Chinese origin to the Aztec culture. The theory was first suggested by the fact that the Hia-Mu, that is, the "Old," as the Otomi language is called, is, Kke Chinese, almost entirely monosyllabic. The two languages also present numerous coincidences in their vocabularies ; but such coincidences are almost inevitable, the series of mono- syllabic words being naturally somewhat restricted or at least presenting far less diversity of form than that of polj^syllabic terms. In Michoacan, west and south-west of the capital, the bulk of the population are the Tarascans (Tarascos), who occupy nearly the whole of Michoacan itself, besides a small part of the neighbouring state of Guanajuato. But in various districts they are intermingled with the Otomi, the Mazahuas, the Matlaltzincas, as well as some more or less mixed descendants of the Aztecs. So recently as the beginning of the present century, the Tarascan language was still dominant in their territory, Spanish being almost unknown except in the towns ; it is even still the chief medium of intercourse in many rural districts ; but Spanish, being taught in the schools, is gradually prevailing. The Tarascans, formerly rivals of the allied Aztec race in general culture, were, like them, acquainted with pictorial writing, and even excelled them in some branches of industry. THE MEXICAN INDIANS. 87 Theii- religion was also of a milder character, and sanguinary rites had been introduced only a short time before the Spanish conquest. They long held out valiantly against their Aztec " Fathers-in-law; " their own name (Tarhascue) had, according to Lagunas, the meaning of " Sons-in-law," and was said to have reference to their exogamous practice of taking their wives from their Aztec neighbours. On the east slope of the plateau, facing the Gulf of Mexico, are found some groups of distinct populations isolated amid the surrounding Aztec people, who Kg. 35. — Chief KiiivE Races in Mexico. Scale I : 30.000,000. ^ Aztecs. Mayas, Qaichds, Huaxtecs, Totonacs. Mems. Tarascsms. Zapotecs, Mis tecs. ^a Opata-Cora. Otomi, &c. Zoqn^, Mixe. Cborotega. ,^___^^^,^_^,^^_ 620 Miles. Lencas, Chontals, &o. have become more or less assimilated to their Spanish rulers. Such are the Huaxtecs (Huastecos), that is, " Our Neighbours," so named in courtesy by the Aztecs, although, according to Pimentel, the term means " People of the Huaxi land," so called from a kind of fruit common In their territory. They occupy the northern part of the State of Vera Cruz, and stretch thence northwards to the plains watered by the lower course of the Tampico river. The Huaxtecs are allied In race and speech to the JIayas of Yucatan, although no tradition survives of the events by which they became severed from their southern kinsfolk. Judging from the archaic form of their language, Stoll concludes that they were the first who became isolated from the primitive ilaya group, and various names of places 88 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. and peoples show that the Maya nation, at present confined to the Yucatan peninsula, formerly occupied the Tlaxcala plateau. On their southern frontier, that is, iu the hills whence flows the Rio Cazones, the Huaxtecs are conterminous with the Totonacs, that is, the " Three Hearts," eaid to be so named because they formerly made a solemn triennial sacrifice of three youths, whose hearts were offered to the gods. According to the national traditions the Totonacs also accomplished many peregrinations at an epoch even antecedent to the wanderings of the Chichimecs and Aztecs, and, like them, at last founded new homes on the Anahuac plateau, but more to the east. Most ethno- logists adopt the views of Sahagun, who groups the Totonacs in the same family with the Huaxtecs and Mayas, while other authorities regard them as quite distinct. Alphonso Pinart also makes a separate division of the few thousand Akal'mans, who appear to speak a peculiar language, and who live between the Huaxtecs and Totonacs in the northern part of the State of Hidalgo and in Vera Cruz, but chiefly round about the city of Huejutla. The last group of native races in Mexico proper beyond Chiapas and Yucatan is formed by the various Indian populations who dwell, to the number of about 600,000, in the southern uplands and on the Pacific slope between the Acapulco district and the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Here the chief languages, which, how- ever, present but slight differences, are those of the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, that is, "People of Cloudland," and of the "Zapotas" {casimiroa cdulis). Like the Tarascans these nations were fully as civilised as the Aztecs, and it was their strong national sentiments that enabled them to offer a vigorous resistance to the Spaniards, and even to maintain a state of semi-independence down to quite recent times. Now, however, they form part of the common Mexican nationality, and by their energetic habits contribute as much as any other native element towards the general prosperity of the commonwealth. Spanish will soon take the place of the local languages as the medium of general intercourse, as it has already become that of popular instruction. The Mixes also, as well as the Zoques, the Chinantecs, and other peoples of East Oaxaca, who are usually grouped under the general name of Chontals, that is, " Savages," are being gradually absorbed in the mass of the civilised population. Their Mixe neighbours are said to have such a pool' language that it has to be supplemented by numerous loan words taken from the Spanish. Formerly they had to eke out the sense by means of gestures, so that after nightfall, or when the lights were put out, all conversation ceased. Doubtless many of the Atzec aborigines were in some respects inferior in culture to the ancient subjects of Montezuma. But, on the other hand, numerous tribes which formerly possessed no culture at all, have now entered the general movement of national development. In any case the multiplicity of idioms still current in Mexican territory, some spoken by a few hundred thousand, some only by a few thousand or even a few hundred persons, prevent all comparison between such many-tongued states, for instance, as Austria-Hungary or the Turkish Empire. Id these two states the current languages belong not to small groups, but to powerful nationalities all contending for supremacy in the very heart of the THE MEXICAN INDIANS. 89 monarchy itself ; but in the Mexicau republic Spanish, recognised by all as the national language, is steadily and surely encroaching on all the others. But excluding the Aztec, Otomi, Tarascan, Mixtec, and Zapotec, the " one hundred and twenty " languages still current in Mexico are spoken only bj^ obscure and scattered communities of but slight numerical importance ; many of these are also actually disappearing, just as at least sixty have already disappeared since the arrival of the Spaniards in the country.* The indigenous populations differ so greatly in their origin and other respects that it is impossible to draw a general picture of the Mexican Indian equally applicable to all. The accounts given by various authors refer chiefly to those that are met along the highway between Yera Cruz and the capital and in the other more important towns on the plateau. In fact, these writers have almost exclu- sively taken as the typical representatives of the aborigines the more or less civilified Aztecs and the still barbarous or almost savage Otomi. On the elevated tablelands most of the natives have a skin soft as velvet to the touch, but so thick that it conceals as with a vesture all prominences and play of veins and muscles. The blood is not seen as through a transparencj' on the cheeks, except amongst the young girls, whose features are said at times to " beam like copper lit up by the sun." An extremely mild expression is imparted to the whole physiognomy by the cheekbones, which, though prominent, are still enclosed in a thick layer of flesh, by the nose with its wide nostrils, the tumid lips and rounded chin. The glance also acquires a highly characteristic expression from the peculiar disposition of the eyelids, the upper being scarcely curved above the median line of the eye, while the lower describes a more decided arch towards the cheek than is found in anj- other race. The skull is brachycephalic, this rounded form, however, being due in many districts to the custom of moulding the head of the infants on the inner curve of a calabash. The hair is black, coarse, and lank, like that of all full- blood American aborigines. A distinguishing feature of the upland populations is their broad and highly convex chest ; they are also noted for the great muscular strength of their legs ; when resting by the wayside or in their homes they squat down on their toes, and show no signs of fatigue even after hours of such an apparently uncomfortable posture. On journeys thej' always walk in single file, with a light springj' step in unison, and bent somewhat forward, as if to present their broad back to the burden. The attitude, in fact, is that of pack animals, and such was the condition in which they had been till recently kept by their Spanish taskmasters. The women • Chief languages spoken in Mexico proper, excluding Chiapas and Yucatan : — Nahnatl or Mexican (Aztec), mth Acaxee, Sabaibo, Xixime, Cochimi, Concho, and othermembers of the same family. Seri, Upanguaima and Guaima. Papago, Opata, Taqni, Mayo, Tarahumara, Tepehuan, Cora, &c. Apache or Tavipai, Navajo, Mescalero, Llanero, Lipan, &c. Otomi or Hia-hiu, Fame, Mazahua, &c. Huaxtec, Totonac. Tarascan, Matlaltzincan. Mixtec, Zapotec, Mixe, Zoqae, Chinantco. 90 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. when kneeling, with motionless head and bust, fixed gaze, and upheaved chest, have the aspect of ancient Egyptian statues ; so striking is the resemblance that, in the language of Lucien Biart, " we dream despite ourselves of a possible kinship between the two peoples." The Mexican Indian is extremely frugal and regular in his almost exclusively vegetable diet, consisting mainly of beans, maize, pimento, and bananas. In the family circle he is fond of occasionally drinking to excess ; but whatever quantity of pulque or other intoxicating liquors he may take, he is never affected by delirium tremens. The natives suffer from few ailments, and those who escape from the convulsions and other disorders of infancy generally arrive at mature age, though seldom taking the trouble to count the years of their unchequered lives. Nevertheless the Indians who have kept aloof from the European and settled Mestizo communities, rejecting the culture and customs of civilised society, betray that appearance of gloom and incurable sadness which seems to hang over races destined to perish. They are always serious, silent if not sullen, and justly suspicious. They seek the solitude, and reluctantly quit their native homes, which are carefully enclosed by tall cactus hedges. Beyond their lowly hamlet with its belfry fondly raised by the villagers, nothing seems to awaken their curiosity. Nevertheless they follow with a furtive glance the man from whom they have suffered wrong ; they can dissemble while awaiting the opportunity for vengeance. The half-castes, who tend more and more to constitute the bulk of the popula- tion, are on the whole of more graceful form and more delicate frame than the full-blood Indians. Like them, they have black and mostly lank hair, straight and at times slightly flattened nose, and depressed brow. But what the features lack in regular outline is always compensated by a kindly expression and winning smile. The articulations of hands and feet are extremely delicate, notwithstanding the tendency of the women to corpulence. It was stated at a recent meeting of the French Anthropological Society* that of all clients of the French glove- makers the Mexican and Peruvian Creoles have the smallest hands. The Mexican civilian is noted for his quiet, easy carriage ; he is always courteous even towards his most intimate friends ; unaffectedly polite even towards those against whom he may bear a grudge. But despite a clear intellect he seldom betrays any marked aptitude for any profession, and in youth he is easily led into dissipated, frivolous ways. He is open-handed, shares freely with his friends, and with a light heart will stake his all at a single hazard. "His purse burns," says a local proverb, to give some idea of the recklessness of the Mestizo, which contrasts so strangely with the greed of the pure Indian. Thus the Mixtecs and Zapotecs of Oaxaca, for instance, are said still to hide away all their savings, concealing them even from their own families, so that at the day of resurrection they may have all the enjoyment to themselves. A prodigious amount of treasure is supposed to lie buried in the ground in consequence of this practice, which, however, dates from pre-Christian times. Property accompanied its owner to the grave, and * February 6th, 1890. THE ETJEOPEAXS OF MEXICO. 91 rich finds may vet be expected to be brougbt to light from the old burial-places in this region. The Spanish element amongst the iTestizo populations of the Mexican plateaux was drawn chiefly fi"om Galicia, Astui-ia, and the Basque country, whereas the settlers in the low-hing district of Vera Cruz were mostly Andalusians. Later came the Catalonians ; but at no period did this tide of immigration assimie any considerable magnitude, and it was arrested altogether during the war of independ- ence. A large proportion of the 50,000 Spaniards at that time living in the country were driven into exile, and then took place the opposite movement of a return to the old country. Since the revolution a small stream of emigration has again set towards Mexico, and especially towards the uplands ; amongst these more recent arrivals are many natives of France and Italy, as well as of Xorth Europe, and several thousand English and German settlers now reside on the eleyated plateaux of the cold zone. It was long supposed, on the faith of Humboldt's statement, that in Anahuac altitude compensated almost exactly for the more northern latitudes of Europe, and that consequently the European could here be rapidly and permanently acclimatised. " ^ith the exception of a few seaports and some deep yaUeys," wrote the great German naturalist, "Xew Spaia must be regarded as a highly salubrious country." Such it certainly is for the natives, who have become adapted to their environment from time immemorial. But the comparative researches of Joui'danet and other physiologists plainly show that northern and even southern Europeans cannot settle with impunity on the higher tablelands, where the barometric column stands normally at about 23 or 24 inches, consequently where atmospheric pressure is one-fifth less than at sea-level ; hence the lungs inhale in an hour about one ounce less of oxygen on these plateaux than on the coastlands. The stranger residing on the uplands, where he supposes himself to be acclimatised, nms more risk than the Indian, despite his greater attention to hygienic precautions. He has especially to dread the dry season, that is to say, tho three months of March, April, and May, when the aqueous vapour is insufficient to stimulate the respiratory functions. Children born of Europeans are usually frail waifs, difficult to rear and nearly always overtaken by premature old age. Even for the natives themselves the yearly increase of the population is far greater in the temperate than in the cold zone. The immigrants are more threatened on the plateatix than on the lower slopes ; those even who settle on the burning plains of the seaboard are relatively better armed after overcoming the yellow or marsh fevers, and thus become more acclimatised than their feilow-cotmtrymen on the elevated lands, where affections of the lungs, as well as dysentery and typhoid fevers, are more prevalent. On the seaboard phthisis is common enough, and often assumes a highly acute form, except in the swampy districts where, so to say, it is driven out by the marsh fevers. Thus these two formidable disorders divide the coastlands between them. Another terrible scourge on the shores of the Gulf and especially at Yera Cruz is yellow fever, which, though less frequent in winter, occasionally prevails 92 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. at all seasons. It would almost seem as if this malady was unknown before the arrival of the Europeans in the country ; at least, medical men have failed to identify it with any of the other contagious epidemics mentioned in the history of Mexico. The first certain indication of its presence occurs so recently as the middle of the seventeenth century in connection with some extensive earthworks causing a disturbance of the soil. Its range is limited to about 3,300 feet on the eastern slope of the plateau, and cases are very rare above 2,500 feet. But the germs of the disease contracted on the coast may be developed on the uplands a few days after the arrival of the patient, and then it assumes a very dangerous form, frequently ending fatally. On the Pacific side the ports of Acapulco, San Bias, and Tehuantepec enjoy immunity from yellow fever, which, however, is replaced by a Fig. 36.— Peevailinq Diseases in Mexico. Scale 1 : 24,000,000. Cold Zone. Altitude of 2,300 feet, limit of Yellow Feyer. _____ 620 Miles. bilious fever, whose attacks are rarely dreaded by the indigenous populations. The vitiated taste which often develops a craving for earth, especially amongst the women, is common in South Mexico. Even on the plateaux little pastilles of a perfumed earth are exposed for sale at the markets, and never lack purchasers. Mexico is also noted for certain ailments which have been observed in no other part of the world. On the Atlantic slope, and especially at Orizaba, a serious affection occurs caused by the moyoquU, a species of insect whose larva, deposited under the skin, burrows into the flesh, where it raises a tumour as large as a hen's egg. It is cured by the application of a turpentine plaister, by which the sore is suppurated and the germ drawn out. Much more frequent is the so-called 2^into malady, which afEects whole populations, especially in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca. This is a cutaneous affection which destroys the uniform colour of the LOWEE CALIFOEXIA. 98 skin, in one place raising a patcli of white on a black ground, in another a dirty- red on white ; then these patches gradually expand, often with a certain regularity, until the body becomes mottled over like a piebald horse or certain snakes and salamanders. Hence the tennjjinfo, or '•' painted," applied to this malady, which in many upland valleys prevails jointly with goitre over the whole commimity. Lo^wER Californli. Lower California, at once the most remote, and geographically the most distinct region of the republic, is at the same time the least important from the political standpoint. It may, in fact, be said to be useless, except as presenting a rampart of some 750 miles on the Pacific side of Mexican territory. "With a scant poptilation of little over 30,000, and with scarcely any resources beyond its mines, fisheries and salt-pits, it has not even been considered worthy of constitut- ing a separate state, and still remains a simple territory belonging in common to the whole commonwealth. It is so indifferently administered that the Korth Americans have frequently crossed the fi-ontier of the peninsula to work the deposits of ores and salt at their pleasure without even the formality of a previous concession. Extensive salt-beds were long known to stretch along the west coast round the shores of Sebastian Vizcaino Bay ; but basins of saline efflorescences are so numerous in other parts of ilexican territory that the Spaniards had no induce- ment to work these vast Califomian deposits. In 1884 some ilexican explorers risiting the inlet known as Ojo de Liebre from a neighbouring spring, discovered to their astonishment the remains of large mining works that had been constructed by some American speculators. Here were landing-stages, platforms, depots, railways, trucks, and other rolling stock, occupying altogether a space of over 3j miles. Evidently a large number of hands had been employed on the works ; yet the Mexican Government had never been informed of these extensive operations, either because of the remoteness of the peninsula and lack of local population or more probably owing to the remissness or venality of the officials. About half of the Lower Califomian population is concentrated towards the southern extremity of the peninsula, and chiefly in the vicinity of La Paz Bay. The provincial capital, founded by the Jesuit missionaries, stands in the bed of a waterless torrent on the north side of the bay, which is sheltered on the east side by the rocky headland of Pichilingue. A well-kept road, lined by norias or draw-wells, winds between orchards, vine- yards, coffee and other plantations from La Paz southwards to the flourishing village of Todos Santos, on the Pacific coast. This district is watered by a perennial stream, a rare phenomenon in Lower California. La Paz thus possesses considerable agricultural resources ; but its chief wealth stiQ consists in its gold and silver mines, which were formerly far more productive than at present, yielding large supplies of the precious metals under the Jesuit administration. The richest lodes were said to have been blocked in 1767, when the missionaries were expelled, and if so their position has been faithfully kept a profound secret by the Indians ever since that epoch. i. u MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. But however this be, certain mines, sucIl as those of Sail Antonio, south of La Paz, are still very rich in auriferous ores, their annual yield exceeding £480,000. At Marques, north-west of La Paz, a quicksilver mine is also worked. La Paz is also the centre of important pearl fisheries in the Gulf of California. The submerged rocks off Cape Pichilingue are covered with pearl oysters, which are fished up by the Yaqui Indians. Whole forests of coral flourished in the straits separating the island from the mainland, and here are collected as many as nineteen different species of sponges, all, however, of a somewhat coarse texture. Although the value of these fisheries, like that of the mines, has gradually fallen Fig. 37.— La Paz. Scale 1 : 11,000,000. 113' West of bree wch 0to5 Fathoms. Depths. 6 to 25 Fathoms. 25 Fathoms and upwards. > 12 MUes. off, the average annual yield is still estimated at about £10,000 on the spot. The pearls are bought up by Jewish dealers of New York, who realise considerable profits on the transaction. Lorefo, which, like the capital, lies on the Gulf some 160 miles farther north, was formerly the religious centre of Lower California. Here the Jesuit mis- sionary, Salvatierra, established in 1697 the first fortified station, whence expedi- tions were made into the interior to bring back captives, who were then manu- factured into devout believers. At the western foot of the neighbouring Giant Mountain lies the village of Comondt), whore a small detachment of Mexican soldiers held out for four months against greatly superior American forces. The architecture of this village, like SONOEA. 95 that of all the older settlements in the peninsula, differs little from that of the Zuni Pueblos in Xew Mexico. It consists of one huge square block enclosed by a trench, and without any windows or other apertures on the outer sides. This common stone dwelling is disposed ia two storeys, the first of which recedes a few yards from the basement, and is reached by a ladder placed agaiast the wall. A second ladder leads to the top of the building, whence the inmates get acce:^ by trap-doors and more ladders to the rooms and inner court. In recent years some commercial activity has been developed in districts which were formerly desert or almost uninhabited. Thus the village of JIukge, lying on the shores of Santa Inez Bay, over 60 miles north-west of Loreto, has become a busy mioing centre since the discovery of auriferous deposits in the valleys of the interior. Xear the United States frontier the village of Todos Santos gives its name to the neighbouring bay, which ofiers excellent shelter to vessels engaged in the coasting trade. The port of San Bartolome, which stands on the opposite side of Cape San Eugenio, also attracts some shipping. But the best haven on the whole coast is that of Santa ilagdalena, the narrow entrance to which has over 100 feet of water in the channel. The spacious inner basin is large enough to accommodate whole fleets. SOXORA SiXALOA . The State of Sonora, which faces the northern part of the Calif omian peninsula, is also one of the least inhabited regions in the republic ; with an area of nearly 80,000 square miles, its population scarcely exceeds 150,000, or rather less than two to the square mile. In 1859, the adventurer, Raousset Boulbon, who had placed himself at the head of a band of French miners returning from California, was for some time master of Sonora. The arable tracts, where the civilised Indians and Mestizoes have formed settlements, are confined to the bottom lands of the mountain valleys. Every town and village is encircled by a zone of irrigated land, the settlements thus forming so many oases, some of which are connected together by narrow strips of verdure. The very name of the country, from the Opata word Sonoratzi, a " Place of Springs," originally applied to a cattle ranche, indicates the important part played by wells in this arid region. Amongst the Sonoran towns Santa Magdakna lies nearest to the United States frontier, being situated on a headstream of the Rio de la Asuncion, which flows west to the north end of the Gnlf of California. At the time of the annual fairs the whole of the surrounding populations, white and red, American and Mexican, form temporary camping-grounds in the valley of the river. Far- ther south several settlements have been founded in the basin of the Rio Sonora ; such are Ari^pe, in the territorv of the Opata Indians, formerly capital of the state ; Ures, which succeeded it as centre of the administration, and which Kes near the narrow gorges where the river escapes from the Sierra Madre on its westerly course to the Gulf ; lastly Hermosillo, formerly Piiic, or the " Confluence," the largest town in Sonora and centre of a considerable agricultural industry. The district which is irrigated by the last waters qI the Sonora, and its Cucurpe 96 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEETCA, WEST IXDIES. affluent, grows sugar and wheat, and its inhabitants claim that the yield of wheat is proportionately higher than in any other part of the world. Nevertheless, Hermosillo owes its importance not to its agricultural resources, but to the mineral deposits discovered in the vicinity. Between 1867 and 1888, the local mint coined a total sum of £2,640,000, chiefly in silver pieces. South-west of the town rises the famous Cerro de la Campana, or " Bell Mountain," whose porphyry Fig. 38.— Gttathas. I Scale 1 : 170,000. Fathoms. 2Jt0 5 Fathoms. Depths. BtolO Fathoms. 10 to 25 Fathoms. 3 Miles. 25 Fathoms and upwards. blocks appear to vibrate with a silvery sound. The YaquI river basin, although less thickly peopled than that of the Rio Sonora, contains in its upper valleys a few industrious places, such as OjMsura and Sahuaripa, where the Indians are engaged especially in the manufacture of cotton fabrics. Oposura, the old capital of the Opata nation, has recently taken the name of Modczuma, in memory of the former rulers of the land. SrSTAT.OA. 97 The Stale of Sonora possesses on the Colorado river the little port of Lcnlo, situated near a cliister of low islands where the Coeopa Indians gather the uniola pa/mcri, an alimentary cereal till recently unknown to botanists. Much farther south lies the seaport of Giiaijmas, so named from an extinct Indian tribe, which was a member of the Pima family. The harbour of Guaymas is one of the best in Mexico, and in a better-peopled and more flourishing district it could not fail to acquire considerable economic importance. But the whole of the seaboard is an arid waste; not a tree is to be seen, not a drop of water wells up for miles around the port, which is encircled Kke a flooded crater by bare rocks. The very shrubs growing in the town are rooted in soil brought from the United States, and are irrigated by a brackish water drawn from deep weUs. Nevertheless its excellent anchorage attracts to Guaymas an increasing number of vessels, and the place has been recently brought into railway communication with the mining and agricultural district of Hermosillo, as well as through Arizona with the network of^ United States lines. The Guaymas traders export marine salt and a little guano collected on Fafos, or " Duck " Island, an arid rock lying north of the large island of Tiburon, or the " Shark." To these products may some day be added an anthracite coal of excellent quality, large deposits of which are found in the valley of the upper Mayo river. Towards the southern extremity of Sonora lies the mining town of Alamos, or the " Poplars," which, like Hermosillo, has its own mint, where are annually issued from £350,000 to £400,000 worth of coins. Alamos lies just within the basin of the Fuerte river, so named from the old Sinaloan fort of El Fuerte or Monfes Claros, which guarded the seaboard from the Maj-o and Yaqui Indians, and which has now become a flourishing little town. The natural port both of Alamos and El Fuerte is Agiabampo, where are shipped dyewoods and silver ingots and ores, but only by small craft, there being onlj' ten or twelve feet of water on the bar at ebb tide. The old Indian town of Sinaloa, which has given its name to the State of Sinaloa, has for its outport the' deep and perfectly-sheltered haven of San Carlos, which communicates with the sea through the strait of Topolobampo, which is accessible to vessels drawing sixteen or eighteen feet. CuUacan, present capital of the State of Sinaloa, is one of the old cities of Mexico. In 1531, ten years after the conquest, it had already been founded near Hue- Colli uacan, that is, " Snake Town," one of the stations on the line of the Nahua migrations. At this place the Spaniards organised all their expeditions of disco- very and conquest made in the direction of the north. Culiacan, which lies on the river of like name in a fertUe district encircled by hiUs, is connected by a railway nearly 40 miles long with its port of Altata, on a deep lagoon which is sheltered from the surf by a long strip of sand. AU the gold and silver ores of Sinaloa are forwarded through this place, and between 1846 and 1888, the Culiacan mint issued gold and silver specie to the value of £8,200,000. In South Sinaloa Hes the important city of Mazatlan, the most active seaport on the west coast of Mexico. Its Indian name means " Deer-land," and one of VOL. XVIT. H 98 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, WEST IXDIES. the islets on the neighbouring coast bears the Spanish designation of Venado, which has much the same meaning. The researches made in the surrounding alluvial districts have brought to light numerous remains of stags' antlers associated with arrowheads, axes, and other stone weapons and implements. As a seaport Mazatlan cannot compare in natural advantages either with Gruay- mas or Acapulco ; the roadstead is exposed to all winds, and in order to avoid the nor'westers, especially dangerous in these waters, vessels have to ride at Fig. 39. — Mazatlas. Scale 1 : 30,000. West oF Gr. eei^wich I06'E7- Depths. Sands exposed at low water. 0tol6 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32toM Feet. , 1,100 Yards. 64 Feet and upwards. anchor in a part of the bay where the ground-swell rolls in from the soiith and south-west. But for the export trade with California Mazatlan has the advantage of lying exactly under the latitude of Cape St. Lucas ; in other words, it is the first Mexican seaport reached by vessels arriving from San Francisco. Hence it has become one of the chief ports of call for the regular steampackets, and thus have been developed numerous local industries, such as saw-mills, rope- walks, foundries and spinning factories, employing a large number of foreign hands. Some 30 miles due south-east of Mazatlan is the little town of Chametla, that SINALOA. 99 is "Cabins," in Aztec, a place wliich the early Spanisli navigators had endeavoured to utilise as a seaport long before their attention was drawn to Mazatlan. From Fig. 40.— Cathedbal of Chihttahua. Chametla Cortes sailed in 1535 on bis expedition of exploration in the " Vermillion Sea." h2 100 MZXi:0. 'rEATElAL AMEEICA. ■VTESI IST'lZ-S. On tlie east slope of the Sierra Madre, the chief city in. Xorth Mexico is Ckikiuiktuiy which is variously explained to mean the " City of "Water " or the " Gtj of Plfiasnre." It stands at a mean altitude of 4,600 feet at the foot of the lofl^ Cerro Grande, between two streams whose miited waters form the Conchos afflocait of the Bio Braro del Xorte. An aqueduct deriyed from one of these streams winds round the flanks of the mountain, separating the region of scrub from the irrigated fidds and gardens of the slopes. Chihuahua is a decayed place, which in the last centoiy, during die flourishing period of the surrounding mines, is said to haTB had a population of 75,000, that is, about sis times more than at piesenL The cathedral, erected and long maintained at the cost of the miners, is an imposing stnictur e towering abore all the surrounding buildings. Here is also a mint, which has become the third most important in Mexico since the work of exploring flie metalliferoas lodes has been resumed by American miners. The ores which supply the Chihuahua mint come chiefly from the deposits of Samta EidaUa, a village lying about 20 mQes to the south-east in a narrow glen flanked by inhalnted caves. The argentiferous lodes of Santa Eulalia have already famished to the trade of the world a quantity of silver estimated at iS8,000,000. The ore is poor, but occurs in great abundance, so that when the depc^ts are not wurted by companies the so-called gambmiiios, or private miners, find enough metal to earn a livelihood. The very slag, which has been used to build hundreds of houses in Chihuahua, or to enclose fields and gardens, is said still to contain a percentage of aivear valued at not less than £80,000,000, so that it has been proposed to submit it to a further process of reduction. Another decayed place is CosiJutiriaehi, which lies some 60 miles to the south- west in a vallev of the Siena Madre, and which during the last century had a population of over 80,000. BahtpQag, which stands in the upper basin of the Ftio del Fuerte within the Chihuahua frontier, has yielded altogether £12,000,000 during the 250 years that have followed the discovery of its deposits. Scarcely le^ productive than the Batopilas mines are those of Guadalupe y Cairo, in the Sinaloa river ba^ at the south comer of the state. The eastern section of Chihaahua is an almost completely desert region, whereas the w^item zone, comprising the slope of the Sierra Madre, is a land of minra and forests, of gra^ heights and arable tracts. Here is ample room for a large population, and in the xqtland valleys stock-breeding and horticulture might be successfully carried on. Nearly all the towns in the state, San Pablo Mtogni, Stmia Cruz de Bosales, Santa Smalia, Hidalgo del Parral, follow in the direction from north to south parallel with the Sierra Madre, and lie at the issue of the various fluvial valleys, whose streams form the Eio Conchos. The railway from Denver City to Mexico traverses the state in the same direc- tion, and penetrates into Mexican territory through the historic town of Paso del Norte, which stands on the right bank of the Eio Bravo at the point where fliis river beccmifis ih& common frontier between the two republics. Paso is DUEANQO. 101 the oldest station in north Mexico, having been founded in 1585 by a Franciscan missionary. This " ford," as the vrord means, was formerly much frequented by the American convoys which conducted the transport service across the western prairies between the Missouri and Mexico, but it gradually lost its importance, owing to the competition of the ocean highways. Paso, however, has acquired great commercial value since it has become the junction of the four railways running to San Francisco, to New York through Denver, to New Orleans and to Mexico. In 1889 its exchanges amounted to over £4,000,000. At the confluence of the Eio Bravo and Conchos river stands the frontier military station of Presidio del Norte, which lies beyond the trade routes, and, despite its strategic value, has never risen to the rank of a town. In the hiUy region stretching west of El Paso parallel with the Rio Bravo prehistoric ruins are very numerous ; here are found the Casas Grandcs, " great houses," of Chihuahua, the largest of the Nahua settlements whose remains stiU survive in the northern part of Mexican territory. All that now remains of the ramparts are some grassy mounds dominated here and there by the fragments of crumbling walls. On the highest mound stood the ancient temple, and here has been discovered a block of meteoric iron still carefully wrapped in cloth; it was probably an object of worship, like the black stone at Mecca. In its general outlines the State of Durango, lying to the south of Chihuahua, presents the same aspect and forms part of the same geographical region that was formerly comprised under the designation of Nueva Vizcaya, or " New Biscay." The settlers are to a large extent of Basque origin, fully as energetic and indus- trious as their Iberian ancestors. In this part of the republic the purely European element is more strongly represented than elsewhere in Mexico. Like Chihuahua, Durango comprises on the west the parallel ranges of the Sierra Madre, and on the east side vast arid and partly desert plains. Consequently here also the chief towns are all situated in the western section along the foot of the mountains. Durango, however, occupying a more elevated and less arid part of the plateau, is also more fertile and relatively more densely peopled than Chihuahua; the latter state has only two, the former from four to six, inhabitants to the square mile. Durango, the capital, is named from the Basque town of Durango, having been founded in the j'ear 1551 as a strategic post in the territory of the Chichimec Indians. Standing on a plateau 6,350 feet high, it commands a superb prospect of the most diversified character, the view in one direction sweeping over the gloomy ravines and fantastic gulches of the Brena, in another embracing the highlands crossed by the highway to Mazatlan, the nearest port on the Pacific. Durango is famous in geological records for its meteoric stones, which resemble those found in many other parts of the Sierra Madre ; one block, mentioned by Humboldt, is said to weigh from sixteen to twenty tons. But the great geological curiosity of Durango is its huge rock of native iron, the Cerro de Mercado, so named from a captain whom the hope of finding gold had attracted to these regions in 1562, and who on his return from the vain quest perished in a conflict with the Indians. This mass of iron, which lies over a mile to the north of Durango, 102 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. is 650 feet high, and contains above ground 460,000,000 tons of metal, enough to supply the whole of North America for a hundred years. Like Chihuahua, Durango prides itself on its sumptuous cathedral, and the city is dominated bv an old palace of the Inquisition. The local mint issues gold and silver coins to a yearly average value of about £200,000. Durango has often been called the " City of Scorpions," and in 1865 a small price having been put upon these arachnidse, as many as 55,000 were brought to the municipality in two months. All the other towns in the state, such as Mezquital, Guarisamay, San Dlmas, Pajmsquiaro, Tainazula, and Inde in the highland region, and Nombre de Bios, San Juan del Rio, Cueneame, Nazas, and Mapimi on the lower parts of the plateau, owe their origin and prosperity to their silver mines ; but the deposits also contain gold, lead, and tin. Extensive burial- groimds have been discovered in the caves amid the hills and mountains encircling the Bolson de Mapimi wilderness. In these graves the bodies are buried in a crouching attitude, and are wrapped in shrouds of agave fibre over which are wound coloured scarfs. A single cave contained over a thousand of these mummies, nearly all of which were carried off by American explorers, and distributed amongst various collections in the United States. Noeth-Eastern States — Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas. Coahuila, which is conterminous on the east side with Chihuahua, and which, like it, is separated by the Rio Bravo from the United States, also resembles it in its general relief. Coahuila has also its Sierra Madre, but on the opposite or east side, while westwards it expands into vast desert wastes, where the running waters are lost in saline meres or lagoons. Th£ slopes of the mountains, which are drained by streams descending from gorge to gorge down to the Rio Bravo, are disposed in delightful and fertile valleys siutable for cultivating all the plants of the tem- perate and sub-tropical zones. Yet this region has still a population of less than two to the square mile, and till recently it was exposed to the annual incursions of the murderous Apache and Comanche marauders. In 1879, after the complete submission of these ferocious Indians, a large number of immigrants were attracted to the Sierra Mojada, where auriferous silver ores, apparently very productive, had lately been found. But the hopes of the specidators were not realised, and most of the immigrants were compelled by the lack of water and provisions to retire from these arid uj^lands. The coalfields, also, which skirt the course of the Rio Bravo, and from which one of the Mexican riverain stations took the name of Piedras Negras, or " Black Stones," are no longer systematically worked. The future wealth of Coahiula will be derived not from its mineral stores, but from the produce of the soil. Monclova, formerly Coahuila, which stands on a headstream of the Salado afiluent of the Rio Bravo, is surrounded by fertile plains, and long staple cotton is grown at Santa Buenaventura in the environs. Saltillo {El Saltillo or Leona Vicar io), capital of Coahuila, lies at the foot of a slaty eminence towards the south-east corner of the state, in an upland valley on the slope of the mountains separating Coahuila from Nuevo Leon. The running KUEYO LEOX. 103 waters descending from the sierra flow northwards through a gorge in the range to the San Juan affluent of the Rio Bravo. Saltillo was founded in 1586 by the Spaniards, who placed here a garrison of Tlaxcaltecs to defend it against the sur- rounding wild tribes, and from that time it continued to be the chief town of the province, to which they had given the name of ^ew Estremadura. Some six miles farther south, the highway enters an angostum, or " narrow pass," between elevated liiUs, where stands the famous farmstead of Bitena Vista. From this place are named a large number of localities in the United States in memory of the two days' battle fought ia 1846 by the Americans against the Mexican defenders of the pass. Monterey, capital of the State of Nuevo Leon, is one of the old cities of ilexico, its foundation dating from the last years of the sixteenth century. The cirque of which it occupies the centre, and which is watered by the little Eio Santa Catalina, an affluent of the San Juan, is surrounded by mountains of a foi'bidding aspect, with bare rocky flanks and craggy peaks. Southwards is continued the chief range of the Sierra Madre ; westwards is developed the Silla or " Saddle " ridge, while to the north the system terminates in a bluif which, from its peculiar shape, takes the name of the " Mitre." The grey, yellow, and red flanks of the surrounding hills rise to a height of from 1,600 to 2,600 feet above the whole town, which is encircled by a zone of orchards and orange groves. Monterey lies still within the hot zone 1,600 feet above the sea, with long sultrj- summers and mild winters free from snow. Its annual fair, held in the month of September, is much frequented both by Mexicans and Americans. The well-cultivated plains of the irrigated zone in Nuevo Leon yield heavy crops of maize, besides wheat, beans, sugar, oranges, and all kinds of fruits. From Monterey and the other agricultural centres of the state, such as Cadereyta Jimenez, Montemorelos, Linares, and Doctor Arroyo, Tamaulipas and the other surroimding regions draw their suppHes of alimentary produce, giving in exchange horses and cattle. Thanks to the industry of the peasantry, Nuevo Leon, though not always favoured with a sufficient rainfall, has flourished, and the local popidation has increased rapidly. Its present density is about eight persons to the square mile, that is to say, four times more than that of the other states of North Mexico. Monterey forms the bidwark of the republic towards its north-west frontier : hence ia the war of 1846 the .Americans began operations by seizing this strate- gical position. Two railways converging at Monterey connect it on the one hand through Nuevo Laredo on the Rio Bravo with the United States system, on the other with the riverain towns of 2Iier, Camarno, Eeinosa, and Matamoros. Thanks to this line Monterey has become the Mexican emporium for the lower valley of the Rio Bravo. Each of the stations on the right bank confronts another on the left through which the American traders introduce their wares, either by legitimate traffic or by smuggKng. The two lines converging at Monterey are continued through the republic by the grand trunk line of Mexico. Of all the towns in the State of Tamaulipas, Matamoros Kes nearest to the mouth of the Rio Bravo. Allowing for the winding of the river, it is 48 miles 104 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEIOA, WEST INDIES. from the sea, the coast route having had to be constructed at some distance from the Gulf in consequence of the fringing backwaters. Matamoros is of recent origin, its site down to the beginning of the present century being still occupied by the hamlet of Congregacion del Refugio, that is, the " Refuge " of all the French and Meisican corsairs scouring the surrounding waters. In 1825, at the time of its official foundation, it received its present name from one of the heroes of the Mexican war of independence. Soon after the annexation of Texas to the United States, Matamoros acquired great strategic and commercial importance as a frontier station near the coast. Its outlet near the mouth of the Rio Bravo has received the ambitious name of Bagdad, which, however, is scarcely justified by this humble coast village. The bar is too high and too dangerous to admit large vessels. Beyond Matamoros, North Tamaulipas is almost uninhabited. Nothing is anywhere to be seen except a few scattered hamlets and vast haciendas, where thousands of horses and cattle are reared. But in the centre of the state a con- siderable population is grouped in towns and villages, which owe their existence to the streams descending from the Sierra Madre. This part alone of Tamaulipas, that is, "Olive-land," justifies its name. Here is Aguaijo, capital of the state, now called Ciiidad Victoria. It lies on a main branch of the Santander, or Marina, famous in Mexican history as the old Rio de las Palmas, where the fleets of Graray and Camargo landed at the time of the conquest. Here also the ex-emperor Iturbide attempted to re-enter the country for the purpose of again seizing the reins of government ; but having been arrested he was brought to the village of Padilla, at that time the capital, and shot by order of the Tamaulipas congress. The city of Tula, which lies near the frontier of the State of San Luis Potosi and on the plateau at an altitude of 4,100 feet, is an agricultural centre, whence large supplies of maize, beans and pimento are forwarded to the lowlands. Although founded hi the middle of the seventeenth century, Tula of Tamaulipas, like the Tula of Hidalgo, has replaced an ancient city where have been discovered the vestiges of temples and numerous vases, weapons, implements, and other objects of the pre-Columbian age. The route leading from Tula to Tampico, after crossing a pass 4,800 feet high, descends to Santa Barbara, beyond which it rounds the base of the Cerro Bernal, a nearly isolated mountain of a perfectly conic shape. Tampico occupies in the south of Tamaulipas a geographical position somewhat analogous to that of Matamoros ; it stands on a river not far from its mouth, and is surrounded by extensive low-lying and unproductive plains. The present city dates from the year 1823, when the Spaniards still held the fortress of San Juan d'Ulua, which commands Vera Cruz, and which consequently obliged Mexico to seek new outlets for its foreign trade. The old town lies within the State of Vera Cruz on a thick bank of upheaved shells, and on a shallow creek accessible only to craft of light draft. Another Tampico occupies the site of an old Huaxtec village amid the dunes east of the Tamiahua lagoon. The new town, though better situated on the chief river a short distance below its confluence with the Tamesi and six miles from the sea, is not accessible to large vessels; those drawing TAilPICO. 103 more thau eight or nine feet have to remain outside the bar, where they are exposed to the winds and surf. But, higher up, the river is navigable for small steamers some 30 miles above its mouth. The trade of Tampico has, at different times, tmdergone great vicissitudes ; it was enriched at the expense of Vera Cruz whenever this place was blockaded or occupied by foreign powers ; at other times it was itself deprived of its export trade in consequence of local revolts or political strife. Eecently a large share of the American traffic has been diverted from this port by the opening of the continuous railway from the States through Paso del Xorte to ilexico ; but it has again recovered its commercial importance Tig. 41.— Tamkco. Scale 1 : 130,000. 97-5? West oF G'-ee''vv1c^^ Otoo Fathoms. Depths, 5 to 10 Fathoms. 10 Fathoms and upwards. . 3,300 Yards. since the construction of the railway connecting this port through San Luis Potosi with the Mexican system. Several lines of steampackets also connect Tampico with the other large seaports on the Gulf and in the Caribbean Sea, as well as with Xew York, Liverpool, Havre and Hambiu-g. Some 30 nules above Tampico, and on the right bank of the Panuco, or "Ford," stands the village of Panuco, formerly San Edehan del Puerto, which recalls the memory of the Huaxtec kingdom conquered by Cortes, and so cruelly laid waste by Xuno de Guzman. The whole district is still but thinly inhabited compared to its flourishing condition before the arrival of the Spaniards. Higher up on an affluent of the Panuco stands Tamquian, a town of Huaxtec origin, where 106 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEBIC A, WEST INDIES. archsDologists have made ntunerous finds, especially of monos, or "monkeys," that is, rude himian figures. I>aAND States — Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, San Lris Potosi. The central or "inland" states, which rise in terraces towards the southern extremity of the Anahuac tableland, are relatively to their size far more densely peopled than the northern provinces ; the greater diversity of their relief, more abundant supply of water and more exuberant vegetation, enable them to support a far larger number of inhabitants. Yet the same arid aspect of the northern regions is still maintained without much modification as far as the central parts of Zacatecas and San Lms Potosi. Numerous local names, such as Rio Salado, Salitre, Laguna Seca, Pozo Hondo, sufficiently attest the arid nature of the soil and the brackish quality of its waters, while many villages owe their designation of Mez- quite or Mezquital to the thickets of thorny scrub by which they are surrounded. The traveller arriving from the United States by the Central Mexican Eailway detects no marked change in the scenery until he reaches the town of Fresnillo. This place stands, in fact, at an altitude of 7,300 feet, exactly on the divide between the waters flowing north to the closed basins of the Bolson de Mapimi, and those draining to the Pacific through the Rio Lerpia. Zacatecas, capital of the state and of the old Zacatec territory, is one of the earliest Spanish settlements in Mexico, having been founded by Nuho de Guzman in 1540. The city occupies a group of deep and winding gorges, which are com- manded on the north-east by the porphyritic escarpments of La Bufa surmounted by a citadel and a church. Zacatecas is hemmed in between other rocky ramparts furrowed by crevasses, whence the rain-water descends in cascades to swell a rising tributary of the Lerma. Zacatecas owes its prosperity to the silver mines of the surroimding porphyritic and schistose mountains interspersed with quartz and calcareous beds. Some of the lodes are extremely rich, and those of San Bernab, worked for three hundred and fifty years, are not yet exhausted. The most pro- ductive are usually found, not in the ravines or on the gentle slopes of the hills, but in the steepest places and even on the jagged topmost crests. Thus the reta grancle, or " great lode," running north-west and south-east, three miles north of Zacatecas, is embedded in a lofty summit 8,650 feet high, on which are perched the dwellings and workshops of a mining village. Since 1810 the Zacatecas mint has coined a sum of over £68,000,000 in gold and silver, and during the decade from 1878 to 1888 the average yearly issue has been £1,150,000, almost exclu- sively in silver doUar pieces. The little mining town of Somhrerete, lying about 125 miles north-west of Zacatecas, on the Durango road, had also Its mint, which, however, has been closed since the war of independence. At the time of Hum- boldt's \'isit the " black lode " of Somhrerete had j'ielded more metal than anj' other vein in the whole of America. A village not far from Somhrerete bears the name of Chakhihuites, or " Emeralds," from the greenish stones here found, which resemble jade, and which were highly valued by the ancient Aztecs. The Zaca- tecas district abounds in natural curiosities. Several small lakes contain carbonate AGUASCALIENTES. 107 of soda, and some of these tarns are like deep natural wells with vertical walls, in which the water rises and falls according to the seasons, but never runs dry. Hot springs bubble up in several places, especially near the town of OJo Caliente, south- east of Zacatecas. The capital of Aguascalientes ("Thermal "Waters"), a small state almost entirely enclosed in that of Zacatecas, has also its thermal mineral waters, which are sul- phurous at a temperature of from 77° to 95° F. Fig. 42. — Zacatecas. Sc.ile 1 : 110,000. i ' % Fl r dd ^W" sf£^ 102^0' West oF Grcpnw rh IQ2"25 3, 300 Yards. Near Villanueva, some 30 miles south-west of Zacatecas, stands a hiU of tufa naturally carved into circular cliffs, which give it the appearance of a fortified plateau. This eminence is crowned with a group of structures, which must have formerly presented an imposing effect, and amongst which archaeologists have identified palaces and other dwellings, a citadel, a temple, and a pyramid bearing the statue of a god. But the finest remains on this " Cerro de los Edificios " are a series of steps, on which the spectators assembled in thousands to contemplate 108 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. the public feasts and sacrifices, but where the solitary traveller now surveys nothing but ruins overgrown with scrub. Traces of these buildings are met strewn over a space of 70 square miles. According to Clavigero, the Cerro de los Edificios is the famous Chicomoztoc of the Nahua legends, that is, the "Seven Caves," whence the Aztecs set out on their wanderings to the Anahuac plateau. Another ancient city, formerly capital of the confederation of the Nayarit people, lies 60 miles south-west of the Qitemada, as the ruins are called, in a lateral valley of the Lerma. Here, also, are seen the remains of a fortress and a temple overlooking the plain ; Teul, the name of the old city, is the same as Teol, the Aztec title of the sun-god. The State of San Luis Potosi resembles that of Zacatecas in its physical appearance and the disposition of its two watersheds, one inclining towards the northern depressions, the other facing the GuK of Mexico, and comprised within the Panuco basin. Like Zacatecas, it is also one of the most productive mining regions in the republic. But its agricultm-al and industrial importance is increasing from year to year, and these sources already yield a larger income than its argenti- ferous ores. Even the city of Caiorce, although lying in the arid northern part of the state at an altitude of 8,850 feet, has discovered a considerable source of wealth in the preparation of the ixtli fibre. Nearly all the silver coined in the San Luis mint, from two to three million dollars a year, comes from the Catorce mines. The city, which is said to take its name from the massacre of Catorce ("fourteen") soldiers, lies in a narrow gorge on a mass of rocky debris formed by an old landslip ; its foundation dates from the discovery in 1773 of the rich lodes in the neighbouring mountain, the pyramidal double- crested Cerro del Fraile. San Luis, distinguished from so many other places of the same name by the epithet of Potosi, indicating its great mineral wealth, no longer deserves Its title since the famous San Pedro mine and most of the surrounding deposits have been abandoned. The city stands on the site of the ancient Tangamanga of the Chichimecs, in a depression on the edge of the plateau 6,230 feet above sea-level, whence the running waters flow through the Rio Verde to the Panuco. San Luis is so completely embowered in a zone of gardens and jjlantations that nothing is visible from a distance except the domes of the numerous churches rising above the surrounding verdure. Like Monterey, Chihuahua, and some other places, the capital of the State of San Luis Potosi was for a time the seat of the Mexican Government during the French invasion. It had already lost half of its popula- tion, owing to the exhaustion of the mines to which it owed its prosperity in the eighteenth century. The ojjening of the railway between Vera Cruz and Mexico also diverted much of its trade southwards, causing a further decrease of popula- tion. But the new line to Tampico has at last given it a direct outlet seawards, and this cannot fail to be followed by a revival of its languishing trade and industries. The district yields an abundance of cereals, fruits, vegetables, textile fibres, and fermented drinks extracted from the maguey or other plants of the same family. The citizens, noted for their enterprise and energetic habits, look forward to the time when San Luis will take the second rank, if it docs not rival Mexico itself in commercial importance. GUAXA.JTATO. 109 All the other more populous and flourishing towns of the state, such as Rio Verde, Santa Maria del Rio, Ciudad del Mais, are situated on the south-eastern slopes of the plateau facing towards Tampico. The mining town of Guadakazur, which lies in a limestone dista-ict to the north-east of San Luis, is a decaved place, while Salinas, to the north-west, as indicated by its name, abounds in salt-mines and saline lagoons, the most actiTely worked in the rcpublci. GrANAJXTATO, J.VLISCO A^•D Tepic, Colima, Michoacax. The political divisions of the diSerent states are far from coinciding with their natm-al Kmits. This is largely due to the fact that the present frontiers were fixed by the Spanish administration according to the disti'ibution of the tribes Fig. 43. — Sax Lrrs Potosi— Goveejckest Paiace. and languages, religious or executive considerations, and especially the interests of the great European or Creole landed proprietors. Kevertheless a certain accidental coincidence may occur between the political boundaries and physical conditions of the various provinces. Thus the four States of Guanajuato, of Jalisco with the Tepic territory, of Colima and ITichoacan, constitute a sufficiently distinct natural region, comprising the basins of the Eio Lerma and other streams, which flow from the western slope of the Anahuac plateau down to the Pacific. These regions, where the hot, temperate and cold climates are disposed in vertical order one above the other, possess a great abundance of different products. But they do not yet enjoy the same facilities of communication as the eastern slope of the Mexican tableland, the seaports on the Pacific side not being yet connected with the general railway system. The 110 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. population, however, which has considerably increased during the last few decades, is relatively dense, averaging nearly forty to the square mile. Of these states Guanajuato, which lies nearest to the capital, is best provided with communications and has been longest settled by the whites ; hence it is also the richest and the most thickly peopled in proportion to its extent. Guanajuato, its capital, stands at an altitude of 6,700 feet in a deep and narrow gorge flanked by bare jagged cliffs, and accessible only by a single winding path. Here the houses with their flat roofs rise one above another like a heap of dice piled up in disorder. The mining villages are grouped here and there along the escarp- ments, and the workshops are scattered over the terraces and in the depressions. One of these industrial centres is the famous Vaknciana, where the reta madre, or main lode of Guanajuato, nowhere less than 30 and ia some places over 160 feet thick, constitutes an enormous mass of argentiferous ores, which, between the years 1768 and 1810, gave an annual yield of over £1,520,000. This is the deepest mine in Mexico, having been worked down to 2,000 feet below the surface. But since the war of independence it has been flooded, and more than one English company has in vain attempted to resume operations, yet the lode is still supposed to contain from £280,000,000 to £320,000,000 of silver. La Luz, a to-mi h'ing a short distance to the north-west in the group of the Gigante or "Giant" Mountains, is also surroimded bj' mineral deposits. At present the Guanajuato mint yearly issues specie to the value of £950,000, of which £160,000 in gold, the rest silver, nearly all derived from the surrounding mines. These Guanajuato mines have become famous in physiography for the subterranean rumblings often heard in them. In 1784 they were so violent that the terrified inhabitants took to flight, although the underground thunders were accompanied by no earthquakes. One of the neighbouring hills takes the name of the Bramador, or "Roarer." Guanajuato is one of the historic cities of the war of independence. Here the insurgents, aided by about 20,000 Indians and armed only mth knives and sticks, gained their first victory ; the plunder was enormous, about £1,000,000 having been taken in the citadel alone. The little town of Dolores, whose parish priest was Hidalgo, leader of the insurrection, lies some 25 miles north-east of Guanajuato ; since the revolution it has taken the name of Dolores Hidalgo. Guanajuato is rivalled in population by Loon de los Aldamas, which, like the capital, lies on an upper affluent of the Pao Lerma, but in a far more accessible position and under a more agreeable climate. The citj', which is dominated on the north bj' the group of the Giant Mountains, spreads over a fertile and well- cultivated plain at the north-west extremity of the alluvial zone, which, under the name of Bajio, sweeps in crescent form right across the wliole State of Guanajuato. Leon, which despite its large size has never ranked as a capital, possesses nume- rous factories, and here are specially produced the rich saddles and trappings so much affected by the Mexican cavaliers. The railway which traverses the Bajio zone, and one branch of which runs to Guanajuato, passes close to nearly all the important towns of the state. Such are Silao, dominated by the Sierra de Cubilete, f^ JALISCO. Ill and rich in silver-mines and thermal springs ; Ii-apuato ; Salamanca with its cotton mills; Celaija, a watering- place and a manufacturing centre, producing cloth, carpets, soaps and leather. San Miguel Allende, or simply Allende, another indus- trial town, dating from the first years of the conquest, lies on a plain to the east of Guanajuato, while Salvaticrra and Vallc Santiago occupy depressions in the lake-studded plateau which stretches southwards in the direction of Michoacan. The Eio Lerma, which at Salamanca enters the formerly lacustrine basin of the Bajio, sweeps southwards round the San Gregorio heights, and then traverses a second very broad valley before losing itself in Lake Chapala. La Piedad and La Barca, both surrounded by numerous hamlets, have sprung up on the banks of the river, and in the interior towards the south stands the town of Ixtlan, with its hundreds of mud volcanoes dotted over the plain. Westwards along the banks of the great lake there are no large towns. Chapala itself, which lies on the north side, is an obscure place, remote from all the highways of communication. East of this town is seen the island of Mexcal, which is identified with the mythical Azflan, whence the Nahuas trace their origin. In 1812 the Indians of the surrounding shores took refuge in this island under one of their priests, and here defended themselves for five years against all the attacks of the Si^aniards. Guadalajara, capital of Jalisco, lies some twelve miles from the left bank of the Lerma, at an altitude of 5,120 feet, on a plateau watered only by a few inlets. Founded in 1542, it has always been one of the chief cities of Mexico, thanks to its geographical position at the converging-point of the highways ascending from the Pacific seaports towards the plateau. Its population has increased from 20,000 at the beginning of the century to over 100,000 ; it has thus greatly outstripped the Spanish city from which it has been named. As a mining centre Guadalajara cannot be compared with Zacatecas or Guanajuato ; nevertheless its mineral wealth is considerable, for the local mint annually coins silver pieces to the value of from £240,000 to £280,000. But Guadalajara takes the second place amongst Mexican cities as an agricultural and manufacturing centre, being noted especially for its rehozos and other textiles, its paper, starch, cigars, metal and glass wares, and sweetmeats of all sorts. The springs which suppKed the city having proved insufficient for the rapidly increasing population, it has been proposed to supply it with water by a canal derived from the Rio Lerma above the Juanacatlan Falls ; this aqueduct might also be so constructed as to furnish motive power for the workshops of the city. The pleasure resorts of the wealthy classes of Guadalajara are for the most part scattered over the San Pedro hills, some miles from the city. Towards the east the Rio Lerma, here 540 feet wide, is crossed by the bridge of Totolotlan, a work dating from the Spanish period. Farther on the route is carried over a northern affluent of the Lerma by the famous bridge of Calderon, where the insur- gents met their first reverse in a battle which was long supposed to be decisive. In the neighbourhood, between the towns of Zapotlanejo and Tepatitlan, is still seen the 112 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. ruined pyramid of a temple known as the " Cerrito de Montezuma." On an affluent of the Lerma, north-east of Guadalajara, stands the town of Lcir/os, in an angle of the state midway between Aguascalientes and Guanajuato. Thanks to its geographical position Lagos promises to become the common emporium of several of the upland states ; its markets are already much frequented, though to a fiir less extent than the annual fairs of the neighbouring San Juan de los Lagos, which lies at a much lower elevation in a depression of the valley. Bolanos. a smaller place than Lagos but formerly more important as a mining centre, also lies on a northern affluent of the Lerma, the Rio Jerez, but in a region of difficult access at the outlet of a formidable gorge dominated by jagged rocky walls. South Fig. 44.— San Bias. Scale 1 : 700,000. I05'40 West 6? Greenwich Depths. 0to5 Fathoms. 5 to 12 Fathoms. 12 Fathoms and upwards. 12 MUea. of Bolanos and beyond the Lerma, the town of Tequila stands at the foot of a high precipitous clilf ; this place is famous for its maguey brandy, commonly known as tequila. The town of Topic, capital of a separate territory, lies like Guadalajara some distance to the south of the Rio Lerma, the lower course of which it may be said to command. Its prosperity is due to the salubrity of its position, 3,000 feet above sea-level, in the midst of gardens and orchards, and on the edge of a volcanic plateau within sight of the Pacific Ocean. It thus serves as a health resort for the ports of this malarious seaboard, on M^hich are deposited the alluvia of the Rio Lerma. When the conqueror, Nuuo de Guzman, took possession of this JAUSCO. 118 region, he selected another site some twelve miles farther south, but also on the edge of the plateau, and at the same distance from the coast. Here was foimded the town of Compostela, which was long the strategic centre of the whole of west Mexico, but which is now a decayed village. The old Indian city of Jalisco, which has given its name to the state whose capital is Guadalajara, lies four or five miles to the south of Tepic on the slopes of the igneous Cerro San Juan. At the issue of the mountain gorges, where the Eio Lerma, called also Rio Grande de Santiago, debouches on the low-h-ing coastlands, stands Santiago, now a mere village of no maritime importance ; large vessels can no longer force the dangerous bar to ascend the course of the river to any inland port. Hence San Bias, the present port of the Lerma basin, lies to the south of the allu^dal plain, not far from the escarpments of the Sierra de Tepic. Foi-merly one of the lateral branches of the Lerma discharged into the San Bias harbour, but it was obstructed during the war of independence, and since then it has remained closed. The port is well sheltered from the winds ; but the approach is narrow, and has a depth of less than thirteen feet at low water. But such as it is, San Bias is the most frequented seaport on the west coast of Mexico between Mazatlan and Acapulco. The old town stood above the harbour on a bluff of black basalt, accessible only from the land side. Since its destruction during the ci^il wars, it has remained a mere ruin almost entirely overgrown with vegetation. The present San Bias, which lies on the coast, consists of a group of houses and cottages shaded by cocoanut groves and inhabited chiefly by people of colour. The Eio Ameca, which discharges into Banderas Bay south of San Bias, has given its name to the chief town in its basin. Ameca and the neighbouring Cocula, lying in an extremely fertile district studded with lakes and dried-up lacustrine depressions, will one day present a shorter route from the coast to Lake Chapala than the loundabout road rxinning north by Tepic and Guadalajara. But Ban- deras Bay is everywhere exposed to the surf, and the town of Mascota, occupj-- ing a sheltered position in a glen at the foot of the Bufa de San Sebastian cliffs, has no haven on this inhospitable seaboard. The nearest anchorage is that of the little port of Chamela, over 60 miles farther south. South of Lake Chapala, the two industrial and pictui-esque towns of Sai/iila (4,420 feet) and Zapotlan (4,3'20 feet), the latter called also Ciudad de Guzman, form convenient stations on the route leading fi-om Guadalajara to CoUma. This provincial capital, formerly Santiago de los Cabal! eros, was foanded by Cortes in the first years of the conquest, at an alti^ade of 1,485 feet, on the advanced spurs of the hills which form the pedestal supporting the two volcanoes of " Fire " and "Snow." A river, whose nimierous feeders descend from the deep gorges scoring the flanks of the moimtains, passes to the west of Colima, irrigating its gardens, coffee, sugar, and cotton plantations. So favourable are the conditions of soil and climate that the plains of Colima might become one of the most productive regions in the world under a less primitive system of husbandry. The future railway, by which these fertile plains are to be connected with the general Mexican system, has already made a beginning with a coastline which VOL. x^^I. I Ill MEXICO, CENTKAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. runs from Jtlanzanillo, tlie port of Colima, along a strip of sand on the south side of the Cuyutlan lagoon. This shallow basin is entirely dry during the hot season, and it is now proposed to place it in constant communication with the sea by cutting a canal through the narrow intervening neck of land. The port of ManzaniUo, which is developed in the rocky coast immediately to the west of this sandy isthmus, is spacious, deep, and well sheltered from aU winds except those blowing from the west and south-west. These prevail especially during the rainy season, from May to October, that is to say, the healthy period of the j'ear ; but during the dry season the climate of ManzaniUo is much dreaded. Some sixty miles south-east of this plain lies the little port of Maniata, which, while quite as Fig. 45. — Mauzanillo. S(ale;i : 1,110,000. I04'?0' West oF Greenwich I03'40' 0to25 Fathoms. 25 to 60 Fathoms. Depths. 50 to 100 Fathoms. 100 to 500 Fathoms. 18 Mfles. unhealthy, is even more exposed than ManzaniUo. The coast salines between these two ports occupy during the season from 5,000 to 6,000 native hands. The State of Michoacan is one of those regions that have long resisted assimila- tion with the rest of Mexico. The Tarascan nation had never been subdued by the Aztecs, and their chief bore the title of " Booted " in a pre-eminent sense, because, of aU native princes, he alone had the right of wearing his boots in the presence of Montezuma. Proud of their ancient Uberties, the Tarascans had at first welcomed the Spaniards as mere aUies, and three hundred years later, during the war of independence, no other Indian warriors displayed greater valour and steadfastness against the disciplined troops of Europe. It was in the town of Apacinffan, in one of the low-lying fluvial valleys converging ou the Eio Mexcala, that was held the PS o S K MICHOACAN. 115 first deliberative assembly of the revolted populations. The national council was later transferred to Zitacuaro, on the uplands between Morelia and Tolnca. The capital of the state also bears a name which recalls the great deeds of the struggle against Sj^ain. Under the old regime it took the designation of Valladolid from the famous Castilian city ; but it is now better known as MorcUa, from Morelos, one of the heroes and martyrs of the insurrection. Situated at an altitude of 6,200 feet, on the plateau in the basin of Lake Cuitzeo, Morelia lies between two streams in a fertile valley commanded on the west by the superb Mount Quinceo, 8,950 feet high. The citj% which stood aloof from the great highways of communication, is, nevertheless, one of the best built and cleanest in Mexico ; it is adorned with beautifid public grounds, and a fine cathedral with two towers in simple and correct taste. The branch line connecting Morelia with the Mexican railway system is one of the most picturesque on the plateau ; it skirts the shores of Lake Cuitzeo, which is everywhere encircled by hills, grassy slopes, and woodlands. West of this magnificent lacustrine basin, the region between the mountains and the Rio Lerma is dotted over with other lakes, one of which mirrors in its clear waters the houses of Furuandiro. South-west of Morelia the railway is continued in the direction of Patzcuaro, which was the capital of the country from the time of the conquest to the year 1541, when the Spaniards founded Valladolid. Patzcuaro had itself succeeded in 1520 to Tzintzontzan or Huitzizila, the "Humming-bird Town," resi- dence of the native ruler, which was said to have a poiDulation of 40,000. Bishop Vasco de Quiroga removed the Christians from the old to the new town, which stood on a neighbouring terrace, whence a view was commanded of Lake Patzcuaro about three miles ofE. Tzintzontzan is now a mere village, whereas Patzcuaro has become a populous city. The mounds scattered about the district are said to conceal the ruins of temples and palaces. Lake Patzcuaro still stands at an alti- tude of 7,260 feet ; but from this point the traveller soon reaches the edge of the plateau, whence the route descends rapidly to the coast through the towns of Tacambaro, Ario, Uruapan, and some other places situated in the lateral valleys of the Rio Mexcala. Near Ario, at an elevation of over 6,700 feet, and within sight of the summit of the Tancitaro volcano, stands the -village of Caninzio, till recently inhabited by a group of French settlers, who acclimatised in the district nimierous species of fruit trees, flowering, and other ornamental plants. The wine made in the colony of Francia, or " Little France," was famous throughout Mexico. But the invasion of the country by the French troops in 1864 excited the natives against the foreign settlers, who were obliged to disi^erse. The so-called ayacates, or sepulchral mounds, erected by the ancient Tarascans are scattered in hundreds round about Ario. QUERETARO, HiDALGO, MeXICO, FeDERAL DISTRICT. The various states occupying the Anahuac plateau properly so called, and draining through fissures in the moimtains to both oceans, but mainly to the Gulf of Mexico, constitute collectively the most productive, the richest and most i2 IIG MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. densely-peopled region in tlie republic. Here the population is in the proportion of about C4 to the square mile, so that the centre of gravity of the Mexican nation has not been shifted since the epoch of Toltec civilisation, that is to say, for a period of at least a thousand years. This centre, however, could scarcely be removed to any other region, such as Durango and Zacatecas, possessing greater mineral resources, or Michoacan and Oaxaca, enjoying the advantage of a more exuberant vegetation ; for the Anahuac tableland has the still greater advantage of being the natural converging-point of all the routes coming from the north between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, while at the same time com- manding like a citadel both slopes of the country. The State of Queretaro, where rise the first headstreams of the Panuco, is of relatively small extent. Its northern section, also, where are situated the towns of JaljKtn, Tollman, and Cadereijta, is but sparsely peopled, most of the inhabitants being concentrated in the southern division, where begin on the one hand the great plain watered by the Bajio tributary of the Rio Lerma, and on the other the headwaters of the Rio San Juan, a main branch of the Panuco. In this valley Lies the town of San Juan del Bio, a delightful " city of gardens." Queretaro, which gives its name to the state, is situated at an altitude of 7,000 feet, close to the Avaterparting between the two slopes. Its foundation is attributed by historians to the Otomi people ; but although it is said to date from the middle of the fifteenth century, all its buildings are of Spanish origin. Of these the most remai'kable is an aqueduct of seventy-four arches, rising about 80 feet above the ravine. A reservoir, recently constructed above the city, contains a volume of over 35,000,000 cubic feet of water. Queretaro is one of the industrial towns of Mexico, being noted especiallj^ for its soaps, cigars, and cotton yarns ; the spinning-mills occupy thousands of native artisans. About half a mile west of the city is situated the Cerro de las Campanas, on the slope of which is the little monument of three stones, indicating the spot where the ill-fated emperor Maximilian and his two generals, Miramon and Mejia, were shot in 1867. The state bearing the name of Hidalgo, in memory of the priest who first siunmoned the Mexicans to rise against Spain, is of recent formation. Here the towns, such as Zimapan, Jacala, Mextitlan, and Huejutla, the ancient city of the Huaxtec nation, all stand at considerable distances one from the other. Thus the population is centred chiefly in the extensive fertile plains of the south, which are enclosed by a highly productive hilly mineral region. Here lies, not far from Actopan and the fantastic "Organ" Mountains, the capital, Paehuea, an ancient city, now connected by a branch line with the Mexican railway system ; in the neighbourhood are the gold and silver mines, which were already worked by the natives in pre-Columbian times. The mining district of Regla, between Pachuca and Atotonilco, has become famous under the name of Real del Monte, recently changed to Mineral del Monte. Vast quantities of silver were extracted from these deposits before the mines were ruined by inundations and the biu'uing of the surrounding forests. Since the war of independence, the works have been reopened bj' Cornish master-miners, who now employ thousands of native hands. 1^ ►J \^ 'y/ :yp^. Ai>cnid<^ /: ir f/V--- — / ■ ^T* Zaltocaa/ Tetania ZumpSn^ lan ' '2i^ ^ ^^' ,7^ l&^fda viejo TLAL>T£PA>'T-fcAia t-« i*" Cii'' JfJape oona n tLt Iztapa S"'Catarinii/ Tesi Talpetla(jaft >yiu .Tic .0* v^ Nahncajpamj, *E HIDALOO .:^^^y L. de TexcoccT- Araoon-— ^i^ o Hii£xotla I "S.Baitolo ^ luixmuloe^u -Sachiaq \ palapa J IV 1 J D9'\ — r ^vK / — N^x "^ , ^de la's/ ^ S. Ano el S.AMonip/ =^ Td^Ui .■..,,,^ /Next,alpan y^iyc^ / , ^ di Jpisco ■' CHIMrLi yoOa rnaulhi IS. Lucas ^ Xalpa '' AclopaXL"- "Topilfjo Tecusp »\ c->l -Jl (-rp<.-ii\' Scale, l.ttSO.OOO -OKDON J.S.VIRTUE & CV wkiteu. CITT OF MEXICO. 119 and pinnacles, spreading widely over tte vast plain, and bounded in the hazy distance by an amphitheatre of majestic monntains, harmonises completely with 120 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST IKDIES. the natural enTironment. The traveller, viewing it from some commanding site, might weU be tempted to exaggerate the part played in history by a city occupying such an imposing position. " "We stood rapt in amazement," exclaimed Bernal Diaz. " "We declared that the city resembled those enchanted abodes described in the book of Amadis, and some of our men asked whether the vision was not a dream." Mexico is laid out with great regularity, the streets, mostly too narrow, being disposed at right angles, Uke those of Chicago and Philadelphia ; but this monoto- nous arrangement is somewhat broken by the squares and gardens occurring at intervals. The houses, with their terraced roofs and inner courts Uke those of eastern cities, are solidly built with a yellowish sandstone, or a red lava called tezontle, and are usually of only one storey, the better to resist the slight but some- what frequent earthquakes. In the centre of the city is situated the great square (plaza), where, are celebrated all public solemnities, and where converge the currents of business and pleasure, alternating with the hours of the daJ^ On one side of the square stands the cathedral, which replaces the church erected by Cortes on the spot where stood the teocaUi, or temple of the war-god, ever reeking with the blood of human victims. The very pillars of the new edifice rested on the great idols, in order that they might be for ever crushed by the indestructible column of the holy Christian religion. The present church, which took nearly a centiiry to build, is a sumptuous monument of imposing appearance, and to it is attached the Sagrario, another church with a fa9ade as luxuriously carved and sculptured as a Hindoo palace. A second side of the plaza is occupied by the National Palace, which is said to have been erected on the site of Montezuma's palace. It is a vast building, with a frontage considerably over 220 yards long, and containing the senate, the Government offices, the ministries, besides the post office, museum, and library. The other two sides of the square are skirted chiefly by houses with porfa/es, or arcades, where there is a constant movement of loungers, pedestrians, and itine- rant dealers. In the middle of the square is the fine promenade of the Zocalo, or " Socle," shaded with the eucalyptus, and adorned with flower beds, fountains, and statues. In the Mexican museum are preserved valuable natural history collections, amongst which are those fossils which the conquerors supposed to be the "bones of giants," but which are now known to be the remains of large animals belonging to the quaternary fauna. Still more interesting is the archaeological collection, comprising such antiquities as escaped the iconoclastic fury of the first conquerors and the research of foreign collectors. Here is the precious " Mexican Calendar," on which is sculptured the division of time according to the ingenious Aztec system. It is a huge block weighing 21 tons, which must have been brought from a groat distance, for no rocks of the same geological formation occur in the neighbouring mountains. The " Stone of Tizoc " (p. 71), which represents the pro- cession of people vanquished by that hero, and which was long supposed to be the " stone of sacrifice " belonging to the great temple, is another treasure preserved in this museum, where may also be seen the hideous statue of Huitzilopochtli, i ,. I 1 ^-^U *-r -J ■-■ I 'A' ^V. mj o o o i ( ) CITY OF MEXICO. 121 "god of war," hieroglypliic paintings, Montezuma's shield, and the effigies of several deities. Every year adds to the contents of the National Museum, and systematic explorations made in the groimd, and especially in the lacustrine depressions, cannot fail to reveal numerous other treasures. Mexico already possesses some large scholastic establishments, notably a school of medicine now installed in the old palace of the Inquisition, and a preparatory school occupying the old convent of the Jesuits. Aztec literature is studied in a college founded for the Indians ; several learned and literary societies publish useful memoirs ; the chief library has over 150,000 volumes; the picture-gallery is one of the richest in the Xew World. The population of Mexico has increased fivefold since the beginning of the century ; nevertheless it has already been outstripped by many cities of more recent origin. A himdred years ago it was the largest place in the New "World ; now it is exceeded not only by Xew York and several other cities in the United States, but also by some of its rivals in Latin America. Xevertheless, Mexico, situated on the " bridge of the world " between the two oceans, is assuredly one of the vital points of the planet, one of those points whose historic importance cannot fail to advance with the general progress of the world. It has doubtless lost the trade between the Philippines and Spain which it had formerlv enjoyed through colonial monopolies ; but on the other hand the internal traffic has greatly developed. Bernal Diaz already remarked that " no European city possessed a market comparable to that of the Anahuac capital ; at least none possess such a fruit market, where are seen in abundance the products of every zone — cherries and pears side by side with pineapples and bananas." One of the most curious sights in Mexico is that presented every morning on the Tiga Canal by the flotillas of boats ladened with flowers, fruits and vegetables. The wholesale import trade is almost entirely in the hands of English, American, German, French and other foreign traders. These industrious strangers have nearly all acquired a position of comfort, while the native population of mendicants, feperos, pelados or pordioseros, still swaiTns in the suburbs. Despite the pure air descending fi-om its snowy mountains, Mexico is not a healthy place. The mortality, which in certain years has exceeded the births four times, averages from 32 to 33 per thousand, which is much higher than that of London, Paris, and most other cities of West Europe. This high death- rate is due mainly to the impurity of the soil and waters. Mexico stands only a few inches above the level of Lake Texcoco, with a subsoil of impermeable argil- laceous deposits : hence the least excavation on the surface of the ground becomes at once flooded with a brackish water saturated with organic substances. The gradual upheaval of the bed of Lake Texcoco threatens destruction to the city, which has already been more than once laid under water. After every downpour, the streets are filled with slush, and when the rains last long enough the whole place becomes transformed to a swamp or even to a veritable quagmire. The roadways are also badly kept, while the drains, flooded with an almost stagnant water, con- tribute much to the putrefaction of the soil. "The city is threatened with asphyxia," 122 MEXICO, CENTRAL ATSIEEICA, WEST INDIES. is an expression occurring in a report on the sanitary state of the place. But if foul water abounds in Mexico, the pure water brought from a distance by aqueducts is far from sufficient for the wants of the people ; in 1882 it was scarcely 880,000 cubic feet per day, or less than twentj' gallons per head of the population. The drainage of the subsoil itself presents grave difficulties ; by carrying off the overflow, which gives consistency to the marshj' ground, the b\xildings are apt to lose their centre of gravity and to topple over at the least vibration of the surface. The gradual drying up and shrinking of the land has already caused rents and fissures in most of the large structures, while others have sunk several feet in the Fig. 48. — 3IEX1C0 AND IT3 ENnEOXMESTS. Scale 1 : 120,000. 99"iO Wast oF Gree . 3,300 Tarda. oTOund. It is now regretted that, in order to secure his triumph, Cortes decided to rebuild the city exactly on the site of the old capital, and lay the foimdations of his churches on the temples of the gods, instead of selecting a new position on the more elevated land which stretches westwards to the neighbouring mountains. The wealthy quarters, however, are already stretching out in this direction. Certain villages, such as Casablanca and Tacuhaya, where the national observatory has been established, are gradually expanding and becoming connected with the capital by avenues lined with buildings. Mexico is thus steadily moving westwards towards the less tainted rising groimds. The city is adorned with some fine promenades, such as the Paseo and the Alameda, where a fountain Indicates the site of the ancient Quemadero, that is, the " burning-place," of the Inquisition. Victims of CLi a o tq H EXTIBONS OF MEXICO. 123 this horrible institution -were especially the " heretical " sailors captured by the Spanish cruisers. Mexico is rapidly growing along both sides of the road leading to Tacuba, ■which replaces the old highway by which the Spaniards made their disastrous retreat during the Koche Triste or "Sorrowful 2s^ight." Xear the village of Popotla is still seen the old cypress under which Cortes sat vainly awaiting the arrival of over 400 of his men, whose bodies lay heaped up in the gory mud at the breaches of the causeway. Round about this historic tree stretch vast marshy gardens, and farther on are seen the houses of Tacuba. Under the name of Thicopam this place was formerly one of the three cities of the Xahua confede- ration. Farther north, on the road leading to the desagiie of Huehuetoca, stands CwaM^jY/aw, the " Eagle-town," which gave rise to the Mexican saying, "Beyond Mexico naught but Cuautitlan," meaning that except Mexico there was nothing in the world worth seeing. A superb avenue shaded with eucalyptus-trees leads from the capital to the porphyritic eminence of Chapultepec, or " Mountain of the Cicada." This avenue is lined with statues, one of which commemorates the last Aztec king, Guatimozin, " heroic in the defence of his country and sublime in his martyrdom," burnt alive by the infamous conquistadores. On the rock of Chapultepec formerly stood Montezuma's suburban residence, which has now been replaced by a palace of vast size. This huge pile was erected in the last century by the Viceroy Galvez, with the intention, said his Mexican subjects, of making it a stronghold from which to proclaim his independence as Emperor of Mexico. The palace, a part of which has become the military school, commands from its terraces the finest panoramic view of the capital with its lakes and encircling mountains. The surroimding promenades are also the most umbrageous on the Anahuac plateau. Here are found the gigantic '''cypresses" (ciipressus disficha), or ahuehitetes, that is, "Old Men of the Waters," which already existed before the arrival of Cortes. Some of these giants of the vegetable kingdom, with their wide- spreading branches and foliage shaped like a " Spanish beard," have a girth of 50 and a height of 160 feet. At Churuhusco, a little to the south of this place, the Americans gained the decisive victory which made them masters of the capital in 1847. The following year was signed the treaty of peace of Guadalupe Hidalgo, by which half of the national territory was ceded to the United States. The aqueduct, which is fed by the various springs from the moimtains south- west of Mexico, supplies both the Chapultepec gardens and the aristocratic subui-b of Taeuhaya, whose villas are dotted over the district south of Chapultepec. From this place excursions are made round about to San Angel, to the picturesque group of hamlets nestling in the valleys of Mount Ajusco, and to the pedregal, or lava streams, which have flowed from this volcano, but which are now over- grown with cactus and brushwood. Tlalpam, famous as a place of pilgrimage, lies in a deep ravine between two masses of scoriae ; it was through this ravine that the Americans penetrated into the valley of Mexico. Xorth-east of the capital the Tepeyacac heights, source of a spring of ferru- 124 JIEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WTSST INDIES- ginous waters, are crowned by the church of Guadalupe, formerly one of the richest in the world, but now spoiled of its treasures bj' the National Government. The Virgin of Guadalupe is the special patron of the Indians, while Our Lady de los Eemedios was formerly regarded as the tutelar saint of the Spaniards. Under the old regime an incessant struggle was carried on between the devotees of the two sanctuaries ; but the war of independence secured the definite triumph of Guadalupe, so that religion and patriotism are now merged in a single cult. On the west side of Lake Texcoco, east of the capital, a volcanic eminence rises above the saHne waste, which is made a receptacle for the refuse of the Fig. 49. — Tlaxpam and Lake Xochtmilco. Scale 1 : 190,000. Ixtapalapa '' Mexicalcin^o ■- Reyes l\T>- ..j^*^^ts. ■%Toma-'-*! '« 'k. k.t^ 'S9^ '"-.~^:!=^^^^\ •• ■P.i fcl! r^^-^^r H O o « Pa z H a PUEBLA, CHOLULA. 127 reign of Maximilian there was even a question of removing the administration to Puebla, which enjoys a far more healthy climate and lies in a more fertile region than Mexico. It stands at an altitude of 7,160 feet, that is, something less than the federal capital, on an inclined plain, whose rapid streams flow westwards to the Mexcala, which winds away to the Pacific. All these rivulets are fed by the melting snows, and serve to irrigate the surrounding plains, which yield abundant crops of all sorts. Dominated by the two square towers of its sumptuous cathedral and by the belfries of over fifty churches, Puebla was formerly inhabited by a fanatical population extremely hostile to strangers ; more than once travellers had to seek the protection of the troops to avoid being stoned as " Englishmen," " Jews " or " heretics." The place is noted especially for its rcbozos, or scarfs, its cotton yarns, and for the preparation of little figures in wax or alabaster, sculptured vases, onyx stands, and similar objects connected principally with church decora- tion. Lying about midway between Mexico and the edge of the plateau, Puebla formerly stood on the main route of nearly all the transit traflac between the inte- rior and Vera Cruz. But it has lost this commanding position since the opening of the main railway from Vera Cruz to the capital, though still connected with the general system by branches running eastward, west of the Malinche volcano- Puebla owes its prosperity to its great agricultural resources. It also promises to become a much-frequented health resort, especially for strangers suffering from aifec- tions of the chest ; in the neighbourhood are copious sulphurous thermal springs, which probably owe their special properties to the volcanic deposits of Popocatepetl. The two steep hills of Guadalupe and Loreto, rising north-east and north of Puebla, recall the two most important military events in the modern records of the nation. During the war undertaken against Mexico for the restoration of the monarchy, General de Lorencez, after forcing the passes and reaching the edge of the plateau at the head of 6,000 men, had sent off a despatch announcing that he was already "master of Mexico." But right in front of Puebla he found the route blocked by a force of 12,000 troops, under Zaragoza, which held possession of the city and of the two fortified convents on the hills. The attack made on May 5th, 1862, ended in failiu'e, and the French invading army had to retreat to the lower slopes of the plateau. Next year an army 20,000 strong again advanced on Puebla, and began a regular siege of the place. The investment lasted 62 days, during which the Mexican garrison defended every post and station, yielding only after exhausting ammunition and supplies, and then partly dispersing to join the troops that held the plains. Although a large place, Puebla is still inferior in size to the famous city of Cholula, which formerly stood in the neighbourhood. This holy city of the Olmecs and later of the Aztecs, at one time centre of the textile and pottery industries of Anahuac, and founder of the colonies as far south as Nicaragua, is now an obscure village and railway-station eight miles from Puebla on the opposite side of the deep gorge traversed by the Rio Atoyac. Chiirultecal, as Cortes calls it, is described by him as containing 20,000 houses in the central part, and an equal number in the outskirts. "Prom the summit of one of the temples," he adds, "I 128 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Fig. 51.— PUEBLA IN 1862. Scale 1 ; 120,000. have counted over 400 towers, all belonging to other sanctuaries." But a few days after contemplating this panoramic view, the conqueror began the work of destruction by fire and sword. Of the 400 temples nothing now remains except a few shapeless mounds covered with vegetation. But one of these Ij'ing to the south-east of the city is a veritable hill of bricks and layers of earth, as shown by the explorations and the cuttings made for the road and the railway passing at its foot. According to the local tradition this hill was con- structed by order of a giant in honour of the god Tlaloc, who had saved him from a deluge, and all the bricks used in the building were passed from hand to hand by a string of workmen reaching all the way from the slopes of Popocatepetl to Cholula. Its present height, though greatly diminished as shown by the irregular sky-line, is 175 feet above the plain, while its enormous base covers an extent of 42 acres, nearly four times more than that of the pyramid of Cheops. No other isolated human monument approaches these vast propor- tions. The platform on the summit, where the chapel of Our Lady de los Eemedios now replaces Quetzalcoatl's temple, has an area of about 5,000 square j'ards, forming a stupendous esplanade whence the eye glances from the vil- lage and gardens of Cho- lula to the glittering domes of Puebla, from the forest-clad slopes of Malinche to the snows of Popocatepetl. Before the construction of the Yera Cruz railway Puebla had as its outpost towards the Atlantic the town oiAmozoc, at the converging point of the roads to Jalapa and Orizaba. Tepeaca, a little farther on near the outer ram- parts of the plateau, also possessed great strategical importance, and Cortes himself had chosen this place as a stronghold and Spanish colony under the name of Segura de la Frontera, " Safeguard of the Frontier." Next to Vera Cruz, Tepeaca was the earliest Spanish foundation in Mexico. This angular corner of the plateau has suffered a loss of trade since the main line of the Mexican railways passes farther north by Iluamantla and San Andres de Cliakhicomula, the station dominated by the cone of Orizaba. Near Chalchicomula, on the very edge of the plateau, the station of Usperaiiza lies about midway on the main line between Mexico and Vera Cruz. Although occupying a part of the plateau draining to the Pacific, neither Puebla nor Cholula is connected by railway with that ocean. But the 98' 14' West oF Gree-^-iCh 98° 10' . a,300 Yards. YEEA CEUZ. 129 locomotive has already descended to the temperate zone on this slope, reaching Matamoros de Izucar through AtUxco, where is seen a cypress 74 feet in circum- ference. Towards the south-east angle of the state another line runs from the plateau down to Tehuacan, or Teotihuacan, " City of the Gods," whose sumptuous temples were compared by the Spaniards to the palaces of Grenada. Teea Crvz. This state occupies all the hot zone skirting the Gulf of Mexico, besides a part of the temperate lands, from the Rio Panuco to the Eio Tonala beyond Coatzacoalcos. It thus extends north-west and south-east a total distance of about 410 miles. Despite the marvellous fertility of its upland districts, which lie half-way up the slope, and are well exposed to the fogs and rains of the Atlantic, Vera Cruz is not one of the populous states of the confederacy ; within its limits are comprised some forest lands, as well as sandy, desert, or marshy tracts. The capital has often been displaced, and the city which gives its name to the state was itself for some years the seat of the government. Orizaba also, for a time, held the same position, which at present is enjoyed by Jahpn. This place stands on the slope of the extinct ilacuiltepec volcano, which is furrowed by deep gorges. Formerly it occupied the rim of a plateau, also scored by eroded gullies. But according to the local tradition, the inhabitants of this first Jalapa were so decimated by the epidemic of 1537 that they left the place in a body, and settled a little distance off on a sunny slope on the opposite side of a neighbouring gorge. The new city, with its regular streets winding amid the gardens, is one of the healthiest places in Mexico. From its superb avenues is unfolded a magnificent prospect, embracing on the one hand the forest-clad heights of the CordiUera from the Orizaba peak to the Cofre de Perote, on the other stretching over the orchards and meadows of the meandering Eio San Juan vaUey, and again in the far east to the strip of dunes fringiug the blue Atlantic waters. Although a small place, Jalapa is one of the most important historic cities in Mexico. It occupies a station which is indispens- able to all invading armies, to all travellers and traders journeying between the coast and the plateau. Formerly, when the commercial monopoly belonged to Cadiz, and when the trade with Europe was limited to a fleet forwarded every four years, Jalapa was the great market-place for the distribution of the imports and the purchase of Mexican produce ; hence its title of Jalapa de la Feria, or, as we should say, " Market-Jalapa." It has now lost this commercial role, but it is still a health resort, at once a hospital and a convalescent home for the people of the lowlands. The yellow fever has never reached Jalapa, which as a sanatorium is not only extremely salubrious, but also possesses in the neighbourhood numerous efficacious mineral waters, hot and cold, saline and sulphurous. The numerous •products of the district surrounding Jalapa, Ciudadde las Flores, " City of Flowers," fnuts, cereals, and vegetables, serve mainly for the local consumption ; it exports little beyond its medicinal plants, especially the root of ipomea purga, which bears the name of this place. The plant is collected by the Indians of the surrounding VOL. XVII. K 130 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEBIC A, WEST INDIES. communes, especially Chiron- Quiaco, a village which lies 20 miles farther north, and the products of which are the most highly esteemed. Jalapa is connected with the Mexican railway sj'stem by a branch which skirts the north side of the Co/re de Fcrofc, and then traverses the little town of that name. Here is a magnificent and apparently impregnable citadel, which was built at a great expense by the Spanish viceroys for the purpose of guarding the highway between Vera Cruz and Mexico. Merely to keep it in repair cost over a million dollars yearly. But it may now be easily turned, and the citadel of Perote, deprived of its strategic importance, has been transformed to a state prison. Coafejyec, which lies in the midst of orchards and plantations some nine miles south of Jalapa, is also a favourite resort of the coast people. But the little centres of population following lower down in the direction of Vera Cruz already lie within the dangerous zone which is yearly visited by yellow fever. Several of these places have an historic name, having been the battleground of armies con- testing the possession of the routes leading up to the plateau. Amongst them is the Cerro Gordo, the passage of which was forced by the American troops in 1847. Lower down is the Pueiite Nacional, formerly Ptiente del Reij, a monumental bridge which crosses the deep barranca of the Rio Antigua. South of Jalapa and Coatepec several other towns occupy positions on the escarpments of the plateau analogous to that of Jalapa itself. The roads which here creep up the slopes at heights varying from 2,800 to 4,000 feet, are scarcely rivalled in the whole world for their magnificent views and endless variety of scenery. On emerging from the leafy avenues formed by the overhanging bi'anches of conifers and other forest growths, the traveller suddenly beholds snowy Orizaba and surrounding ranges, with their spurs, terraces, wooded lava-fields, and the lower plains extending in the hazy distance down to the curved margin of the blue Atlantic. The flanks of the mountains are furrowed from base to summit by gloomy gorges several hundred yards deep ; but the walls and taluses of these gorges, where the tracks descend as into bottomless wells, are concealed by dense thickets, in which are intermingled plants of the torrid and temperate zones. Along the banks of the creek flowing on the bed of the barranca, the explorer treads his way as in a vast conservatory beneath the pendent foliage of palms and tree ferns. Orizaba, which lies in the very heart of the mountains at the foot of Borrego, has also a more continuous rainfall than Jalapa, and the exhalations rising from the ground are more dangerous. It stands on the site of the ancient Ahuilitzajyan, or " Glad Waters," over 4,000 feet above sea-level, on a terrace whose thriving plantations are irrigated by copious streams of pure water. Nearly all the maritime trade of the state, and about half of all the exchanges of the republic, are concentrated in the port of Vera Cru%. The village of Pueblo Viejo (Old Town), over against Tampico, in Tamaulipas, is little more than a detached suburb of that place. Farther south, Tuxjxtn, accessible only to small craft, has a yearly trade of scarcely £200,000. For some time the works have been in progress which arc intended to connect it with Tampico by a navigable canal traversing the Tamahua and other coast lagoons. On the whole seaboard, VESA CEUZ. I3i stretching 135 miles soutli of Vera Cruz, uo sheltered haven anywhere occurs, the shore being here everj^vhere fringed -with sands and surf. The old port of Ifciufh, which formei-ly gave its name to the whole coast, is now choked with mud. The modern city of Yera Cruz is not the same place as that to which its founder, Fernan Cortes, gave the name of Villa Rica de Vera Cruz. K^evertheless, the first camping- ground must have stood on the beach not far from where the Fig. 52. — Obizaba. Scale 1 : 60,C'W. West oF C-T-een>vlch . 2,200 Yards. present quays have been built. It was then removed farther north to the village of Quiahuifzlan, which, however, was badly chosen, being unhealthj- and destitute of any shelter. Hence, four years later a third city was founded farther south near the populous Zempoala, capital of the Totonac territory. The river watering the plantations of the surrounding district took the name of Antigua in 1599, when this settlement was also abandoned, owing to the bar which prevented all access to the estuary. The fourth city is that which now exists, and which was founded on the coast over against the fortified island of San Juan d'Ulua. It was certainly k2 182 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. difficult to fiiid a favourable site on sucli an inhospitable coast, studded witb shoals, and surrounded by arid or sandy flats and marshy wastes. Medanos. or dunes, raise their yellowish slopes immediately beyond the outskirts of the city, changmg their form and positions with every storm ; under the influence of the north winds, some of these sandhills rise to a height of 160 or 170 feet. Seen from a distance Vera Cruz, surrounded by all these medanos, presents a Fi". 53. — SUCCESSIVB DlSPIAOEMENTa OF VeEA CeW. Scale 1 : 600,000. 96 go We t 6? Greenw'.ch Depths. - 86° 0to5 Fathoms. 6 Fathoms and upwards. 12 3Iiles. far from attractive appearance ; hence most travellers not detained by business, and aware of its evil reputation as a hotbed of fever, pass rapidly on to the more agree- able cities of the interior, especially in the hot season when " yellow jack " prevails on this seaboard. The epidemic is said to have carried off 2,000 persons in 1862 m the Ciudad de los Muertos, " City of the Dead," as it is called in Mexico. Neverthe- VEEA CEUZ. 138 less, after the scourge has passed the place is not so unhealthy as might he supposed, and the whites who have escaped a first attack may consider themselves acclima- tised. They run even less risks than those settled on the plateau. By sinking wells in the sandy soil, water is reached at a depth of three or four feet, but mostly con- taminated by filtration from the neighbouring marshes ; hence good water has had to be brought by aqueducts from the River Jamapa. Till recently there was not suificient to water the streets or flush the sewers, and all the scavengering was left to the zojnlotes, or carrion vultures, which wore protected by police regulations. Kg. 54. — Feom Veea Ceuz to Antox Lizaepo. Scale 1 : 210,000. . C Miles. On the Gulf of Mexico, Vera Cruz is the historical city in a pre-eminent sense. Here the Spaniards first landed at the time of the discovery and conquest ; here also they still held out for four years after losing their possessions. In 1838 the Prince de Joinville seized the fortress of San Juan d'Ulua (Ulloa), which stands on a low island over half a mile from the city, and which was again occupied by the Americans in 1847 and by the French in 1862. In those times the possession of this stronghold cut the Mexicans off from all political and commercial relations with the rest of the world. At present a mere prison crumbling to ruins, it is 184 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. said to have originally cost Spain and Mexico £8,000,000. Sucli a sum might have heen applied to a better purpose by constructing the piers and breakwaters required to convert into a sheltered harbour the dangerous roadstead where ship- ping has hitherto had to ride at anchor. Such works, however, have at last been taken in hand. Still farther south lies the roadstead of Anton Lizardo, formerly San Antonio Nizardo, which is sheltered by a large cluster of islets and reefs. Eut with all its disadvantages, the port of Vera Cruz still remains the chief trading-place on Fig. 55. — Habboue Works in Peooeess at Veea Cetjz. Scale 1 : 40.000. T9° WestoFG, Deptlis. 0to2i Fathoms. 2^ to 5 Fathoms. 5 to 10 Fathoms. 2,200 Yards. the Mexican seaboard, monopolising nearly two- thirds of the exchanges of the republic. Eut any further delay in constructing a safe and {'.eep harbour could not fail to divert the traffic of Vera Cruz to more favoured places. A large number of travellers proceeding to Mexico already prefer the more expensive railway route to the sea voyage across the Gulf of Mexico. The largest share of its trade is with England, after which follow the United States, Germany, and France in the order indicated. Coffee and hides are the chief articles of export, England and France also taking the fibre of a species of zaeaton {epicanipes) used in making fancy brushes. MOEELOS. 135 The village of Mcdellin, nine or ten miles south of Vera Cruz, recalls the visit of Cortes, who in 1522 named this place after his native town in Estremadura. The railway is continued beyond this place south-westwards across the dunes and forests to the port of Alcarado, on the north side of a large estuary where converge the Papaloapan and other streams. The port, which is encircled by high sand- hills, is accessible to vessels' drawing eight or ten feet. Here is chiefly shipped dried fish cured in large quantities b}' the fishermen who comprise nearly the whole population. These fishermen are said to be descended from Spaniards who took part in the battle of Lepanto, the anniversary of which victory is still solemnly kept. The local skippers also visit the port of Tlacoltapam, the " City of Mos- quitoes," which is situated at the confluence of the two navigable Rivers Papa- loapan and San Juan. MoRELOs, Guerrero, axd Oaxaca. The section of the republic lying south of the great volcanic chaia, comprises only the three States of Morelos, Guerrero and Oaxaca, together with parts of Mexico and Puebla. Although all the inhabitants of this region, whites. Mestizoes and even Indians, took an active part in the war of independence, their country has remained far more secluded from the general industrial and commercial move- ment than the other provinces. South of Morelos and Yautepec no railway has yet been constructed down to the Pacific, and all the feeders of the general system stop within a short distance of the plateau. But whenever thej' become connected with the rest of Mexico these southern provinces, abounding as they do in natural resources, will scarcely continue to lag behind the other states ; for their inhabi- tants are amongst the most energetic and industrious, and at the same time the most upright in the whole commonwealth. They have also the advantage of possessing on their seaboard the best harbour in Mexico. Citernaraca, capital of Morelos, is not a Spanish foundation, as might be supposed from the name, which is a corruption of the Aztec Cuauhnahuac. Communicating directly with Mexico, through a pass running east of the Cerro de Ajusco, this ancient citj' lies on the Pacific slope about 2,000 feet below the federal capital and consequently in the temperate zone. Its lovely oasis of verdure is enclosed on thi'ee sides by profound ravines, and its climate is one of the mildest and most equable in the republic ; all the plants of West Europe here flourish side hj side with those of the torrid zone. Fernan Cortes made a good choice when he asked for the fief of this valley, where his castle is now replaced by the municipal palace. South-west of this place stands the best-preserved Aztec fortress in the republic, the so-called Xochicaico, or " Castle of Flowers." It occupies an isolated hill 386 feet high, which is encircled by trenches cut in such a way as to form five successive terraces with steps of dressed stone. The whole struc- ture presents the appearance of a truncated pyramid, with its four sides exactly facing the cardinal points. Its basaltic porphyrj' blocks, all brought from a distance, are embellished with hicroglj-phics and figures in relief, amongst others those of fantastic animals with human or saurian heads, seated cross-legged, Asiatic fashion. 136 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. The city of Morelos, whicli, although not the capital, takes the same name as the state, is the ancient Ctiautla Amilpas, the "Saragossa" of New Spain, which for several months held out against the united forces of the Spaniards. It enjoj^s the same delightful climate as Cuernavaca and the neighbouring Yautepee ; here the sugar-cane thrives, and the fruits raised in the district are now forwarded to Mexico by a railway which crosses a saddleback, strewn with little volcanoes, at an elevation of 9,730 feet. Morelos, like the other towns of the state, is watered by copious streams flowing to the Rio Mexcala. On a northern affluent of the Fig. 56. — ACAPULCO. Scale 1 : 120,000. 93° 57- West dr. Greenwich 99°55- 0to5 Fathoms. 6 to 10 Fathoms. Depths. 10 to 25 Fathoms. 25 to 50 Fathoms. 50 Fathoms and upwards. , 3,300 Yards. same river, but in the State of Guerrero, stands the town of Ta.rco, whence the Aztecs obtained lead and tin, and where the Spaniards made their first essays at mining work in New Spain. On another tributary lies the famous Iguala, where in 1821 was issued the "plan" which the belligerents accepted, and which put an end to the Spanish rule in Mexico. Between Taxco and Cuernavaca lies the famous Cacahuamili)a cave, whose marvellous galleries, sources of springs and rivers, have already been explored for a distance of six miles. The semicircular roadstead opening east of the Mexcala delta is too much exposed for shipping ; a more favourable anchorage is afforded by the neighbour- GUEEREEO, OAXACA. 187 ing bay of Siguanfaneo, some 60 miles north-east of Zacatula. According to tte plans of Gorsucli and Jimenez, this should form the Pacific terminus of the Mescala Talley raHTvay, a southern section of the interoceanic line, -loO to 500 miles long, which it is proposed to construct from Tuxpan right across the republic. Chilpancingo, capital of the State of Guerrero, is a small place standing at an altitude of 4,560 feet on the elevated parting-line between the ^lexcala valley and the Pacific Ocean. Acapidco, its admirable seaport on the Pacific, has but little traffic. Sailing vessels have ceased to visit it, but it remains a regular port of call for steamers. The harbour, which presents the form of a vast crater breached towards the Pacific, is accessible to the largest vessels, which here find complete shelter. But the fringe of palms and bananas does little to mitigate the intense heat in this pent-up cirque, where the solar rays are reflected from side to side of the surroimding granite cliffs. An opening has been made at great expense through the west side, to give access to the cool sea breezes. Antequera, an old Spanish foundation dating from the year 1522, has resumed the name of the Zapotec fortress of Suaxiacac (Oa.vaca), which lies three or four nules farther west. This place, laid out with perfect regularity, is almost un- rivalled in ^ilexico for the beauty of its gardens and the fertility of the surround- ing plains. A river bearing the Aztec name of Atoyac, or " Punning "Wafer," traverses the district, where, at a mean elevation of about 5,000 feet, the plants of both zones are intermingled in endless variety. One of the chief industries of Oaxaca is the spinning and weaving of the fibre extracted from the species of bromelwort known by the name of jjifa. The whole "valley" of Oaxaca, with a present population of about 150,000 souls, was formerly the private domain of Cortes, whence his title of " Marques del Yalle." A few remains of Zapotec structures are seen in the neighbourhood of Oaxaca, especially towards the west, where the city of Huaxiacac formerly stood on Mount Alban. The ruins of Mitla, the best preserved and according to some travellers the finest in Mexico, He some 30 miles to the east. Standing midway up the slope of moderately elevated hUls, which, Hke those of Greece, stand out sharply against the horizon, the group of Mitla palaces, with the great pyramid whose temple is now replaced by a CathoKc shrine, presents somewhat the aspect of a dilapidated Acropolis. These edifices may also be compared with the Hellenic monuments of the better epoch in the beauty of their proportions and workman- ship. The walls are disposed in great parallelograms arranged in long horizontal bands, aU embellished with regular designs, cross lines, lozenges, fretwork in straight or inclined lines, but with scarcely any curves. The waters flowing from Oaxaca, Mitla, and the intervening hills all converge sis miles south-east of the capital near the village of Sania Maria del Tide, or of the " Eeeds." Trees of colossal size are not rare in this region, and the houses of the village are grouped round the largest of these giants, which was formerly regarded as sacred. It is a sahino, or "cj-press" {taxodiu.m mucronatum), which is said to be the largest tree in the whole world ; at least it exceeds in thickness all those of which measui-ements have been taken. The so-called "' Hundred- 133 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEIOA, WEST I^^DIES. Horse Chestnut " is now divided into three distinct stems, through which a road has been driven ; the dragon-tree of Orotava, which had a girth of 46 feet, has disappeared ; the gigantic sequoias of California were felled in I800 ; the Mon- travail oak near Saintes is 86 feet round, and the largest baobabs and other African giants are described by Cadamosto, Adanson, and others as from 96 to 112 feet in circumference. But in 1882 the Tule cj'press had a girth of no less than 118 feet three or four feet from the ground, and 150 feet including all the prominences and cavities of the trunk. The route from Oaxaca to the sea, leaving on the right the valley of the rig-. 57. — Chief Rums of Centeal Mexico. Scale 1 : 9,000,000. S2- West pF Green.v^ch m Miles. Atoyac, which winds away westwards to the frontiers of Guerrero, runs at an altitude of 7,460 feet over the crest of the Cimaltepec coast range. Near the summit stands the industrial village of Miahnatlan, whose inhabitants are skilful straw- plaiters, which thej' work into a thousand fancy articles exported far and wide. The cochineal industry was formerly the chief resource of the district, but the southern slopes are now covered with coffee plantations which yield excellent results. Hence the cultivation of the shrub has been rapidly developed even to a distance of 40 or 50 miles inland. The high prices obtained by the growers have enabled them to introduce costly machinery for drying and sorting the berry. Thanks to this growing industry Puerto Angel, the badly sheltered outlet OAXACA. 189 of Oaxaca, has acquired some commercial importance since its foundation in 1868. On tlais coast the best harbour is that of Huafulco {Guatuko, Coafoko), where a channel 650 j-ards wide gives access to a well-sheltered basin from 25 to 50 feet deep. The little fishing station of Crespon, which collects pearl oj-sters and the purple-yielding.murex, stands on the beach within the harbour. At a neighbour- Fig. 58.— Isthmus or Tehttaittepec. Scale I : 2.600,000. Tu r%V' ^P" 3 A A° 'S Ma a if 4 V ^Chmaap, ^tS <■•.-?>'* ' 95'20 West or GreenwicK mM . CO Miles. ing headland the sea plunges into a cavernous recess, reappearing farther ofE in a biifadero, or jet, about 150 feet above the surface. About one-third of the state is drained by the Rivers Papaloapan and Coatza- coalcos, which belong to the Atlantic basin. On this northern slope the chief place is I.rtlan, which lies in a fertile district of the upper Papaloapan valley ever against the superb Mount San Felipe. Ixtlan now also bears the name of uo MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST EsTJIES. ViUn Juarez, from the most distinguished of its citizens, the Juarez who main- tained Mexican independence against ilaximilian. In the eastern part of Oaxaca the chief town is Tehuantepec, or " Tiger Mountain," an old city of the Huabi people, which was founded at an epoch previous to the Zapotec occupation of the land. It is the only place in the district deserving the name of "town," and it is so completely divided into separate quarters by mounds and ridges that it has rather the aspect of a group of villages. In the vicinity are some magnificent palm and orange groves, and gardens yielding. choice fruits. "While proud of its past, Tehuantepec is still more confident of its future, as controlling one of the future commercial highways of the world. The railway , .59. — Sauna Cbfz. the kew Poet of TzHrA^-rEPEC. Scale I ; 60,000. \Ve St c? G'-ee"'^ ct- 95'20 0to5 Fathome. Depths. 5 Fathoms and upwards. — 2,200 Yards. across the isthmus is making rapid progress, and has already surmounted the highest passes of the hiUs between the two oceans, so that the coffee grown on the Pacific slope is now often forwarded by the overland route, saving several thousand miles between Central America and Europe. About nine miles to the south-west lies the old port of Tehuantepec, on a badly sheltered bay, which would have to be protected by expensive hydraulic works to make it suitable for its future trafiic ; meanwhile choice had to be made of Salina Cruz Bay, where the shipping finds some shelter behind a pier at the terminus of the interoceanic route. East of Tehuantepec, on the strips of sand between the lagoons and the sea, are scattered some 3,000 Huabi fishers, the last of a race whose ancestors contended TEHUANTEPEC. 141 with the Mijes and Zapotecs for the supremacy in this region. In the north-east, towards the centre of the isthmus, the two towns of Chimalapa, distinguished by the names of their tutelar saints, are inhabited by the interesting Zoquo Indians, who speak a language of unknown origin. Fig. 60. — MiNATITLAN, NORTHERN PoET OF TeHUANTEPEO. Scale 1 ; 200,000. 94°32 ■West op Greenwich 94'25 Depths. Oto5 Fathoms. 5 Fathoms and upwards. . 3 MUes. Minatitlan, on the Coatzacoalcos, at the head of the navigation for ships drawing ten or twelve feet, is the northern or Atlantic port of the isthmus. At present an obscure trading place, it seems destined soon to become a flourishing seaport. It is already connected with the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos by a railway, which is continued southwards in the direction of Tehuantepec. Minatitlan, standing at 142 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. the northern approach to the isthmus, has also been chosen as the junction of the Kne which is intended to run from Vera Cruz towards Yucatan and Guatemala. The neighbouring town of JaUlpan is dominated by a moimd which, according to the local tradition, was raised by Cortes to the memory of Malintzin, or Dona Marina, the Indian woman to whose sagacity and foresight he was probably indebted for the conquest of Mexico. A French and Swiss colony founded in 1828 at Los Almagri's survived a few years despite the climate and homesickness. The few remaining settlers were at last dispersed amongst the Mexican towns. A Chinese merchant of San Francisco, owner of extensive estates in the isthmus, has recently introduced a large number of his fellow-countrymen into the same district where they are employed on the rice and tea plantations. III.— ^-East Mexico. Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeaciiy, Yucatax. The Chiapas highlands, distinctly separated bj' the depression of the Tehuan- tepec isthmus from the Mexican tablelands, belong evidently to the same natural region as the highlands and plateaux of Guatemala. Both are disposed in a con- tinuous chain, with their steep escarpments turned towards the Pacific, while the opposite slopes fall gently northwards towards the alluvial lands of Tabasco and the plains of Yucatan. This peninsula, whose roots are, so to say, sunk in the morasses and branching deltas of Tabasco, projects its huge quadrilateral mass beyond the continental coastline in the direction of Cuba, and is continued by a submerged plateau, which forms geographically a part of that island. Thus the whole of East Mexico from Chiapas to Yucatan constitutes a natural region quite distinct from the rest of the republic, from which it also differs in the origin and history of its inhabitants, both in pre- and post-Columbian times. But in pro- portion to its size it is greatly inferior in importance to "West Mexico. It is but sparsely peopled, and its great natural resom'ces have scarcely begun to be utilised. The four eastern states have an estimated population of not more than six or eight to the square mile. The natural parting-line of the two regions indicated by the Tehuantepec peninsula was also formerly a political frontier. Under the Spanish rule Chiapas was temporarily attached to the administrative division of Oaxaca in 1776, but for nearly the whole of the three hundred }'ears that elapsed from Alvarado's con- quering expedition of 1523 to the proclamation of independence in 1823, Chiapas and the Pacific province of Soconusco were simple dependencies of the viceroj^alty of Guatemala. When Guatemala entered the Mexican union, the two dependent provinces also became an integral part of Iturbide's empire. But when Guatemala again asserted its political autonomy, it was unable to recover more than a small part of Soconusco, and the disputed frontier was not determined even in diplo- matic documents till the year 1882. Yucatan, also, which had constituted a special division in the viceroyalty of New Spain, became a Mexican province after the proclamation of independence. CHIAPAS. 143 !6ut in 1840 an insurrection was caused by the numerous abuses of the central government. The ilexican garrisons were expelled and the officials deposed ; so unanimous was the public sentiment of the Yucatan people that the change was effected without bloodshed. Two years afterwards a Mexican force of 11,000 men besieged the town of Campeachy, but the besiegers themselres, reduced by battle and fever to a fourth of their original strength, had to capitulate, and the Mexican Government recognised the complete autonomy of Yucatan, which on its part gave a nominal adhesion to the federal union. But after the national victory, discord broke out between the two rival cities of Campeachy and Merida, both of which aspired to the title of capital. Then the Indians themselves, trained to warfare during these incessant struggles in which they bad been compelled to take part, seized the opportunity to proclaim their own independence against their white masters. Thus it happened that in order to maintain their existence and pri^-ileges, the white populations had first to settle their own differences, and then come to terms with the Mexican republic. The social war lasted many years, and ended in the triumph of the Indians, who succeeded in maintaining their independence in the southern part of the peninsula. From this district the Mexicans are now excluded, and even European travellers are not allowed to penetrate into the country except under the protection of a native chief. In this direction Yucatan is thus separated from Guatemala by a broad zone of tmreduced populations, just as it is separated from Mexico proper by still uninhabited wastes. Physical Features. The mountain range which begins east of the Tehuantepec isthmus and is continued through Guatemala and Central America is more entitled, by its regularity and relative altitude, to the name of Sierra Madre, which is of such frequent occurrence in Hispano- American lands. The first summits rise abruptly above the forests of the isthmus, where the Atravesado ridge is already 5,000 feet high, and is followed eastwards by several other summits exceeding 6,500 feet. The formation is mainly porphyritic, with volcanic cones appearing at intervals, amongst others the famous Soconusco (7,900 feet), the ancient Xoconochco, which gives its name to the surrounding plains and to the whole southern slope of the State of Chiapas. According to the natives, Soconusco still emits vapours, but no mention is made of eruptions which would appear to have occurred in within comparatively recent times. On the other hand tlie Indians greatly fear the Tacana volcano, which has been chosen as the common frontier between Mexico and Guatemala. Tacana is a regular cone which, according to Dollfus and De Mont-Serrat, must certainly exceed 11,500 feet. It is nearly always wrapped in smoke, and frequently in a state of eruption. Towards the Pacific the Sierra Madre falls Very abruptly, the crest of the range here running at a mean distance of 25 to 30 miles from the shore. On the other hand the Atlantic slope is comparatively gentle, though the dechvity is not regular like that of an iacliued plane. It is broken by deep valleys and 144 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. rugged cliains, vlaieli the running waters have carved iuto isolated masses or irregular ridges, but which are mainly disposed parallel with the Sierra Madre. The central part of Chiapas may be regarded as a hilly plateau, above which rise sharp peaks such as Hueitepec, east of San Cristobal, which is said to be 7,450 feet high. Northwards the plateau has been cut by the streams into roimded hills, which gradually merge in the alluvial plains. Towards the west the plateau terminates above the plains of the isthmus in the superb Mount Gineta. Fig-. 61. — Bauk of Yucatan. Scale 1 : 6,500,000. 2S 20 W<-St oF Gr Depths. to 100 Fathoma. 100 Fathoms and upwards. . 124 Miles. This gently undulating country, covered with woods and diversified with running waters, is one of the finest regions in Mexico. In Yucatan proper there are no mountain ranges ; only in the southern parts of the peninsula towards the Guatemalan and British Honduras frontiers the surface is broken by a few low spurs and offshoots from the orographic systems of those regions. The quadrangular mass limited southwards by a con- ventional line drawn across the solitudes from the Terminos to the Chetumal lagoon, is nothing but a huge limestone plateau rising above the surrounding waters, and broken here and there by a few narrow ridges. The mean altitude .scarcely exceeds 100 feet, while the highest rising grounds would appear to rnYSICAL FEATURES OF YUCATAN. 14g attain an elevation of not more than 500 feet above the average height of Yucatan. These rising grounds constitute a sort of backbone disposed in the direction from south-east to north-west towards the blunt angle of the peninsula, and connected with a ridge that skirts the west coast of Campeachy. Wooded' hills Fig. 62. — Alaceajj Reef. Scale 1 : 230,000. 89'48' West oF Grr enwich Depths. OtolO Fathoms. 10 Fathoms and upwards. Upheaved Eeefe. — SJJIiles. also run from south-west to north-east in the direction of Cape Catoche. This cal- careous mass, forming an almost geometrical square, is continued by a submarine bank far beyond the coastline, except on the east side, which is washed by deep waters where the plummet plunges into depths of several hundred yards within a few cable-lengths of the shore. The large island of Cozumel, with the banks VOL. XVII. 146 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AVEST INDIES. forming its northern continuation, is separated from the mainland by a profoimd channel where the waters of a coast current set steadily from south to north at a velocity of two or tbree miles an hour. South of Cozumel the dangerous Chin- chorro bank, as well as Arrowsmith on the north side, is also a coralline limestone mass rising from the bed of a deep basin ; but the creeks, bays and other inlets on the coast, especially those of Espiritu Santo and Asuncion, are almost completely choked with sands and reefs. The submarine pedestal of Yucatan begins at the north-east angle of the peninsula, and extends over 125 miles northwards, thus embracing the island of Mujeres and the cluster of islets in the vicinity of Cape Catoche. The escarp- ment of the submarine bank, as indicated by the sounding line plunging suddenly into depths of 100, 250, 1,000 and even 1,500 fathoms, thus describes a great curve round Yucatan, roughly parallel with the coast. The still-submerged portion is far more extensive than the upheaved peninsula itself, and may be estimated at about 60,000 square miles. Should it ever rise above the surface of the sea, it will present the aspect of an almost horizontal limestone mass, in its general appearance exactly resembling the present peninsula. The numerous cayos (cays or reefs) scattered over this submarine plateau, Alacran, Arenas, Los Triangulos, Areas, are all coralline rocks similar to those fringing the coast of the mainland, and all have their most active colonies of polypi on the outer face turned towards the surf rolling in from the high seas. It was at the Alacran, or "Scorpion," Reef that the Valdivia -was -wrecked in l^jll, the crew escaping in a longboat to the Yucatan coast near Cape Catoche. Geronimo de Aguilar, one of the two survivors, afterwards became Cortes' interpreter during the conquest of Mexico. The Arenas cays, near the south-west corner of the bank, consist of a few islets frequented by myriads of aquatic birds and covered with guano. In 1854 the Mexicans first began to work these deposits ; they were followed by the Americans, who claimed to be the first occupants, and on that ground pretended that the cay belonged to the United States. This claim to a bank obviously lying in Yucatan waters gave rise to long diplomatic discussions. ElVERS. The fluvial systems of East Mexico present in Chiapas and Yucatan a contrast analogous to that of the relief of these regions. In Chiapas the running waters flow in superabundance on the surface of the ground ; in Yucatan, water has to be sought at great depths in the chasms of the rocks. East of the Rio Tonala, which forms the boundary between the States of Vera Cruz and Tabasco, the whole of the Atlantic slope as far as Yucatan belongs to the two united basins of the Grijalva and Usumacinta, which rise in the same district on the Guatemalan uplands and enter the Gulf of Mexico through the same channel. The Grijalva, which flows under several different names at different parts of its circular course, has its chief sources in the province of Huehuetenango, and the town of this name is itself watered by one of its headstreams. After entering Mexican territory THE USUMACINTA. 147 it is Joined in quick succession by most of its upper affluents, and here it takes the name of Rio Grande or Rio de Chiapa, from the town standing on its banks. In this part of its course it falls in a steep incline through a series of rapids and cascades, and near Ghiapa suddenly plunges into a rocky chasm whence it escapes at a much lower level farther down. Where it becomes navigable it describes a great bend towards the west under the name of the Rio Mezcalapa, and on reaching the low-lying plains only a few yards above sea-level, it assumes its Kg. 63. — The UsTTMAcnrrA. — View taken at the Paso Yalchilau, on the GrtiATEiiALAN Fkon-tieb. official title of Grijalva from the navigator by whom it was discovered in the year 1519. But the natives have preserved the old name of Tabasco, which Bernal Diaz learnt from the Indians during the same expedition. On reaching the alluvial plains the main stream begins to ramify in various directions, throwing off some branches seawards, others to the TJsumacinta, which is much the larger of the two rivers. The TJsumacinta, less known than the Grijalva because traversing a very L 2 148 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. sparsely peopled region, also receives its first contributions from the " altos," or uplands, of Guatemala. According to Brasseur de Bourbourg, the Eio Blanco, the main headstream, soon after the Rio Negro confluence trends at first eastwards in the direction of Honduras Bay. But after changing its name ten times accord- ing to the tribes settled on its banks, the Rio Chixoy or Lacandon, as it is here usually called, turns north and north-west to its confluence beyond the uplands with the Rio de la Pasion, a yellowish stream from the border ranges south of British Honduras. It mostly flows sluggishly between its wooded banks, but during the rainy season it floods its banks and at times rises 50 feet above low- water level. Below the confluence the united stream takes the name of Usumacinta, under which it is indicated in the diplomatic conventions, according to which it has been chosen for a space of nearly 70 miles as the common frontier of Mexico and Guatemala. Navigable by canoes throughout a great part of its upper course, the Usumacinta pierces the last range of hills by a series of gorges and rapids which obstruct all navigation by large craft. This section, where the stream is contracted between vertical walls, takes the name of Boca del Cerro, or "Mouth of the Moimtain." The people employed in felling mahogany and cedar in this district mark the blocks and throw them into the current, by which they are carried from rapid to rapid down to Tenosique. Here the stream resumes its placid course, and is soon joined by the Rio San Pedro from Lake Peten in Guatemala. The waters of this affluent are so thoroughly saturated with carbonate of Ume that the snags arrested by the reefs are rapidly petrified and thus form bars athwart the stream. Beyond the confluence the Usumacinta follows a winding course through the flat plains, till the first branches of the delta begin to ramify from the main stream some 60 miles above the Gulf. Some of these branches trend north-eastwards towards the Terminos lagoon, some flow straight to the sea, while others intermingle their waters with branches from the Grijalva and from the secondary aSluents of the twin river. Including the channels discharging into the Terminos lagoon, the face of the delta has a development of about 125 miles, while all the ramifica- tions occupy a space that may be estimated at 6,000 square miles. Scarcely any other fluvial basin of like size has created such an extensive accumulation of sedi- mentary matter in the waters of a marine Inlet. The Barra de Tabasco, or principal channel, lies about the middle of the delta region, and has a depth of from seven to ten feet according to the seasons. This channel is deepest during the prevalence of the north winds, especially in the dry season. During the floods, when the sea is covered with a j'ellowish water for a distance of 35 miles from the coast, the bar is considerably raised by the sediment brought down with the flood waters, so that at such times vessels drawing no more than six or seven feet will not always venture to force the obstruction. The San Pedro, another branch of the delta lying farther east, although shallower. Is more constant. The deepest, but also one of the most shifting, passages Is that of Chil- tepec in the east, where the soimding-line occasionally reveals a depth of thirteen feet. Here is discharged the Rio Seco, or " Dry River," which Is supposed to have EITEES OF TABASCO. 119 been the chief branch when these coasts were surveyed by Grijalva. In the inte- rior of Tabasco the Grijalva and Usumacinta present in their numerous ramifvinw branches a collective navigable water-system several hundred miles long even in the dry season. In IS-iO, 1843, and 184-5, Texan, Yucatan, and American fiotUlas of war easily penetrated into the Grijalva as far as the landing-stage of San Juan Bautista, the capital, over 80 miles above the bar. The Usumaciuta also is navi- gable during the floods for nearly 200 miles from its mouth, while light river- craft ascend still farther above the rapids. In a region of loose, soft soil changes are necessarily frequent, every inundation Fig. 64.— ITOCTHS OF THB GbUALTA AJXD UsOLiCTKIi. Scale 1 : 2,000,000. Depths. OtolO Fathoms. 30 Slfles. modifying the aspect of the land. "When the streams rise and overflow their banks a great part of the State of Tabasco is laid under water. A space of about 2,000 square miles within the fijsed coastline disappears regularly during the winter floods. A first rise caused by the summer rains takes place towards the end of June, but it is usually of short duration, and is followed after an interval of three months by the second rise, which usually begins in October and lasts till ilarch, or for about half the year. During this period all land travelling becomes impos- sible, and the inhabitants move about by water. But almost every channel and 150 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, ^VEST INDIES. backwater offers them a passage through the forests. Thousands of such channels, flowing now one way, now another, according to the currents of the affluent rivers, cover the whole country with an endless network of navigable waterways masked from view by the floating masses of nympheae and other aquatic plants. The Terminos lagoon, which receives a portion of the Usumacinta waters through the branch known as the Rio Palizada, and which is also fed by several other streams, such as the Chumpan, Candelaria, and Mamantel, is an eastern continua- tion of the low-lying plains of Tabasco. An upheaval of a few j'ards would suffice to expose its sandbanks and change its navigable channels to stagnant waters. The shore line, which will serve as a rampart for the future lands now being gradually created by the fluvial deposits, already exists in the chain of the two long islands, Aguada and Carmen, which close the entrance of the lagoon, leaving only three passages for vessels of light draught. The Puerto Escondido, or "Hidden Port," as the eastern channel is called, is only a few inches deep on the siU, and this depth is seldom increased to three or four feet even by the tides, except when accompanied by strong sea winds. The insular spits are merely sandy beaches rising scarcely six or seven feet above sea-level, so that a few miles from land nothing is seen except the continuous Hne of trees behind which stretch the still waters of the inland lagoon. On different majjs the contour lines of this lagoon are differently figured ; they differ, in fact, according to the seasons, the winds and the quantity of sediment washed down by the affluents. On the north side the sheet of water is continued jjarallel with the shore for a distance of some 60 miles. This extension of the lagoon is merely a brackish channel gradually narrowing towards its northern extremity, where it is nothing more than a feeble seaward passage occupying the bed of an old inlet on the coast. The lagoon received the name of Terminos in 1518 from the pilot Antonio de Alaminos, who supposed that the " island " of Yucatan " terminated " at this point. Farther north as far as the neighbourhood of Campeachy a few small coast streams reach the sea. But beyond that place all the rainwater rapidly dis- appears in the porous limestone soil ; not a single rivulet it visible, although there exist in the Interior a few lacustrine basins, formed probably in the depressions where more close-grained rocks approach the surface. Such is, towards the middle of the peninsula, the brackish Lake Chichankanab, which stretches north and south a distance of about fifteen miles. Other smaller sheets of water are scattered over the north-eastern district and, according to native report, lagoons are also numerous towards the neck of the peninsula west of British Honduras. But neither rivers, springs, nor any surface waters are seen in the more densely-peopled central, north- western, and northern districts, where nothing occurs except some morasses tem- porarily flooded during the rainy season. The moisture, however, is collected in the bowels of the earth above the impermeable rocks, and, thanks to the natural galleries occurring here and there, the inhabitants are able to reach these under- ground reservoirs, from which they draw their supplies. In these deep cavities the water does not appear to flow as in subterranean rivers, but rather spreads out in vast basins which communicate with one another through THE CENOTES OF TUCATAX. lol endless channels, while the whole Liqiiid mass filters slowly in the direction of the sea. Some of the labyrinthine underground streams are inhabited br crocodiles as well as by the teh (momofus), a species of bird with silken plumage and tail made of two long feathers. The caverns, or cenofes, a word borrowed by the Spaniards from the Maya language, increase in depth as the land recedes from the coast and rises to a higher level above the sea. At Merida they lie from 25 to 30 feet below the sur- face, and each house has its well sunk far enough to tap the reservoir. Farther Fig. 65. — TEEiOxos Lagoox. Scale 1 : 1,400.000. \,e5t c*F G'-ee^^c^ Depths. OtolO FaUioms. 10 Fathoms andnpwaids. . SO Miles. north-west of Merida and Yalladolid, that is, in the dii-ection of the sea, the basins lie nearer to the surface, so that the distance from the coast may be estimated by the depth to which the weUs have to be sunk to reach the reservoirs. On the coast itself the water bubbles up at the shore line, where it mingles with the tides amid the mangrove bushes. This natural distribution of the water, so different from what occurs in other regions, is the essential feature in the physical geography of Yucatan. The fluid is nowhere to be seen, yet its effects are everywhere manifest in the well-irrigated grotmds and the sanitary condition of the houses. Morning and evening long processions cf women pass up and down the steps leading to the 152 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. cenotes. Through the increasing gloom they follow the inclines excavated obHquely in the rocky wall until they reach the vaults from which hang stalactites entwined by long pendent alga). Here they fill their large pitchers with the dark fluid, which has to be brought laboriously to the surface. The work entailed on the women is perhaps heaviest at the cenote of Bolonchen, or the " Nine Springs," a ruined village lying north-east of Campeachy on the road to Merida. Here the deep cavity is reached through fissures in the rock and spiral stairs forming a gallery altogether nearly 550 yards long and descending to an absolute depth of about 410 feet below the surface of the ground. The form of the coast-Hne along the northern seaboard of the peninsula may Fig. 66.— The Rio of Yucatan. Scale 1 : 4,000,000. 23- 90- tWest op- Greenwich Depths. Oto60 Fathoms. 50 Fathoms and upwards. . 60 Miles. be partly explained by the pressui-e of the inland waters spreading out beneath the surface of the limestone plateau. A strip of land fringes the shore at the north-east corner of Yucatan, but it has not the free development of the littoral cordons skirting the Texas and Tamaulipas coasts on the opposite side of the Gulf. It is disposed in a narrow band near the true shore-line, the outer and inner beaches presenting the same curves with a surprising parallelism. It becomes somewhat less regular towards the eastern extremity, where it is inter- rupted at several points, and even forms the large island of Holbox facing the Boca del Conil ("Rabbit's Mouth"), a considerable inlet, where extremely copious springs bubble up amid the marine waters about a quarter of a mile from the coast. The normal cordon, beginning west of this inlet, runs for a distance of THE EIO OF YUCATAN. 153 170 miles, broken only by two narrow passages facing two streamlets — exceptional phenomena on this part of the seaboard. The narrow channel separating the mainland from its shifting outer beach is known by various names, such as laguna, pantano, tierra fangosa, but is more commonly called the rio, or river, or even the Rio Lagartos, " Crocodile River." At first sight this term " river " would seem to be scarcely justified by a long channel, which during the dry season is interrupted at several points. It is crossed not only by fords, but even by tracks and now by roads and railway embankments, and here and there by a tangle of bushy growths, leaving of the rio nothing but narrow stretches of meres or lagoons. I^umerous springs reappear in the open sea, but the channel itself receives most of the overflow from the underground reservoirs, and the sediment brought down from these sources suffices to maintain the rampart of sands and broken coral reefs by which the marine waters are kept at some distance from the shore. At the north-west corner of Yucatan the fringing sandy cordon cuj-ves round southwards with almost geometrical regularity, terminating near a point of the coast known by the name of Desconocida. This double shore-line coincides with that of the marine current, which skirts the beach from east to west, and which here meets a counter- current setting from the coasts of Tabasco and Campeachy under the action of the northern winds. At the point where they clash the two marine currents develop a strong whirlpool, by which the shore is eroded. A studj' of the Yucatan seaboard gives the impression that the peninsula has been gradually formed and continues to increase by these outer strips of sand, shells, and coral reefs successively added to the mainland. Climate, Flora, Fauna. As In their relief and hydrographic systems, Chiapas and Yucatan diEEer also in their climates, though to a less extent, for both regions are comprised within the torrid zone with a temperature approaching the equatorial mean. The Chiapas slope facing the Pacific lies entirely within the play of the alternating monsoons. The north and north-east winds prevail in winter from November to April, while the vendaval, or south wind, that is, the monsoon proper, dominates in summer from May to October, when the sim is at the zenith. Nevertheless the normal atmospheric currents are subject to disturbances, by which they are frequently replaced by winds blowing from different points of the compass. Both their direction and force are, in fact, endlessly modified by the inequalities of relief, the varying trend and outlines of the rising grounds. As a rule, dry weather and clear skies prevail in winter, while the summer monsoon is accom- panied by rains, thunderstorms, and tornadoes. Yucatan is mainly exposed to the action of the north-east trade ^ond, but the almost exclusively limestone formation destitute of surface waters becomes during the hot season a focus of attraction for all the surrounding sea breezes. Stimulated by the intense solar heat during the day, these winds follow the course 154 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. of the sun round the horizon. The regular trades are also frequently interrupted by the fierce gales coming from the north, that is, from the Texan and Mississippi plains. The driest mouths are March, April and May, when showers are extremely rare. But, as in Chiapas, this dry season is immediately followed by torrential downpours and thunderstorms, lasting till November, when the almost rainless regular winds again set in. The year might thus be divided into three periods, a dry, a wet, and a windy season. For Europeans the Yucatan climate is one of the most dangerous in the Gulf. Yellow fever often sweeps away numerous victims; but still more dreaded is consumption, which is both endemic and hereditary, alike fatal to those con- stitutionally predisposed and to persons enjoying good health and strength. Mexican soldiers, removed as a punishment to the peninsula, consider themselves foredoomed to death. In Tabasco, a watery region where the people live as much afloat as on dry land, the prevailing epidemic is marsh fever. In this moist land consumption, the scourge of the dry Yucatan plateau, is almost unknown. Both the flora and the fauna of Chiapas and Yucatan belong to the same zone as those of south Mexico, with the addition of various forms characteristic of Central America. This southern region, intermediate between Mexico proper and the isthmuses, nowhere presents any desert wastes, and the vegetation is extremely luxuriant in many places, even on the slopes of the Soconusco Mountains and the neighbouring coastlands, where the rainfall is far from copious. Tree ferns, the cacao and other plants requiring much moisture and a constantly humid atmosphere, grow vigorously, while on the lowlands rice thrives without ii-rigation. The scanty rainfall is here supplemented by the moisture percolating below the surface from the rising grounds. Even the arid limestone plains of Yucatan are clothed with a stunted vegetation ; very different, however, from the magnificent forest growths festooned with lianas, which cover the fertile districts of Chiapas and Tabasco. Little is seen except thorny scrub and cactus or agave thickets, without any of the large species which, on the Anahuac uplands, grow to a height of over 30 feet. Here the rain-water dis- appears too rapidly in the porous limestone to nourish a rich vegetation. Amongst the plants pecidiar to Chiapas and Yucatan, and not found in Mexico proper, there are many trees and dyewoods, such as mahogany and campeachy, or logwood {hiematoxylon campechianum) . The former is even more common in various parts of Central America than in Tabasco, while the latter is exclusively confined to the region from which it takes its ordinary name. In favourable localities this hard-grained plant sometimes attains a height of from 40 to 45 feet. Amongst the more remarkable members of the Chiapas faima is the " snuff- box " tortoise, which has its lower shell furnished at both ends with two appen- dices enabling it to shut itself completely up and defy all enemies. Inhabitants. Like that of Anahuac, the population of East Mexico is very mixed, although the indigenous element is here relatively greater. The Nahuas proper are repre- TIIE MAYAS. 155 sented in Soconusco along the historic route by which the Aztecs in comparatively recent times migrated from Anahuac to Nicaragua. The warlike Chiapauec nation still survives in the north-west part of the state which from them takes the name of Chiapas. The more numerous but less cultured Tzendals, Tzotzils, and Quelens ("Bats") occupy the forest regions comprised between the Tehuantepec depression and the Gruatemalan frontier. Lastly, the numerous nomad or settled groups belong to the same family as those of west Guatemala — Lacandons and Chontals in the north, Chols and Chafiabals in the centre, Mames in the south. They all appear to be connected by language, primitive usages, and traditions with the cultured Mayas of Yucatan, the most advanced representatives of this ethnical dinsion. The Mayas held out more valiantly against the Spaniards than the Aztecs ; they would also appear to have reached a higher degree of civilisation than the Nahuas in pre-Columbian times. Although never actually visited by Columbus, he had, nevertheless, heard of their fame. The work of extermination, as described by Las Casas and Diego de Landa, resulted in the almost total dis- appearance of the Maya race ; which, however, has gradually revived and even preserved the national speech. Those acquainted with Spanish are said to abstain from speaking it, and Maya is still generally current in all the rural districts except in the neighbourhood of Campeachy. In the inland provinces the descendants of the Spaniards have to a large extent forgotten their mother tongue, and in Yucatan the conquerors may be said to have themselves been conquered. Even in Merida everybody is obliged to learn Maya in order to hold inter- course with the maceguales {mazehuati), as the natives are called. The Spaniards and Mestizoes are represented chiefly in the towns and southern parts of Chiapas which are traversed by the more-frequented highways between Mexico and Guatemala. The half-caste Maya-Spanish race is one of the finest in America, and the women especially are remarkable for their personal charms. It is noteworthy that the Indian type of featui'es is perpetuated from generation to generation. However white the complexion may become, the Yucatec Mestizo always preserves certain Maya traits by which he may be at once recognised. The range of the Maya language, which embraces the Huaxtec territory in the State of Vera Cruz, extends far beyond the frontiers of Yucatan, for it comprises nearly the whole of Tabasco, a part of Chiapas, and about half of the Guatemalan repubKc. According to their own traditions the Mayas reached the peninsula from opposite directions, from east and west, from the sea and the mainland. A god had guided them across the ocean, and it is certain that they were acquainted with navigation. They had even decked vessels, which probably hoisted sails, and voluntary or involuntary voyages frequently took place between Yucatan and the island of Cuba. Once established in the peninsula the Mayas long remained its peaceful rulers. In a region lying apart from the regular highway of migrations along the Pacific coast they had nothing to fear from invading hosts. At the time of its greatest expansion the Aztec empire was conterminous with Mayaland only at its south-east extremity, and the Nahuas had scarcely any knowledge of Yucatan, where the more cultured part of the nation was settled. 156 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, "WEST INDIES. The Mayas, properly so called, are of mean stature with robust bony frames, round head, delicate hands and feet, and great staying power. The branch of the Maya group dwelling in the Tabasco forests, and known as Ghontals, or " Savages," a name implying that they had remained aliens to the civilisation of their Yucatec kindred, are a remarkably frugal people. A few roots or bananas with a little maize suffice to maintain them for days together under the hardest work as porters or boatmen. Their costume is extremely simple, being limited to drawers and a shirt worn as a blouse. In Yucatan the dress of the men is the same as that of the Spaniards ; but the Maya women, more faithful to the national usages, have preserved the pre-Columbian fashions. The Mayas are a gentle, inoffensive people, and a market-day in a Yucatan town presents an almost unique spectacle in the quiet demeanour, courtesy, and mutual goodwill of buj'ers and sellers. Like all other cultured Indians, the Mayas call themselves Catholics, though mingling with their private worship certain rites which they have assuredly not learnt from the Spaniards. Thus, after burials, they mark with chalk the path leading from the grave to the house, so that when the time comes to enter the body of some new-born babe, the deceased may not mistake the way to his former dwelling. From this it is evident that, despite the teaching of the Church, the doctrine of metempsychosis still survives amongst them. They have also preserved the old lore regarding the healing art and the stars. Many astrologers still observe the conjunctions of the constellations, predicting from them the public and private events of life, the results of the harvests, and similar forecastings. Every village has its "cunning man," who reads the future in a quartz crystal globe. Before the disastrous war of 1847, nearly every village had also its Chilan- Balam Booh, that is, the " Interpreter of Oracles," and of this work at least sixteen copies are still known to exist. Amongst the natives are certain priests, either very complacent or else very ignorant of the orthodox rites, for they celebrate with the people the misa milpera, or " field Mass," at which a cock is sacrificed, the four cardinal points being first sprinkled with some fermented liquor, with invocations both to the Three Persons of the Holy Trinity and to the Pah ah tun, that is, the four patrons of the rain and the crops. These tutelar deities have, however, taken Christian names, the Red, or God of the East, having become St. Dominic ; the White, or God of the North, St. Gabriel ; the Black, or God of the "West, St. James ; and the " Yellow Goddess " of the South, Mary Magdalene. The Maya language, at once guttural and sonorous, and pleasant, especially in the mouth of the women, appears to be the purest member of the linguistic family whose various other branches — Tzendal, Lacandon, Quiche (Kachiquel) — are spoken between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific seaboard. These varioiis dialects, however, differ from each other merely in the admixture of foreign words and a certain variation in the pronunciation and in the final syllables. Pure Maya is at present spoken only in the north-east part of the country round about Valladolid and Tizimin. A striking proof of the persistence of the Maya genius is afforded by the THE MAYAS. 157 geograpbical nomenclature of Yucatan, nearly all tlie native names having been preserved despite Spanish influences. The term Yucatan, which has prevailed Fig. 67. — Maya Tovths. over the Spanish Isla de Santa Maria de hs Eemedios, is itself of Maya origin, though its exact meaning is somewhat doubtful. It probably arose from a mis- understanding on the part of the Spanish navigators when enquiring after the 138 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, -WEST INDIES. name of the peninsula. According to Bishop Landa, apostle of the Mayas, the usual description was TJlumit Cuz el Etel Get, that is, " Turkey and Deer Land." Mayapan, the name of the ancient capital, was also frequently applied to the whole peninsula, and Maya, the name of the people, would appear to have previously been given to the country. This word, Ma-ay-ha, is said appropriately enough to mean " Waterless Land." As amongst the Aztecs, the fanatical conquistadores endeavoured to efface everything recalling the national religion. Manuscripts of priceless value were thrown to the flames, the idols and sculptures ruthlessly destroyed. Nevertheless, a few traditions have survived of pre-Columbian times, and by their aid the learned have endeavoured to reconstitute the political history of the Maya nation for the two or three hundred years preceding the conquest. The first legendary personages In Yucatan history, at once gods, heroes, and founders of empires, are Votan and Zamna, who were partly confused together in the popular imagination, and to whom were attributed all the national institutions, as well as all inventions made since the beginning of the world. After them came Cukulcan, another mythical ruler, identified by archaeologists with the Mexican Quetzalcoatl and with the Guatemalan Gucumatz, the " Feathered Serpent," whose history coincides, in fact, with that of this Aztec and Quiche domi-god. Hence there can scarcely be any doubt that the epoch personified by the Maya hero represents an interval during which the influence of the Northern Nahuas was dominant in the peninsula. Then followed other conquerors, apparently from the south, though their very name, Tutul Xiu, would seem to imply that they also were Nahuas. According to the national legend, they reigned as many as eleven centuries over Mayaland, and it was probably under their rule that were erected the remarkable monuments of Yucatan. Despite incessant wars and local revolutions involving the destruc- tion of many cities, this dynasty still held sway in a part of the territory at the time of the Spanish invasion. The first Spanish navigators had already been struck by the numerous monu- ments of Maya architecture, which were afterwards mentioned by all writers speaking of this region. But during the present century no attempt was made till after 1830 to systematically examine and describe these astonishing ruins. Uxmal was first visited and described by Zavala in 1835, and its remains were soon after studied and illustrated by Frederick von Waldeck. But public interest was first awakened by the traveller, Stephens, and the painter, Catherwood, who too'ether twice explored the land, and whose writings* may be regarded as the starting-point for the archaeological study of Yucatan. Since that time the ruined cities have been frequently visited, amongst others, by ]NL Charnay, whose work acquired exceptional value from the magnificent photographs, by which the accuracy of previous drawings could be judged. Over sixty groups of extensive ruins are alreadj' known ; but it is impossible to say how many more may still exist in the unexplored territory of the independent * Stephens, Incidents of Travel i» Yucatan ; Catherwood, Views of Ancient Monuments iti Central America. THE MOXU^IEXTS OF YUCATAN. 159 Mavas. Certain arch^ologists, proud of beiug amongst the first to draw attention to the splendid structures of Chiapas and Yucatan, did not fail to extol their magnificence, and even to compare them with the temples of Egypt and Greece. Such praise was certainly not justified, for the Maj'a buildings lack elegance of proportion, sobriety of ornamentation, nobility and perfection in their sculp- tures. Nevertheless, their vast size, massive character, and lavish wealth of carvings attest a civilisation far superior to that of many civilised peoples in the Old World. Most of the Yucatan structures stand either on natural eminences or on artificial terraces. They are usually found in the ■vicinity of cenotes, or even built over these underground reservoirs, which were at all times places held in Fig. 68. — Chief Rxjins of TrcATi^-. ScaJe 1 : 4,200,000. ■ 60 Sliles. veneration by the surrounding populations. The monuments usually face the cardinal points, but not with astronomic accuracy, and the parts are rarely disposed in correct order, having apparentl}' been erected without any general plan. Some archaeologists have assigned a vast antiquity to these remains, attributing them to peoples who had already disappeared at the time of the conquest. But this opinion is no longer held, and is in fact refuted by tradition and internal evidence. According to the testimony both of the Spanish conquerors and of the national chronicles, the Mayas continued to use the temples for religious purposes down to the second half of the sixteenth centuiy. Nearly all the Yucatan buildings affect the pyramidal form, temples and palaces alike rising from a broad base through a series of receding steps to the crowning structure on the summit. Such structures were absent from some of the pyramids, which in that case were 160 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. truncated, the free space on the upper terrace forming an altar open to the heavens, where the sacrificing priests celebrated their rites in the presence of the assembled multitudes. None of these massive piles were carried to any great elevations — so as, for instance, to overtop the large forest trees. The highest pyramids fell short of 100 feet; but in some instances the base covered a vast space, that of Zayi, near Uxmal, presenting a periphery of over 1,500 feet. According to VioUet le Due, one of the most remarkable architectural triumphs of the Maya builders was the employment of mortar to cement the layers of stone in a solid rock, modelling and carving the cement itself with figures and ornamental designs. Mortar, cement, plaster, stucco, all was made of sand and lime mixed in different proportions, but always hard as stone. Made with nearly pure hydraulic lime, it is so thoroughly adhesive both in the mass and when applied as a surface coating, that it can scarcely be chipped off by the hammer. In the Yucatan buildings and round about very little pottery and instruments have been found, although such objects are usually met in abundance in historic and prehistoric stations. Idols also have rarely been brought to light, doubtless because they were mostly hidden away by the natives after the arrival of the Spaniards, who destroyed all images they could lay their hands upon. But the walls are sometimes found completely covered with sculptures and figures in bas- relief. The type of such figures is the same as that of the present natives, especially the eastern Lacandons, except that it is highly exaggerated, especially in the temples of Palenque. Receding forehead and arched nose were regarded as marks of nobility, and siich features were naturally given to human or divine images held up to the veneration of the people. There is in any case reason to believe that in those times, as well as at present, the heads of the children were artificially deformed by the Maya women. Symbolic animals, especially the serpent, embellish the walls, on which are also seen ornaments in the form of elephants' trunks. From this it has been hastily concluded that the Maya sculptors were acquainted with that animal, and consequently that they had received their first lessons from masters of Asiatic origin. Some of the bas-reliefs represent social scenes ; but nowhere have been discovered warlike subjects, such as those covering the walls of the Assyrian palaces and Egj-ptian temples. Hence the Maya would appear to have been in the enjoyment of profound peace when the monuments of their great artistic epoch were erected. The almost total absence of fortifications round their cities and buildings also attests the tranquil condition of the land, and the peaceful character of its inhabitants. At present all these grey carvings intermingled on the crumbling waUs, such as those of Uxmal some 350 feet long, seem to be merged in a chaos of indistinct forms. But they were formerly relieved by fresh colours — yellow, red, white, and black — sharply contrast- ing one with the other, and presenting a mj'stic or historic subject understood by all. The " calculiform " hierogl}'phics, so named from their contours, usually rounded like those of cakuli or pebbles, are all arranged in long lines like the written characters of a book, and undoubtedly served as the explauatoiy text of the associated carvings. These writings still remain undeciphered, but may TOPOGEAPHT OF CHIAPAS. 161 possibly one day reveal the history of the people by whom the buildings were erected. At least they may explain the purposes of edifices which are at present designated under fantastic Spanish names. A clue may also thus be obtained to determine their date, at present a subject of interminable discussion amongst archaeologists. The same characters were also reproduced on textUes and on bark, and such manuscripts could be either rolled up or bound together in thin volumes. But hieroglyphic documents in the Maya language are extremely rare. Four only are preserved in European collections ; nor has their interpretation been yet facilitated by the discoverj^ of anj' bilingual inscription, such as the Rosetta stone and the Bisutun cuneiform tables, which served to unravel the mystery of the Egyptian hieroglj'phics and the Persian and Mesopotamian cuneiform writings. Yet the Spanish priests were acquainted with a Maya alphabet, and the manuscript possessed by one of these missionaries has even been recovered.* The only infor- mation still extant on the nature of the Yucatan writing system is contained in this work, which belonged to the fanatical bishop, Diego de Landa, who threw to the flames hundreds of manuscripts found in the temples. Landa's book explains only some sixty of several thousand signs, and as each sign may be replaced by others having the same meaning though differently formed, it is obvious that no translation is at present possible. Topography. Being separated fi-om the interior of Chiapas by a coast range running close to the shore, and crossed neither by great trade routes nor by railways, the groups of habitations situated on the Pacific seaboard naturally possess but slight commer- cial importance ; nor are there any good harbours on this coast to attract shipping. Nevertheless such is the fertility of the soil and the excellence of its produce that Soconusco has already acquired a high reputation in the foreign markets. Here the most frequented seaports are Tonala and San Benito, ov Soconusco, \>o\h accessible to vessels of light draught through dangerous passages which communi- cate with long coast lagoons. Although the nearest port to the capital of Chiapas, Tonala has a yearly trade of less than £40,000 ; in the neighbourhood are two hills scarcely surpassed in the whole world for their wealth of iron ores. San Benito, which exports the cacao of Soconusco, has nearly double the trade of Tonala, and it cannot fail to acquire a rapid development when the railway is opened to Tapachula, on the slopes of the Soconusco Mountains near the Guatemala frontier. Union Juarez, founded a few years ago close to the border at an altitude of 4,300 feet, is the centre of the Chiapas coffee plantations ; Chiapa de las Indies, the ancient capital of the Chiapauec nation, which has given its name to the whole province, lies on the Atlantic slope in the valley of the Grijalva. Above the present town and its numerous ruins stands a bluff crowned with the remains of the Chiapa Nan- duime fortress, behind whose ramparts the Chiapanec warriors defied the attacks of the Aztec forces. Here also they long held out against the Spaniards and, * Daniel G. Brinton, The Books of OiiUm-Balam. VOL. xvn. M 162 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. when reduced to the last extremity, the survivors, to the number of 2,000, threw themselves with their wives and children over the precipice. A few miles west of Chiapa, in a lateral valley of the Grijalva, lies the little town of Ta.ctla, which was for a few years made the capital of the state to punish the rebellious inhabitants of San Cristobal Las Casus, the present capital. This place stands on the site of the old Indian city of Ghoucl or Hite-Zucaflan. It has received its present designation of Las Casas in honour of the valiant defender of the Indians, Bartholomew de Las Casas, bishop of Chiapas. Beyond the Anahuac plateau San Cristobal is the highest city in Mexico, though the estimates of its altitude vary from 6,240 to 7,000 feet. San Juan Bautista, formerly Villa Uermosa, capital of Tabasco, is a small place occupying an opening in the extensive forest which covers the whole of the delta region. It is connected by a short railway with the Grijalva, and thus com- mands the magnificent system of navigable waterways ramifying over a district manv hundred square miles in extent, reaching from the delta to the neck of the Yucatan peninsula. Though at present destitute even of carriage roads, the capital is destined in the near future to become a converging-point for the railways running north, east and south towards Mexico, Yucatan and Guatemala. Its outlet on the Atlantic is the port of Frontcra {Guadalupe), on the right bank of the Grijalva. The Usumacinta, which joins the Grijalva above Frontera, has no towns in the part of its vast basin comprised within the Mexican States of Chiapas, Tabasco and Campeachy. Palenque, or the "Palisade," the best-known place in this region, is a mere village lying at an altitude of about 350 feet on one of the last slopes of the plateau limited by the alluvial plains of the Usumacinta. Palenque, founded during the second half of the sixteenth century under the patronage of Santo Domingo, soon acquired great importance as a centre of the transit trade and converging-point of the numerous tracks around the low-lying plains with their ramifying system of countless canals. Despite its isolated position in the midst of forests, it also became during the last century the chief station for caravans journeying between Guatemala and Campeachy. But the shifting of the trade routes has again consigned it to solitude. About ten miles south-west of Palenque lie the imposing ruins of a forest- grown city whose very name has perished, though supposed to have been either Nachan or Colhuacan, the " Serpent City." The inhabitants of Palenque were unaware of its existence till the middle of the last century, when the ruins were accidentally discovered in 1746. Their systematic exploration began in 1773, and since that time they have been frequently visited, described, and reproduced in drawings and photographs. But great ravages have been made by the damp climate, the rank vegetation, the fires kindled in the midst of the ruins to clear the ground for tillage, the eagerness of explorers to enrich public museums or their private collections, by ignorant travellers carrying off souvenirs of their visit, and even by the wanton love of destruction. The largest structure, known as the palacio, appears to have really been a "palace" of some kind, or the residence of a religious community, but certainly not a temple, for it is divided into PALENQUE— TULHA. 1G3 a large number of chambers, passages, and apartments of all kinds. Like all the other monuments, it stands on a raised platform, which takes the usual shape of a truncated pyramid. One of the facades shows a row of pillars supporting a projecting architrave of a highly original design. The walls of this edifice are covered with sculptures, while in. another was found the famous "Greek cross," sj'mbol of the " tree of life," or of " fecundity," which has given rise to so much discussion amongst archaeologists. South-west of Palenque, about midway on the road to San Cristobal, capital of Chiapas, in an upland valley watered by a western affluent of the Usumacinta, are grouped the houses of Ococingo, whose name has also been assigned to an ancient city lying five miles farther east. By the Indians Fig. 69. — Etjins c> the Lacandon and Tzexbal Couxtetes. Scale I ; 2,S0U,000. X ■v.^iBartdteme '.• .. .' ,■ .^ •. -s-f Atne CJ0 WesT oF C- '^^ ^^^%^^i^ymA-:4^M%x^i . GO Miles. this place is called Tonihi, that is, "Stone Houses," and the ruins are said, on jDure conjecture, to be those of Tulha, ancient capital of the southern Toltecs. Amongst them was discovered a plaster carving, whose perfectly Egyptian expression greatly surprised Stephens, Catherwood, and Brasseur de Bourbourg. It takes the form of a medallion with large wings spread out above the porch of a palace. In the whole district between Ococingo and Palenque the hills av.d mountains are crowned with' sepulchral mounds, and according to the inhabitants of the countr)^ other magnificent structures are hidden awaj' amongst the hills of Tumhala, and farther south in the direction of San Cristobal and Comitan. One of these unknown cities in the Lacaudon territory was lately discovered on the left bank of the Usumacinta, in a disti-ict which must have been frequently 164 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, "VVEST INDIES. visited by the Guatemalan and Campeachy traders. But all reference to these ruins of Menche were of the vaguest character till the year 1868, when they were first distinctly mentioned by Suarez. Since then \he\ have been visited by Rockstroh in 1881, by Maudslay and Chai'nay in 1882, and the last-mentioned traveller gave them the name of Lorillard City, in honour of the American citizen who defrayed the expenses of his expedition. The ruined city stands on a head- land encircled by the river below its confluence with the Ococingo, and above the series of rapids extending all the way to Tenosiqtte. Some heaps of stones near the shore look like the butment of a broken bridge, but they are merely the remains of a sustaining wall at the base of the amphitheatre of houses and temples. To their very summit the escarpments are cut into flights of steps, or else faced with masonry, with large trees now growing through the cracks and fissures ; all the building materials exactly resemble those of Palenque. The largest temple, the facade of which is partly overgrown with interlaced branches and foliage, is disposed in three receding storeys, where traces are still preserved of the original stucco coating and paintings ; the topmost storey is arranged in little regular square niches, each of which was decorated with sculptures. One of the lintels represents two figures supporting " Latin crosses," and in the court is seen an idol sitting cross-legged, the hands resting on the knees, and the face crowned with an enormous headdress, which takes the form of a diadem of precious stones surmounted by huge feathers. This serene and dignified image, absolutely unique in the New World, recalls the buddhas of the extreme East. The bowls of coarse clay found close by contained a resinous substance, probably the incense which the Lacandons even recently still burnt in honour of the deity. The little town of Tenosiqite below the rapids, and at the entrance of the plains the village of Balancan, are the chief groups of habitations on the lower Usu- macinta. Carmen, the onlj' town in this part of the delta, lies on a strait through which the Terminos lagoon conimimicates with the sea. The picturesque city of Campeachy (Gampeche), with its irregular streets and houses shaded by cocoauut groves, is surrounded by ramparts and commanded by forts crowning the encircling hills. Campeachy is still one of the most beautiful cities in Mexico, but it has lost the relative importance it enjoyed duiing the days of commercial monopolies. During the Spanish rule it was one of the three privileged places on the east coast north of the isthmus of Darien — Vera Cruz and San Juan de Nicaragua being the other two — which were open to the trade with Spain, and, thanks to this advantage, it had developed extensive relations with the interior. At that time Campeachy was not only the emporium for the whole of Yucatan, but also served as the outlet for the produce of Tabasco, Chiapas, and aven Guatemala. Now, however, these regions have their own direct trade routes, and even Yucatan itself finds Carmen a more convenient outlet for Campeachy wood and other exports. If Campeachy possessed a real harbour, it would have at least attracted to itself a great part of the exchanges of the peninsula, but the roadstead with its shelving bed is exposed to the full fury of the dreaded nortes ; the pier projecting seawards does not reach suificient depths to be accessible at TOPOGRAPHY OF YUCATAN. 165 all times, so that vessels drawing thirteen or f oui'teen feet have to anchor at a distance of five miles from the port. Its trade is consequently limited to cocoa- nuts, some timber, sugar, hides, and salt. The scarcity of towns, villages, or even hamlets in the neighbourhood of the sea, as shown by the blank spaces on the map of Yucatan, is apt to cause surprise The sparse popidation on the coastlands is partly explained by the want of shelter on the seaboard, and the presence of insalubrious coast lagoons or marshes, but it is also due to the filibustering expeditions to which the people were exposed Fig. 70. — Meeid.4. axd Noeth-West Yucatan. Scale I ; 1,000,000. VVest or breenwic'n a9'40' Depths. to5 Fathoms. 5 Fathoms and upwaids. . 24 JCles. during the last two centuries. The English corsairs, landing suddenly in some creek, often penetrated far into the interior, killing the men, carrying off the children, sacking and burning towns and villages. Although these raids have long ceased, no special industries have been developed, while the natural resources of the coastlands have not been sufiicient to attract immigrants from the interior. Hence ia this region the population is still mostly concentrated about Merida, where it was also most dense at the time of the conquest. Merida, capital of the State of Yucatan, and formerly of the whole peninsula, stands on the site of the ancient 2fd, or Ti-lioo, that is, "City" in a pre-eminent sense. Most of its 166 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. monuments were pyramidal structures with their upper terrace crowned by temples or palaces. All have been destroyed, and the materials used in the modern buildings, which are consequently here and there embellished with ancient carvings embedded in the walls. In the outskirts alone are found the remains of pyramids, one of which, till recently occupied by a community of Franciscan friars, covers, with its cloisters and gardens, a surface of about five acres ; its picturesque ruins present .somewhat the aspect of a citadel. According to ancient Maya usage, some of the streets traversing the city are still indicated at either end by the sculptured image of the symbolic animals, such as the flamingo or hawk, to which the thoroughfare was dedicated. The white terraced houses with their Moorish courts resemble those of Andalusia, but those of the suburbs, surrounded by groves and gardens, are still constructed in the Maya style. They are little houses of stone, or. else of plaited " bamboo, raised a couple of feet above the street level, with a porch in front which is enclosed by walls on both sides and provided with a continuous bench all round. In the central part of the city is still seen the emblazoned palace built for himself by Montejo, founder of the new town, in 1542. Thanks to its trade in henequeu, or agave fibre, of which from 40,000 to 60,000 tons are annually exported, Merida has become the converging-point of several lines which, when completed, will cover the whole peninsula with a net- work of railways. For the present, however, the capital is connected only by a road with its ancient port, the little town of Sisa!, at the north-west corner of Yucatan. From this seaport the henequen takes its English name of Sisal hemp, by which it is known in the trade. The price of this valuable fibre has increased sixfold since the middle of the present century. The roadstead of Sisal, being exposed to the dangerous north winds, was abandoned in 1871, when a new " marina " was founded on the coast due north of Merida, with which it is con- nected by a railway 22 miles long. The line is carried over the coast lagoon by a strong embankment. The new town, which replaces the old Indian village of Tuxuhi, has already justified its name of Procjirso, although the only advantage it enjoys over Sisal is its relative proximity to the capital. To shipping it is equally inaccessible, large vessels having to anchor in an open roadstead from three to six miles from the port. So dangerous is this roadstead that steamers and sailing vessels are always ready to weigh anchor and escape to the high sea ; towards noon every day communication with the shore becomes almost impossible, owing to the violence of the surf under the action of the fierce northern gales. Over 50 miles east of Merida, following the windings of the route, and on the verge of the more thickly-peopled districts, stands the ancient city of Izamal, so named from Itzmatul (Itzenmatul), "God of the Dew." But this old capital was already in ruins at the time of the conquest, and was regarded only as a holy city to which pilgrims flocked from all parts of the four highways radiating in the direction of the cardinal points. Twelve pyramidal or conic mounds, each crowned with a temple or palace, rose at that time above the city, but are now merely shapeless piles of refuse visible above the dense foliage of MATAPAN— UXMAL. 1G7 the surrounding gardens. Here M. Charnay discovered certain Avall-paintings, which afford a clue to the decorative system of the Mayas. As usually happens with most holy cities, Izamal has become a much -frequented market-place, priests and sacrifices being succeeded by traders and their wares. Between Izamal and Merida are seen the finest remains of the old causeways, which have been compared by the archaeologists to the Via Ajipia. These roads were partly destroyed by the Yucatecs themselves, to arrest the advance of the Sjjanish conquerors, and since then they have been utilised as quarries to supply materials for buildings, enclosures and other highwaj-s. Raised above the level of the plain, which was occasionally flooded, these causeways were slightly arched and provided with footpaths, and covered to a depth of about sixteen inches with a layer of cement, which has become as hard as the solid rock. According to Landa this cement was made of lime hardened with water in which the bark of some species of tree had been steeped ; but the present inhabitants have no know- ledge of the process. Ruins are numerous in the whole district. One of the most remarkable is the pyramid of Ake about midway between JMerida and Izamal. This pyramid is one of the oldest Yucatec structures, judging at least from the surrounding pillars, which are formed of huge rough-hewn blocks put together without any mortar, and presenting a somewhat cyclopeau aspect. Some twenty miles south of Merida is the site of Mfnjapait, " Eanner of the Mayas," which, as indicated by its name, was long a capital of the Maya nation. Some traces are still preserved of its temples, notably a cone-shaped pavilion over- grown with agave and other plants, and enclosed by a ruined rampart three miles in circuit. After the destruction of Maj-apan in the fifteenth century, the residence of the Maya sovereigns was removed farther south to Mani, which in its turn was destroyed by the Sjoaniards, and where ajjpear to have also perished the Yucatec manuscripts said to have been burnt by order of Bishop Landa. The most numerous Jfaya monuments occur south-east and south of Merida, along the little ridge of low limestone hills running south-east and north-west towards the angle of the peninsula. Uxmal, or " Olden Time," near the north-east extremity of this ridge and above some underground reservoirs, is the most famous site in this group, and the richest in remarkable structures. One of these, the so-called " Governor's Palace," is one of the best preserved of all the Maya palaces, and may be considered the type of many similar Yucatec monuments. It forms a long narrow quadrilateral with a double row of apartments, which are separated by corridors with walls inclining towards each other and covered by a horizontal roof. The upper storey is richly embellished \vith crescents, rhombs and other ornamental devices attesting a highly inventive faculty. One of the outer decora- tions has been taken by certain archasologists for an elephant's trunk. The "nunnery," a still larger edifice, is even more sumptuously decorated ; nowhere else in Yucatan can be seen a greater variety of motives executed with more success. Innumerable heaps of stones, mounds and pyramids reduced to the form of wooded knolls, are crowded round the vicinity of Uxraul, Ticul, Tekax, and along both slopes of the ridge which stretches south-easlwards to NoJqmt, 168 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Sacbe, Kabah, Sanacte, Labna and Zai/i. The ruins of the latter place are amongst the finest in Yucatan ; it is looked on as a haunted city of the dead by the natives, who rarely venture to approach it, declaring that at times a mysterious music is heard vibrating among the stones. The district stretching south of the limestone hills is strewn with ruins as far as the town of Iturbide, recently founded in the borderland between civilised Yucatan and the territory held by the independent wild tribes. In the eastern part of Yucatan the Spanish name of Valladolid has been given to the chief town, the ancient Zaci, or " White Clay." Zaci, which is not yet connected with Merida by rail, lies in the centre of a tolerably fertile district, which is so salubrious that consumptive persons resort to it from Campeachy and Merida. But, like so many other places in Yucatan, it is more interesting for the surrounding mines than for its modern structures, especially since the Maya revolt, when it was nearly depopulated and its cotton mills destroyed. Chichen-Itza, former residence of the Itza dynasty, lies twenty miles west of Valladolid ; it is now a mere village strewn with ruins which, during the wars of the conquest, were successively occupied by the Indians and Spaniards as strong- holds. The pyramid of Chichen-Itza, which is still in a good state of preservation, is approached by a monumental flight of steps lined with trees and terminating at the base in two colossal snakes with yawning jaws. In a building which he called the " gymnasium," Stephens discovered some paintings which he pronounced to be the most precious gems of native art to be found anywhere on the American continent. Unfortunatelj% the colours have been almost completely effaced by the weather and visitors. One of the subjects represented a large vessel with raised pi-ow and poop, tiller and rudder. At Chichen-Itza, Dr. Le Plongeon also discovered under a heap of rubbish 26 feet thick the finest statue of Nahua art now preserved in the Museimi of Mexico. It is the elEgy of Chac-Mool, the " Tiger King," reclining on his back and looking towards the right ; the features are quite regular and the head is adorned with fillets in the Egyptian fashion. The simple majesty of this statue stands in striking contrast to the figures, overcharged with barbaric ornaments, which are met in so many other temples of Mexico, Tabasco, and Chiapas. The reservoir from which Chichen-Itza takes its name, meaning " Mouth of the Springs," is a broad gloomy well about 500 feet in circuit, with circular ledges carried round the walls by means of projecting layers of masonry. In its deep green water, 65 feet below the rocky surface, are reflected the overhanging trees and festoons of pendent creepers. So recently as 1560, human victims were still cast alive into this well as sacrifices to the gods. Farther south follow El Meco and Cankun over against Mujeres Island ; Paalmul and Pamal on the shores of the strait separating Cozumel Island from the mainland ; lastly, Tuhim crowning a cliff stiU farther south. The last- mentioned appears to have been a powerful capital which was defended on the land side by a solid enclosure still in good repair. The towers flanking this rampart are also well preserved, and appear to be the same as those mentioned by COZUMEL.— THE INT)EPENDEXT MAYAS. 169 the early navigators. The architecture of the Tuluin buildings presents some peculiar features, which seem to point at a mingling of cultures in this remote regioa of Mayaland. Some of the temples cause surprise by the Lilliputian dimensions ; pierced bj- a narrow opening scarcely wide enough for a single man to creep in, they would seem to have been made for a race of dwarfs. The part of the seaboard where Tulum is situated belongs at present to the free Indians, and in the same district stands a " holy rood," where they gather on solemn occasions to hear the " voice of God," which issues from the cross, appointing the chiefs, declaring peace or war, condemning or pardoning the guilty. A Catholic priest who had ventured to penetrate into the country was brought before this cross, which sentenced him to death. Mujeres, like all the other islands fringing the coast, has remained in pos- session of the Yucatecs. Its very name of " "Women's Island " recalls the special part played by it in the religion of the Mayas at a time when crowds flocked to its temple to worship the female deities of Yucatan. At present it is inhabited by a few hundred black and half-caste fishers, who trade directly with Havana. Cozumel, a much larger island lying farther south, some twelve miles off the coast, was also a much-frequented place of pilgrimage. It is the ancient Ahcuzamil, or " Swallow Island," whose temple contained the image of a god with swallow feet. Cozumel, which is densely wooded, has not yet been explored, although, the Spaniards had occupied it even before the conquest of Yucatan, and had built a church whose ruins are still to be seen. "When these ruins were rediscovered, with the altar and cross in the midst of the bush, it was supposed that they represented a Christian civilisation dating from pre-Columbian times. There still remain some traces of the paved highway, crossed by other routes, which traversed the island from north to south. The southern part of the coast between Tulum and Chetumal Bay is sparsely peopled by a few full-blood Indians, who have preserved their language, customs, and independence. The territory of these free Mayas is bounded on the north bj" the so-called " Southern Line," that is, the chain of fortified posts which extends nearly along 20^ north latitude through Pefo, Ixmul, and Tihosuco. Formerly they frequently crossed this "pale," and wasted the land as far as Yalladolid and Tekax, and were even reported to have hacked to pieces two thousand persons in the latter place with the manehette* At present the civilised Yucatecs are separated by a kind of march or borderland from their independent kindred, who no longer dare to cross over. These independent Mayas are usually called " barbarians," although scarcely less civilised than the others. They till the land in the same way, and keep their roads in good repair; they make their own manchettes, shaped like short scimitars, with iron imported from Belize, and procure their rifles from the same British settlement. Some of them being well-made stalwart men, they make good soldiers, • Manchette is tlie French-Creole form of the Spanish machete, a kind of hooked knife used in tropical America for clearing' the bush. 170 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. going through their drill with great precision, and keeping their arms in perfect condition. Nobody can read or write, and the rites of the Catholic religion have been forgotten, although they build cabins to which thej' give the name of churches, and which serve as inns for wayfarers ; crosses are also set up at intervals along the highways. The cacique is at once king and high priest, and rules more by might than right, or until some other chief becomes strong enough to seize the supreme authority in his turn. Saiifa CrKz, which lies on the plains west of Asencion Bay, is their present capital, and this place was valiantlj' defended against the forces sent from Merida in 1871. Bacalar, or rather Bakhalal, the " Reed Palisade," on the swampy margin of a lagoon draining to Chetumal Bay, was a Spanish settlement foimded in 1544 under the name of Salamanca. Destroyed by the bucaneers in 1633, it was rebuilt and fortified in 1730, and even recently still carried on a brisk trade with British Honduras ; but the Indian insurgents took it by surprise and massacred the whole population. The remains of some of the people are still seen piled up in the old church where they were slain. IV. — Economic axd Social Coxditiox of Mexico. The growth of the Mexican population has not been so rapid as that of most other American states. The normal rate of increase has been greatly retarded b}- the sanguinary war of independence, which lasted two years ; by military con- spiracies and local revolutions, fomented by personal ambitions, but reallj- due to class and racial hatreds ; by the misery of the peasantry deprived of their lands ; by the depredations of the wild tribes. Apaches and Comanches on the northern, Mayas on the southern frontiers ; lastly, by two foreign wars, one with the United States, the other with France. Nevertheless, the population of the Union has more than doubled since the beginning of the present century. In 1808, Humboldt, carefully sifting all the statistical reports furnished to the admi- nistration of New Spain, estimated the whole population at 5,837,000, or 5,767,000 for the part of the territory constituting the present Mexican republic. In 1888, eighty years after Humboldt's estimate, the official census returned a population of 11,396,000, which, according to the rate of annual increase, may be certainly raised to 11,650,000 for 1891, this increase having been about 2 per cent, during the last decade. As regards the distribution of the population, Mexico differs from most other regions, the uplands being far more densely peopled than the lowlands. Immigration, which has acquired such great economic importance in the United States, in Canada and Argentina, has but a secondary influence on the growth of the Mexican population and the development of its resources. It is easy to under- stand why so few emigrants from the Old "World direct their steps towards Mexico. In this region the only unoccupied lands are the arid northern plains, till recently exposed to the raids of marauding wild tribes, and the forest regions of the south, largely under water and much dreaded by the white men for their climate. Neither in Chihuahua nor in Tabasco can the European working classes hope to ECONOMIC CONDITION OF MEXICO. 171 succeed except under specially favourable circumstances. Even in the provinces where the soil is already appropriated, European settlers, expecting a relatively high rate of Tvages, could never attempt to compete with the pure or half-caste Indians who are satisfied with the lowest pay, and who, often crushed under the burden of their debts, have to work almost gratuitously as veritable serfs. The Mexican territory, already divided into great landed estates, lias scarcelj- any room for small holders, the very class which elsewhere supplies the bulk of the colonists. Hence, with rare exceptions, such as that of the French settlement in Jicaltepec, the various attempts, made either by the government or by private persons, to colonise the country by Italians or other foreign labourers have failed, Fig. 71. — Density of thb Popttlatiox ix Mexico. Scale 1 : 30.000,000. Inhabitants to the Square Mile. ffl 10 to 20. O Federal district, 780 to the square mile. D OtolO. 20 to 40. 40 to 60 and upwards. o Towns of over 50,000 inhabitants. . 620 ITiles. and the settlers have, after a time, all been dispersed, leaving the ground to the natives. In 1888 the twenty " colonies " in the republic had a collective popula- tion of only 6,319, and of these 1,-411 were Mexicans. Eecently an American company has been formed to introduce negro settlers into the southern provinces, while in another direction certain Chinese speculators propose to found colonies of their fellow-countrymen. But if agricultural interests fail to attract many immi- grants, foreigners are drawn to Mexico in yearly increasing numbers by the inducements of trade and the industries. The construction of railways, telegraphs, and factories of aU kinds has brought thousands of mechanics, engineers, and other 172 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. artisans from North America. Italian craftsmen and petty dealers arrive in con- stantly increasing numbers, while the community of speech facilitates the settle- ment of Spaniards in the country discovered by their ancestors. At the end of 1887 the number of Iberians entered on the consular registers exceeded 9,500 ; next to them the French and Italian settlers are the most numerous. As in other countries where the population is steadily increasing, agriculture and the industries have been developed at a still more rapid rate. Maize, which is the chief crop throughout the temperate zone, and even on the plateaux, is still the " corn," in a pre-eminent sense, for the Hispano-Mexicans, as it formerly was for the Aztecs ; with it is made the tortilla, or hot cake, in the preparation of which over a million of women are constantly employed. The annual crop is estimated at from £22,000,000 to £24,000,000, whereas wheat, grown by the side of maize in the cold zone, is valued at scarcely more than £4,000,000. Barlej' represents even a still smaller value, while rice is raised only on the lowlands, together with manioc on the Pacific and Atlantic slopes. The frijoles, or haricot beans, form part of the diet of most Mexicans, and are cultivated with peas, broad beans, and lentils to the extent of over £2,000,000 annually. Potatoes are scarcely appreciated in their original home, and next to maize and haricots the most important article of food is the banana, a fruit of Asiatic origin. In the warmer parts of the temperate zone a clump of bananas with four or five stems yields from 620 to 720 fruits, twelve of which suffice to sustain a man for one day. Thus a space of about twenty square yards growing this plant produces enough food to support one person for a twelvemonth ; whereas, to obtain the same result with wheat, a space of at least 160 square yards would be needed. Besides the banana, Mexico produces an immense variety of other fruits, being suitable for the cultivation of almost every plant grown both in the tropical and temperate zones. The orange is here found associated with the cocoanut, the grape with the chirimoya, so that no fruit-markets can surpass those of the capital and the other cities of the plateau for the endless variety of their produce. Wine is not the national drink, although the vine might yield excellent results in various parts of the country, and especially in Chihuahua and the other northern states from Zacatecas to the American frontier. Its cultivation, already valued at over 1,000,000 gallons in 1878, is even yearly increasing, but only to meet the demands of the wealthy classes. // The plant which yields the really national beve- rage is the maguey {agace americana), of which over thii-ty varieties are known to agriculturists. It is grown on the upper slopes of the temperate zone and in the cold regions, especially on the light sandy soils of the plateaux between 6,000 and 8,000 feet above the sea. Between Tlaxcala, Pachuca, and the capital, the maguey fields cover many thousand square miles of land. The pulqucro obtains the maguey wine by removing the bloom at the moment of its greatest energy. Then the sap, which would have served to nourish the huge cluster of flowers, fills the deep cavity caused by the excision, and this cavity is emptied from two to nine times a day, according to the species and years, during the whole period of efflo- ECONOMIC CONTDITIOX OF MEXICO. 173 rescence. Certain plants have thus yielded dm-ing the season as much as 2,000 or even 4,000 pounds of ag'iamkl, or sap, which may be drunk at once slightly diluted with water. But it is usually allowed to ferment, and thus changed to pulque, which may also be consumed on the spot, or forwarded while quite fresh to all the surroundiug markets. The trunk line between Orizaba and 3Iexico, as well as the other railways on the plateau, have their daily pulque trains, each often convej-ing hundreds of tons of the liquor ia all directions. The term pulque is taken from the Araucanian language of Chili, and it has not yet been Fisr. 72.— PnauEKo. ^^v^?^V^V\^;, iG-r--' made clear why it has been substituted by the Spaniards for the proper Aztec name, ocf/i. In the Xahua traditions its discovery was attributed to a prince, who, as a reward, received the king's daughter in marriage. At first strangers find pulque somewhat disagreeable, owing to its smell of " high " meat or old cheese ; but, as a rule, they soon learn to relish this drink, the stomachic qualities of which are much praised by medical men. In its composition it resembles mare's milk, and of all fermented beverages peculiar to the Old "World it approaches nearest to the koumiss of the Kirghiz nomads. Taken in large quantities it intoxicates like 174 MEXICO, CEXTE-U. .UIEEICA, WEST INDIES. wiue, and the drunkenness caused by it is said to be provocati\'e of wranglings and bickerings. Besides pulque, the agave, treated in different ways, j-ields various other drinks, sweet or acid, weak or strong, such as the mexcal or tequila, the " Mexican brandy " of English writers. Maguey, the planta de las maravillas of the Mexicans, yields other products besides pulque and mexcal. From it the ancient Aztecs obtained paper, as their descendants do soap, a species of gum, and especially various kinds of fibre used according to their quality for making brushes, cordage, yarns, and textiles. The smaller varieties of maguey known by the names of uili and lechuguilla {agave hete- racantha) contribute largely to the wealth of San Luis Potosi and Yalles, while the Zapotecs of Oaxaca export a variety of articles made from jnta fibre (bromelia silvestris). Hcnequen (jjgave sisalensis ov Siml honp) has done still more for the prosperity of Yucatan, and, thanks to this cactus, the most arid regions of the peninsula have become the most productive. The fibre of this plant serves to make cables, cordage, canvas ; which, though not so stout as that of hemp, is none the less in great demand throughout the industrial centres of ^^orth America. Two of the Mexican articles of export, cochineal and indigo, have ceased to possess any economic importance, the former having been ruined by the com- petition of the cochineal produced in the Canarj' Islands, the latter by the indigo grown in Bengal, and now also partly replaced by mineral dyes. Oaxaca, formerly the chief centre of the cochineal industry, and still exporting about 8,000 cwt. in 1870, produced only a fiftieth part of that quantity in 1877, and the outlay had everywhere exceeded the returns. The nofial (cactus coccinifera), on which the insect fed, has accordingly been almost universally replaced by other economic plants, especially the coffee shrub. But there is another variety of cochineal which yields large profits, and the cultivation of which has already made some progress. This is the cije or axin {llaceia axin), that is, the " fat cochineal," very common in all the low-lying and temperate parts of south Mexico. The adult female of this insect, boiled in a metal vessel, yields about 27 per cent, of its weight in axine, a fattj' substance about the consistency of butter, and the most siccative oily product known to commerce. The Yucatecs formerly used it for painting their dwellings, and the North Americans have also begun to employ it. Every tree peopled by a colony of ajes easily yields 20 to 25 pounds of insects, or about 6 pounds of grease. Mexico also takes a certain limited share in the production of the great agri- cultural industries of the world. Cotton is grown chiefly in the northern provinces bordering on the United States, as well as in Guerrero and Yera Cruz. The sugar-cane, inti'oduced by Feruau Cortes, is cultivated in the southern states of Morelos, Puebla, Campeachy, and Yucatan, but almost exclusively for the local consumption ; cacao, which thrives well on the lower slopes of the Soconusco escarpments, and even in the interior of Chiapas, grows in a too thinly-peopled region to yield large annual crops. Coffee is of far more economic importance, especially as an item in the foreign trade of the country. In 1887 Oaxaca already possessed 3,000,000 shrubs ; the plantations in the temperate zone of Yera ECOXOMIC CONDITION OF ^[EXTCO. 175 Cruz, under the isothermal lines of 62^ to 68" F., are also very extensive, though less appreciated than the coffee grown in the Uruapan district, Michoacau. The tobacco raised on the banks of the Papaloapan, about the slopes of the Tuxtla volcano, and on the spurs of the Tabascan hiUs, is scarcely inferior in aroma to that of Cuba itself. Since the insurrection of 1868 on that island, several of the banished planters have introduced this industry into Mexico. Vanilla also succeeds perfectly in the hot moist lands about the foot of the eastei'n Sierra Fig. 73.— ilArrr-ET Piaxtatiox3, Sas FBiscisauiTo Disteict, keae Mexico. Madre, and especially in the environs of Papantla, and at one time Mexico was the largest exporter of this fragrant pod. Xow, however, it is far outstripped by the little French colony of Reunion. Stock-breeding is one of the chief industries of ^Mexico. In some of the haciendas in the relatively arid northern provinces, as well as in the moist savannahs in certain parts of Vera Cruz and Tabasco, the whole population consists 176 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, ■\\'EST INDIES. of vaqueros, or " cowboys," each lla^'iag in charge hundreds of homed cattle, or else from eight to ten atajos, or over 200 horses. These herdsmen, emploj'ed on farms of 10,000, 20,000, or even 30,000 cattle, are, for the most part, Indians or half- castes differing greatly from other Mexicans. They are a half-savage race of " centaurs," who capture the untamed horse or overturn the strongest bull with a throw of the lasso, and whose loves, combats, and heroic adventures are a favourite subject with romance writers. But generations flow on and industries change. Formerly the ox and the horse roamed the prairie Uke the aurochs or bison, and the cowboys were rather hunters than keepers. After capturing and branding the Fig. 74. — Chtef AoEicniTUEAL Peoduce in Mexico. Scale 1 : 30,000,000. r-Cane. Coffee. Tobacco. Maguey, Cactus. Cochineal. Vine. Cacan . Cotton. Maize, Cereals. Eice. Bananas. Caoutchouc. - 620MUes. Forests. Lands little cultivated. animal with its owner's initials, they again released it till it had to be recaptured for the shambles, or to be transferred to the dealer. Even the breed of ponies known as mustangs or hdinos had reverted to the wild state, living in the bush far from running waters, and in summer, when all the meres were dry, slaking their thirst by chewing the thornless cactus. But at present many farmers have intro- duced a more orderly system of stock-breeding, developing new breeds by crossings with European, American, and even Asiatic animals. Thus the Indian zebu and the carabao, or buffalo of the Philippine Islands, have been introduced with good results in the Mexican cattle-farms. The Andalusian horses brought EC0N03IIC CONDITION OF MEXICO. 177 over by the conquerors, and endowed with the qualities of mettle, strength, and endurance, have also been crossed with other breeds, and a more varied choice is thus daily offered to the gallant 2tlexican cavaliers, who are so proud of their horsemanship, their gay trappings and richly-embi'oidered, gold-fringed costumes. Smaller animals, such as sheep and goats, find less favour with the stock- breeders, though numerous herds of swine are reared in the forests and on the plains, especially in the States of Mexico and Jalisco. When the Spaniards arrived in the country with their traditional theories of property, they were unable to understand the communal system prevalent among the natives. Montezuma himself they looked upon as a sort of ruler like their own sovereign, and they concluded that the great personages of the empire were feudatory vassals in the possession of vast domains. Hence they supposed that they had only to substitute themselves for those Mexican lords, and Fernan Cortes set the example by seizing vast territories such as the Cuernavaca district and the " Oaxaca valley," with the populations inhabiting them, ifvearly the whole country was thus distributed amongst the conquerors, and the natives, hitherto unaware that the land-could be appropriated, became themselves so much property, like the soil itself. Still a small plot was usually left for their use within a radius of a few hundred yards round about the parish church. Although the Spaniards were driven out by the war of independence, the system of large domains introduced by them remained intact. The haciendas are not so much farms as territorial divisions as extensive as a rural parish or even a shire. As a unit of square measure the hacienda has a superficial area of 35 square miles, but some of the northern haciendas are a hundredfold this size, covering a surface equal to one of the large departments of France. The whole land between Saltillo and Zacatecas, a distance of over ISO miles, belongs to three owners. These owners are naturally unable to cultivate more than a relatively small part of such estates, in the heart of which they erect a fortified dwelling, and aroimd this stronghold, serving as a sort of citadel during the civil wars, are grouped the houses of their clients and retainers. AU highways converge on the seignorial mansion ; in the neighbourhood are held the marlcets, and all travellers must call on its master either to demand hospitality or procure fresh mounts and supplies. The vast enclosures in the vicinity are carefully guarded refuges, where the herds are driven to escape the raids of marauding Indians or predatoiy ani- mals. But while a solitude reigns round these isolated centres of life and industry, the great hacendados left the country open to incursions, and it was owing to this baneful system that tiU recently the Apaches and Comanches were able to extend their daring plundering expeditions far into the interior of the republic. As was remarked nearly a century ago by Humboldt — " Mexico is a land of inequality ; nowhere else does there prevail a more frightful inequality in the distribution of wealth." About the middle of the century the official surveys returned over 13,000 ranchos, or small holdings, with one " cabin " as a centre of habitation. But even were they the indisputable property of the free peasantry', all these ranchos constituted a scarcely perceptible portion of the national wealth. Since that VOL. xvn. N 178 MEXICO, CENTEAX AMEEICA, "W'EST INDIES. Fig 75. — The Worlii's Yield of Silteb. time vast ^racts have been surveyed and either sold or rented. But one-third of these national lands has been gratuitously given to speculating land companies, while a large part of the rest has been assigned to other financial societies or to private persons in lots of 6,250 acres ; a single company thus owns no less than 15,000,000 acres, while very little has been assigned to the peasantry. The bulk of the Mexican population is dependent on the great mining or land companies. Of the two classes the miners are by far the more indejjendent, owing to the neighbourhood of the towns that have sprung up round about the works. The peasants, poorly paid and kept by the very force of circumstances in the power of the territorial lords, differ in name only from real serfs. Destitute of the necessary resources, they are unable to borrow except from the proprietor or his steward, and these loans, consisting of pro- duce or merchandise sold at ex- orbitant rates, can be paid back only by manual labour, contracted for j'ears in advance. From year to year they see the prospect of freedom fading away, and their crushing liabilities are transmitted from father to son. Doubtless all Mexicans are free "by Act of Parliament ; " no landowner has any longer the right to reduce a debtor to servitude, or sell him to another owner, in discharge of all or part of any real or fictitious claim. The son is no longer even liable for his father's debts, nor the future of minors be ED Mexico. Other Countries. can pledged for advances beforehand. But in many districts remote from the capital, and especially in the south-eastern provinces, the law is a dead letter, and the natives are even said to have been secretly sold to Cuban planters. Practically servitude still exists, as during the early days of the conquest, for it is the natural consequence of the landed system. To be enslaved, to die a slave, in a land so fair, is the burden of every song round the villages of Tabasco. The traveller, passing through the countrj', cannot fail to be impressed by the plaintive tone of these songs, which float continually on the air in the neighbourhood of all human habitations. At the beginning of the century the chief wealth of Mexico, apart from maize, maguey and the other alimentaiy produce of primary necessity, consisted in the precious metals ; the export trade was in fact confined almost exclusively to the products of the mines. These products represented an enormous value, without ECONOMIC CONDITION OF MEXICO. 179 even taking into account the vast sums which were smuggled out of the country, and of which no returns could be made. There are numerous auriferous deposits ia ilexico, but her chief treasures are the silver mines, which since the discovery of America have yielded fabulous sums to the trade of the world. According to the researches of Humboldt, the total value of the gold and silver furnished by the metalliferous veins of Xew Spain amounted to £425,000,000 from the conquest to the year 1S03. This figure is regarded as somewhat too high by Soetbeer, Del ilar, Neumann, and other economists, who, however, estimate the value down to the year 1890 at no less than £800,000,000, or over one-fifth of the total production of the world dui'ing the four centuries since the first voyage of Columbus. In 1850, before mining oper- ations had besun in California, "^S- 76.— The 'W'oeld's Tielb of the Peecious Metais. Arizona and Xew ilexico, regions formerly belongiug to Xew Spain, the proportion yielded by Mexico since the conquest had been much higher, or about one- third. This country has contributed more than any other to the spread of a metal currency as representative of value ; yet till recently cacao beans, squares of soap, and simi- lar objects of daily iise were em- ployed in Mexico itself for petty dealings. The yield of the Mexi- can mines, so far from falling off during the present century, has considerably increased, despite wars and revolutions, and flooded mines. The improvement in the highways of communication, combined with the introduction of better mining processes, has more than compensated for the advantages enjoyed by Mexico at a time when the precious metals possessed a greater relative value than at present. An oscillation in international trade favourable to the develop- ment of the mining industries would have the result of increasing to an enormous extent the production of silver in itexico, where there are thousands of well- known deposits still untouched owing to their relative poverty, or to the lack of communications. Even the slag heaped up about the workshops stiU contains from 25 to 30 per cent, of metal, or altogether £240,000,000. In the year 1889 alone, as many as 2,077 declarations were registered respecting new mines. At present the yearly production exceeds two tons of gold, valued at £-300,000, and 600 tons of silver, valued at £5,500,000, and in 1889 the total yield exceeded £8,000,000. •L3 Mexico. C3 Other Countries. 180 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, ^T.ST INDIES. So extensive is the area of the Mexican mineral region that it may be estimated at four-fifths of the whole territory. The chief metalliferous zone is that of the western Sierra Madre from the Arizona frontier to the isthmus of Tehuantepec ; but the other Sierra Madre is also very rich, especially in the States of San Luis Potosi and Hidalgo. Besides gold and silver the Mexican highlands contain deposits of platinum, copper, lead, iron, manganese, and quicksilver, the last of Fig. "7. — Yield of Gold and Sllvee ln Vaeious Countries since 1492. NEW WOELD. Mexico: £848.000,000. Bolivia and Peru : £820,000,000. Uaitea states : £400,000,01)0. Best of America : £500,000,000. OLD WOELD. £ (580,000,000. it: Australia: £300,000,000. Each square represents £400,000. great value in the reduction of the ores. Coal has been found in Sonora, on the banks of the Rio Grande, in the Sierra de Tamaulipas and in the southern uplands. Sulphur is obtained in the craters both of the active and quiescent volcanoes ; near Tuxpan are found petroleum springs ; by scratching the surface the sulphates and carbonates of soda, saltpetre, sea salt are turned up ; lastly, there occur quarries of marble, onyx, jasper, basalt, obsidian, while certain rocks abound in precious stones. ECOXOMEC CONDITION OF MEXICO. 181 The early explorers often speak of the beautiful chalchihuites, jadeites or emeralds, with which the ilexican nobles adorned themselres and decorated their idols. Amongst the resources of ilexico must also be included yellow amber, common in Oaxaca and the neighbouring states, but of an imknown vegetable origin. It is perfectly transparent, of a lovely golden hue, and, seen iu the light, shines with a fluorescent glow. In certain parts of the interior it is found in such quantities that the natives use it even for kindling their fires. The specimens of this substance sent to Europe come from the coast, where it occurs here and there in the sands. In ilexico there are reckoned altogether about a hundred impor- tant mineral districts, and in 1888 there were as manv as 575 mines at work, to a Kg. 78. — Chief Meteeai. Regioss of Mmco. Scale 1 : 30,000,000. Coal. Salt. , 620 Maes. great extent owned by English capitaKsts. The total yield of all metals, earths, stones, and combustibles is valued at nearly £10,000,000 yearly. To mining, which was alread}- represented in all its branches, such as smelting and minting, under the Spanish rule, have now been added some of the large manufacturing industries. Cotton, one of the chief crops in the republic, is entirely emploved in the ilexican spinning and weaving mills, and manufacturers, moreover, import large quantities of the American staple. Over 50,000 families are supported by the cotton industry, and about a hundred factories produce a quantity estimated at 30,000,000 pounds a year. The States of Puebla, Jlexico, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco and Coahuila are the chief producers of cotton textiles, which take the form of manias, sarapes, rehozos, and other articles forming part of the 182 MEXICO, CENTE.VL AMEEICA, "WEST INDIES. national costume. The artisans of the plateau are also skilled in all the crafts connected with saddlery, leather-dressing, embroidery and other trimmiags so highly appreciated by the Mexican cavaliers. The complete outfit of a regular dandy is worth some hundred pounds, including the trappings of his mount. All the large European industries, even those requiring a deep knowledge of scientific processes, have now been introduced, and are contributing to transform the economic conditions of the countr}\ Moreover, a large number of the small local industries still hold their ground. Thus the Indians of Michoacan continue to produce those articles of featherwork which the conquerors admired in Monte- zuma's palaces, and the Mixtec women still weave, with the cocoons of a native species of bombj'x, certain silken stuffs, coarse to the touch but very stout, and highly prized by the natives. In most of the provinces the ceramic art has undergone but slight change since pre-Columbian times. The Indians, as a rule, are excellent craftsmen, as patient, methodical, and regular in their operations as the machines which they employ. Nor do they lack the necessary initiative where it is needed by the character of the work. Thej' display remarkable talent in designing and modelling, they copy without difficulty all objects presented to them, and knead wax with rare skill. In them survives the genius of their forefathers, who sculptured the facades of the temples, carved hieroglyphic inscriptions, designed and painted topographic charts. This general increase of culture, shown by a more scientific and a more active utilisation of the local resources, has at the same time reacted favourably on the development of foreign commercial relations. At the beginning of the century under the Spanish regime, the annual movement of the exchanges carried on exclusively through Vera Cruz was about £8,000,000. At present it has in- creased more than threefold, while the precious metals, which till recently formed seven-eighths of the exports, have now fallen to two-thirds or even one-half. Amongst the more important exports are dj'ewoods, timber, skins and hides, besides such colonial produce as coffee, vanilla, tobacco, caoutchouc, sugar and indio-o. Mexico also forwards large quantities of fruits to the United States, but no manufactured goods are exported. These industries have not yet acquired sufficient development, nor are they sufficiently specialised to find an opening in foreign markets, ^f imported goods the chief are, in their order of importance, textiles, machinery, hardware, paper, chemicals, glass and china ware, besides flour and other alimentary substances. Thanks to the proximity of the United States and the connecting lines of railway, the first place in the foreign trade of the country is taken by the northern republic : hence, in the Mexican ports nearly all shipping documents are drawn up in the English language. Great Britain comes next in importance to the United States, France occupying the third jjlace. These three countries, which collectively possess nine-tenths of all the exchanges, are followed by Germany, whose relations are increasing, especially along the Pacific coast ; whilst Spain, which formerly monopolised the whole trade of the colony, now takes only the fifth place. ECONOMIC CONDITION OF MEXICO. 183 Like the United States, Mexico has endeavoured to foster her industries by a system of tariffs affecting most objects imported from abroad. As a rule the duties levied at the seaports or on the land frontiers amoimt to 38 per cent, of the declared value. Hence the contraband trade, especially in American cotton fabrics, continues to flourish all along the line, but principally in the " free zone," where 850 custom-house officers, distribut-ed over a distance of 1,680 miles, are supposed to keep effective guard over all the exchanges. Some articles, regarded as useful for the industrial or scientific development of the land, enter free of dutv. In 18S9 onlv eightv ports vrere open to foreign trade, exclusive of the " land ports " on the northern and southern frontiers. In 1889 the Mexican seaports were regularly visited by twelve lines of steamers, six in direct relation with Europe, the TTest Indies, and the Eastern States of the northern republic, two with California, and four engaged on the coast service. The sea-borne traffic by steam represents nearly one-half of all the exchanges, although sailing-vessels, mostlv flying the national flag, are four times more numerous than steamers in. the movement of the seaports. The coasting-trade is reserved exclusively to Mexican shipping. Mexico has lagged a quarter of a century behind the civilised countries of West Europe in railway building. The first line, connecting Vera Cruz with a suburb, was not opened tiU 1850. Another line, constructed in 1857 between the capital and the shrine of Guadalupe, was rather an object of curiosity for pleasure- seekers or devotees than a means of communication subservient to commercial interests. But after the collapse of the attempt made to restore the monarchy and the definite recognition of Mexican independence, a beginning was made with the various projects that had been long worked out for the development of a regular railway system between the large centres of population. Thanks to the aid of British, and to a less extent of United States capital, the work was undertaken and pushed on so rapidly, soldiers being even employed as na-\-vies, that in the course of a few years Mexico already compared favourably with several European countries in the relative extent of her railway system. A great obstacle to the progress of the new means of communication was the Kne between Vera Cruz and the capital, which was the first taken in hand, and which happened to be the most difficult of all. But before any expansion could be given to the system it was considered essential to open the great trade route, placing the capital of the republic in direct relation with the ports of the United States, Great Britain, France, the "West Indies, and South America. To accomplish this result enormous works had to be executed, works unexampled even in Europe. Mountains had to be scaled to double the height of the highest Alpine tunnels, the three hot, temperate, and cold zones had to be successively traversed in a vertical direction, in order to reach the region of snows without extending the route beyond all reason along the interminable slopes of the lateral valleys. This colossal work has been successfully executed, and the Vera Cruz line to the capital now offers an amazing series of stupendous bridges, A-iaducts, tunnels, sharp curves, steep gradients, and other engineering triumphs. The Metlac viaduct between Cordoba and Orizaba is a model of constructive 184 MEXICO, CENTExiL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. skill, in whicli lightness and strength are happily combined. But the section between Maltrata and Boca del Monte, giving direct access to the edge of the Anahuac plateau, is so precipitous that it never fails to excite the apprehension of travellers, both ascending and descending this tremendous incline, which has a total rise of no less than 4,000 feet in a distance of sixteen miles in a bee line. At the hio-hest pass near the Malinche volcano the line stands at an altitude of 8,420 feet above sea-level, and to avoid a still more elevated pass over the snowy range, it is deflected northwards, thus obliquely traversing the Mexican valley in its entire Fig. 79. — The Boca del Monte Accent. Scale 1 : 90,000. ,.: ^^^^. r^-m & ^'^-'■4o .jCfa'.'-^SiiStS".. . . ....,j 97° West Qp breenwich q7-,5' ;,300 Yards. length. "With good reason the Mexicans speak of this great engineering work as a monument of human genius. To connect the network with that of the United States was a far easier under- taking. The Anahuac plateau has a general incline from south to north without any abrupt declivities, so that throughout most of the section between the capital and the Rio Grande del Norte heavy engineering operations could be dispensed- with. In 1884, two years after the Americans themselves had reached this river at Laredo, the Mexicans opened their line to Nuevo Laredo on the opposite bank. The same year they completed another line running parallel with the western Sierra Madre all the way to Paso del Norte. Railway communication was thus henceforth continuous between Mexico and San Francisco, St. Louis and New York : by the latter route passengers were able, in 1889, to travel from ECONOMIC CONDITION OF MEXICO. 185 Mexico In eleven clays to the Paris Exhibition. Another line crosses tlie Rio Grande at Piedras Xegras between El Paso and Laredo, and a fourth traversing Sonora connects the American frontier with the port of Guaymas. But aU these railways, which give Xorth Americans and their wares easy access to Central Mexico, and which converge towards the heart of the country, constitute a serious political danger. They lay open the frontier to a powerful neighbour, who has already occupied about half of the former territory, and who has more than once threatened to extend the range of her conquests. Hence it becomes all the more urgent to increase the lines which descend from the uplands to the sea- board, and which would afford equal commercial advantages to all countries without an}- special privilege to the United States. To the Vera Cruz line on the Atlantic Fig. 80. — Mexicax Ratlwat Systfvs rs 1890. Scale 1 ; ao.OOO.COO. 7/est oP Ureenw;ch ' 620 Miles. side has already been attached the San Luis Potosi — Tampico line ; but on the Pacific side, where trade is less developed than on the slopes facing towards Europe, the system is not yet completed which wiU ultimately extend to the seaports of Altata, ilazatlan, San Bias, Manzanillo, Sihuantanejo, Acapulco, Huatulco, and Salina Cruz. On this Pacific side the engineering difficulties are as great as on the Atlantic slope. Thus the line which runs west of the capital across the Ajusco crests to the heights of Las Cruces near Salazar, attains an extreme altitude of lOjOOO feet, or about 2,600 feet above the city of Mexico ; this is the highest point yet reached by the Mexican system. In 1774, the engineer Cramer, commissioned to survey the isthmus, reported that a navigable canal might be cut from ocean to ocean without much difficulty and expense, and in his report he traced the course of such a canal. But uo attempt 186 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. was ever made to realise the pi'oject. In 1811 the Spanish Cortes also decreed the opening of this line, but their decision could, be regarded as little more than an abstract resolution inspired through the fear of losing the empire of the West. Immc diatel}- after the constitution of IVew Spain as an independent state, the geographical study of the land was resumed ; but no definite canalising projects were formed till 1842, when Jose de Garay offered to take such a work in hand. But he failed to raise the necessary capital, and a like fate befell the American company which had obtained the concession, in 1867, after the fall of Maximilian. All these now- abandoned projects of an interoceanic canal have been followed by that of a ship railway on the same plan as that of the Chignecto isthmus in Nova Scotia, but of far greater proportions. The importance of such a route, especially for the navi- gation of the United States, is obvious enough. For the trade of the whole world the best line across Central America would, doubtless, be that of Panama, which lies on the direct highwaj' from England to Peru, ChiH, Australasia, and Indo- nesia. But the Americans are naturally most interested in the route lying nearest to their own territory. Most of their traffic is carried on between New York and San Francisco, on which highway the Tehuantepec route is 860 and 1,630 miles shorter than those of Nicaragua and. Panama respectively. Planned by Eads, the same American engineer who opened the South Pass in the Mississippi delta, the Tehuantepec ship railway would be regarded mainly as an American work, and the future tariff was even arranged in such a way as to favour the Anaerican quite as much as the Mexican seaports. Mexico was, none the less, ready to grant great privileges to the promoters, such as exemption from taxes for ninety-nine years, and the grant of nearly 1,250,000 acres of land. The expenditure was esti- mated at £15,000,000 for a line 150 miles long, the heaviest engineering work being a cutting 850 yards long and over 100 deep at the highest point of the waterparting. This would reduce the steepest gradient to less than two in 100 yards ; but the undertaking was suspended by the death of the engineer. The Mexican telegraph system has been rapidly developed throughout every province of the republic, having increased threefold during the last decade. It is now also completed by the submarine cables connecting Galveston with the Mexican seaboard, and Vera Cruz with the northern and southern ports. Another submarine line now also joins Salina Cruz, the port of Tehuantepec, with the Pacific seaports of the Central American republics. Most of the lines belong to the federal government, though several are also owned by the different states, railway companies and private corporations. The telegraph and postal services increased more than fourfold in the eight years ending in 1888 ; yet the letters forwarded are still at the low rate of three per head of the population, showing that, com- pared with the countries of West Europe, instruction has hitherto been in a back- ward state. But education also is at last making rapid progress. Most of the states have adopted the principle of compulsion and gratuitous public instruction for all chil- dren ; but the oflScial returns make it evident that pubHc opinion has not yet completely sanctioned such measures. At the same time it is impossible to ascer- GOVEEXMEXT OF MEXICO. 187 tain tte precise number of ctildren attending schools, owing to the carelessness of provincial governors in forwarding the yearly reports to the federal administration. It is certain, however, that from decade to decade great progress is being made, and the attendance at schools already represents a twentieth of the whole popu- lation, the proportion beiug highest in the States of Queretaro, Guanajuato, and Chiapas. But much still remains to be done in the remote districts, and especially for the Indian populations. Ignorance and superstition are still so prevalent amongst the natives that so recently as 1874, two " sorcerers," a mother and her son, were burnt alive ia a village in the State of Vera Cruz for having caused the death of a young man by incantations. On the other hand brigandage has rapidly disappeared with the development of the railway and telegraph ser- vices, and most of the highwaymen have taken to more legitimate pursuits. The time has passed when travellers were warned by placards posted at the cross- roads of the capital to provide themselves with money under the threat of being beaten, or losing nose or ears. A taste for reading is not yet very widespread ; hence libraries are few and poorly equipped, although scientific literature has already acquired a certain value. It comprises some standard works on a level with the admirable carto- graphic undertaking, superior to similar works in the United States, which when finished will contain the whole topography of Mexico in thousands of well-executed sheets. Popular literature consists mainly in journals, of which at the end of 1888 as many as 120 were issued in the federal district alone, and 385 in the whole state. In 1852, all publications taken together comprised only 60 journals, ilexico is one of the Hispano-American countries which claim to speak the best Castilian. T. — GOVERXIIEXT AXD A.D>nNlSTRATIOX. Constituted on the model of the Anglo-Saxon federation, the republic of ifexico consists of a certain number of independent or sovereign federal states united together according to the compact of 1 857. Each state is, so to say, a miniature of the confederation, with its chambers and governor, its laws and local finance. But its deliberations and jurisdiction are confined within certain limits laid down by the general constitution of the republic. It can neither declare war nor conclude peace, and all its relations with foreign powers have to be conducted by the central government. But independently of all constitutional formidas, there can be no dcubt that at present the populations of the various states, formerly without cohesion or any sense of national unity, now form a somewhat compact political body. In 1846, during the war with the United States, no popular movement was made against the invaders, and the two States of Tera Cruz and Zacatecas even refused, in virtue of their autonomous rights, to take any part in the war against the Xorth American republic. But the national sentiment assumed a far more active cha- racter at the time of the French invasion and the assumption of the imperial title by ilaximilian. T^Tien Mexico at last issued triumphant fi'om this formidable 188 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. struggle, the exultation of victory and the consciousness of nascent strength tended to create a Mexican nation in the true sense of the term. From that time dates the real history of modern Mexico. The annexation of Mexico to its powerful northern neighbour, an event confi- dently foretold by so many politicians as inevitable, becomes daily more improbable as the country continues to increase in wealth and population. The centres of gravity of the Mexican and Anglo-Saxon republics will always be separated by a distance of at least 1,500 or 1,600 miles, and the intervening space largely consists of arid regions, where the population must always remain scattered. The zone of dis- affected states, which American adventurers had endeavoured to constitute in the north between Sonora and Tamaulipas, with the view of dividing the republic and Fig. 81.— Political Division's op Mexico. Scale 1 : 30,000,000. , 620 Miles. annexing it piecemeal, have resumed their place as integral members of the political organism. Thus Mexico and the United States seem destined to remain distiact ethnological domains. Every Mexican citizen is regarded as a freeman, with the right of choosing his own domicile, of associating with whomsoever he Hsteth, of comiug and going whithersoever he pleaseth, of beariag arms and freely expressing his thoughts either verbally or through the press. No titles of nobility or hereditary preroga- tives are recognised, and all citizens are considered, in virtue of the constitution, as equal before the law. All are electors on the single condition of themselves signing their voting-papers. Even foreigners become citizens on acquiring pro- perty in the country, or when children are born to them, unless within a period of eight months they express a formal desire to keep their first nationality. GOTEEXiTENT OF MEXICO. 189 The number of parliamentary representatives increases with the population ; for this purpose each state is divided into as many electoral circles as there are 40,000 inhabitants, and each circle elects a representative from candidates over twenty-five years old for a period of two years. The senators, who must be at least thirty, are elected for four years, two for each state, so that they number fifty-sis for the twenty-seven states and two territories ; every two years half of the senate is re-elected. The Congress, that is to say, the two chambers combined, holds two regular annual sessions, comprising a total of at least forty-five sittings; both deputies and senators receive a yearly allowance for their services. A permanent delegation of the Congress sits during the recesses. The capital, where Cong-ress meets, lies not in anv of the states, but in a neutral territorv, the so-called "federal district," formed by a circuit of "two leagues," or six miles' radius round the central spot. The president of the Mexican United States, chosen in the second degree by pepular vot«, was, till recently, appointed for a term of four years, but in virtue of an amendment in the constitution passed in 1887, he may be re-elected for a second term, and the president in whose favour this law was enacted was in fact so re-elected. In 1890, by another law, he was made president for life. The judiciary power is exercised by district and circuit courts and a supreme tribunal composed of judges elected for a period of six years. The ciNil and criminal code is the same for all the states except those of Tera Cruz and Tlaxcala. Imprisonment for debt is abolished, and the republic binds itself to reject all extradition treaties for political offences. The decimal system has been legalised for weights, measures, and currency. Under the colonial regime the clergy exercised great power in the government of the country. Its enormous revenues, combined with the spiritual authority enabling it to open or close the gates of heaven, ensured it the unquestioned control of the Indian populations. Some of the prelates had incomes of £40,000, and, according to Lucas Alaman, the ecclesiastical estate represented half of the whole property of Mexico. Although the wealth and power of these high dignitaries were diminished by the war of independence, the clergy still retained great influence, for the Creole priests, such as Hidalgo and Morelos, who sided with the people or even stirred them to revolt against Spain, caused those church- men to be forgotten who, on the contrary, hurled anathemas against the rebels. About the middle of the present century Lerdo de Tejada still estimated at one- third of the national territory the lands owned by the clergy. With the revenues derived from hypothecated trusts and from tithes still illegally collected, this vast fortune yielded an annual income of about £4,000,000. But in 1855 the clergy numbered altogether not more than 4,615, some "poor curates," others prelates and other dignitaries " rolling in wealth." A first blow had been given to the power of the Church by the Spaniards themselves in 1767, when all the Jesuits residing in Mexico were imprisoned, deprived of their property and then banished. The revolution was completed nearly a century afterwards, in 18-57, by the mortmain law ordering the immediate sale of ecclesiastical property. But 190 MEXICO, CENTE.\L AMERICA, WEST INDIES. the struggle for ascendency was none the less continued, and the higher clergy did not consider themselves vanquished till after the fall of Maximilian, the withdrawal of the French troops, and the definite triumph of the republican party. They were then deprived of their effects, and the priests lost the right of superintending schools and celebrating their rites in public. The establish- ment of religious corporations or communities was forbidden, and since 1873 the Church has been completely sejiarated from the State, which has proclaimed itself neutral as regards the various cults. Over a hundred Protestant churches, belonging to twelve different sects and nearly all founded by American mission- aries, have been built in the capital and in other parts of the country. In 1866 the capital also contained as many as 37 Protestant schools, attended by 1,310 pupils. On the other hand, in several remote districts where the population is purely Indian, the old Catholic ceremonies are being rapidly forgotten. Many parishes remain without priests, and the natives cease to practise any outward form of worship. In nearly all the towns, except in Michoacan, churches have been transformed to workshops, barracks, warehouses, even circuses for bull- fights, for this pastime, after having been interdicted, is again permitted. Although small, the Mexican army is relatively larger than that of the United States. In 1889 it comprised altogether over 27,000 men with the gendarmes and rangers ; with the reserves it forms a force of 160,000 of all arms. Mexico also possesses a flotilla of two corvettes and three gunboats, and naval schools have been founded at Mazatlan and Campeachy. The Mexican forces are doubtless insignificant compared with the vast armaments of the great military powers ; nevertheless they suffice to weigh heavily on the federal budget, the expenditure under this head amounting to from £2,500,000 to £3,000,000, or over one-third of the national outlay. The finances of the republic were long in a state of the greatest confusion, especially at a time when foreign traders were able to emjiloy diplomatic influences for the purpose of raising fictitious claims, and compelling the Mexican Govern- ment to pledge the customs as security for their demands. Since that epoch, the revenues of the republic have rapidly increased. Over half of the receipts are derived from the duties levied at the seaports almost exclusively on imported goods. Stamps represent a fourth, and direct contributions not more than a twentieth of the annual budget. Another resource is the profit on coining, which has acquired so much importance in Mexico, where the various mints have issued altogether £720,000,000 in gold and silver since their foundation. To the federal budget must be added those of the different states, which average about £2,000,000 j-early, and lastly, those of the municipalities, which have an estimated collective value of from £200,000 to £250,000. The national debt, although less in proportion than about the middle of the century, was estimated in 1890 at £20,500,000. In the Appendix will bo found a table of the several states and territories, with their areas and approximate populations. CHAPTER ITT. BRITISH HOXDLTL-VS (BELIZE). HIS colonial territory, one of tlie least important in the vast British Empire, is, geograpliicallY speaking, nothing more than a |S=jj^. j section of Yucatan, conventionally severed from the peninsula. On the north, however, the frontier towards Mexico is distinctly marked by the southern shores of Chetumal Bay, and by the course of the Eio Hondo. Southwards the Eio Sarstun (Sarstoon) has been chosen as the political botmdary as far as the so-called Gracias-a-Dios rapids. From this point an arbitrary parting-Kne runs nearly north to Garbutt's Falls on the Eio Viejo (ilopan, or Belize), and is continued thence to the Eio Hondo. This line, laid down by the treaty of 1860, but not actually surveyed, is assumed very nearly to coincide with 89° 30' west longitude. Physically an integral part of Yucatan, this region was also politically regarded as within the Spanish main ever since the year 1506 or 1508, when its shores were visited by Yauez Pinzon and Juan Dias de Solis. But towards the close of the seventeenth century, some English corsairs seized the island of Carmen, which half closes the entrance to the Terniiuos lagoon on the opposite side of Yucatan. In 1717 they were driven from their stronghold by a Spanish flotilla, and then took refuge on the east coast of the peninsula ; here they founded a settlement, which, from the name of their leader, was known as Wallace, a term afterwards corrupted by the Spaniards to Belice or Belize. In this outlying station, far removed from the centre of Spanish authority, they easily held their ground, and, with the aid of the Indians and half-caste negroes, even overran the surrounding districts. But in 1730 an expedition was sent against them, which seized their boats, and fired their cabins and the piles of logwood collected on the beach. After the departure of the Spaniards, the English settlers returned from the forests where they had taken refuge, and reoccupied the place. Again expelled by a second expedition, they again returned, erected fortified posts at the entrances of all the rivers, and remained henceforth free from all attack. By the treaty of Paris of 1765 they acquired the right to hold peaceful possession of the territory already occupied, but only for the purpose of working the surrounding forests, and trading in the timber and other natural produce. Their forts and palisades had to be razed, all permanent agricultural settlements, 192 MEXICO, CENTEAI, AlIEEICA, WEST INDIES. Fig. 82.— Bbitish Honbubab. Scale 1 : 2,800,000. municipalities, and organised forces were interdicted, and the country remained a political possession of Spain. These conditions were maintained by the treaty of Yersailles of 1783 ; which, however, enlarged the area of the forest domain conceded to the descendants of the English intruders. But England was the stronger power, and the war that broke out towards the close of the last century, followed by the naval vic- tory of 1798, enabled Great Britain to claim, by right of conquest, the territory which she had hitherto oc- cupied by erfforced conces- sion. The sovereign dominion which the English now set up was never seriously con- tested, and the protests of the Spaniards were regarded as mere formalities. The settlers even continued from year to year to encroach on the territories lying beyond the stipulated frontiers. Thus the southern frontier, origi- nally fixed at the Rio Sibun, was gradually shifted about 110 miles farther south to the Amatique inlet, at the head of the Gulf of Hon- duras. British Honduras, whose superficial area is approxi- mately estimated at 7,560 square miles, is but thinlj' peopled, the whole popula- 89' West oF GreenwTcli 87^0 llepths. Oto 60 Fathoms. 60 to 500 Fathoms. 600 F.tthoms and upwai-ds. -60 Miles. tion numbering, in 1887, somewhat less than 28,000. Tn the sixteen years since 1871, the total increase had only been 3,000, and at present there cannot be more than about three per- sons to the square mile. Belize is thus by far the least densely-peopled region in Central America, a fact explained by the unfavourable climatic conditions, which make most of it unsuitable for Anglo-Saxon colonisation. There are scarcely more than 400 English settlers altogether, a number greatly exceeded by BRITISH HONDFRAS. 193 the Spanish half-castes and the descendants of political refugees from the Central American republics. In the towns the bulk of the people are Mulattos of all shades, while the hamlets scattered over the rural districts are occupied chiefly by the so-called " Caribs," that is, Indians who have, no doubt, some Curib blood in their veins, derived from the Caribs removed in 1797 by the English from St. Vincent to the islands on the Honduras coast. Some 30 miles above the town of Belize the river is fringed by a large number of artificial mounds, which have not yet been explored. They ajjpear to have been either burial-places, or raised camping-grounds, to serve as refuges for the people during the floods. Anyhow, they show that this region was not always a solitude. Although within an eighteen-days' voyage of England, the interior of Belize is less known than Central Africa. Yet few regions abound more in natural resources of all kinds. " One of the most remarkable peculiarities of the climate and soil is that almost all the tropical products of commercial value may be grown in the same zone. I have frequently seen maize, rice, bananas, pineapples, oranges, coffee, cacao, cotton, cassava, rubber, and cocoanuts all flourishing on the same piece of land. Cacao of good quality is found growing wild in the forests ; there is an abundance of fibre-producing plants, particularly henequen and silk- grass, varieties of the aloe, and there is a large extent of land suitiible for cattle and mule breeding."* In the southern part of the tsrritory, the area of drainage within the British frontier is very narrow ; the Hlls in this district are, for the most part, merely the advanced spurs of the Sierra de Chama, which traverses the Guatemalan province of Alta Vera Paz. In these unexplored regions the highest summits visible from the sea exceed 1,000 feet, while the little isolated group of limestone rocks known as the " Seven Hills," terminating in a head- land on Amatique Bay, falls to about half that elevation. Northwards, pine- clad cliffs skirt the shore at a certain distance inland, forming, so to say, a second beach rising above the low-lying coast zone. The Cockscomb Mountains. In British Honduras the highest mountains are the C( ckscomb range, which are also connected by a lateral ridge with the Guatemalan system. The loftiest peaks lie within British territory, where the main nrest is disposed in the direction from west to east, while from the northern slopes torrents descend to the River Belize. These uplands, which are richly wooded on their lower flanks, and dotted with a few pine-trees on their higher escarpments, consist partly of granite, as shown by the rolled blocks in the beds of the torrents. Explorers have sijecially noticed hard limestones veined with quartz and vertically disposed schists, which are very diSttcult to scale. These are probably the pedernaks which Cortes and his followers took twelve days to cross during his wonderful expedition to Honduiasin 1524. Victoria Peak, the culminating point, ascended for the first * J. BcUaraj-, Proc. Ji. Geo. Soc, September, 18S9. \"C)I,. X\'1I. O 194 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. time during the Goldsworthy expedition of 1888, has an altitude of 3,700 feet. Other summits, one of which was named, from the geologist of the expedition, Bellamy Peak (2,700 feet), follow in the direction from west to east, where the range terminates abruptly in a few hills or low offshoots. Victoria Peak, which presents the aspect of a sharp and apparently inaccessible needle, was, neverthe- less, scaled by several members of the expedition, aiding themselves with ropes and a few gnarled and stunted fig-trees. " The top of Mount Victoria is a thorough j^cak, with but little room for moving about, and an extensive view is obtained on all sides. For some distance the prospect is nothing but alternate ridge and valley, densely wooded. There were no higher points north of us, but to the south Montagua and Omoa, in Spanish Honduras, were seen towering above the rest. No open country was seen, nor any of the traditional lakes.'' * In the Cockscomb and conterminous Guatemalan uplands geologists have discovered iron and lead ores as well as traces of gold and silver. But whenever these highlands become connected with the neighbouring se iports, they will have the still greater advantages of offering to agricultural settlers miny fertile valleys, and a far more healthy climate than that of the surrounding lowlands. Here sooner or later wiH be established the health-resort of British Honduras. Rn'F.RS. The low- lying plains receive an abundant rainfall, the excess finding its way to the sea through numerous and copious streams. The Sarstun, on the southern frontier, is 700 yards wide at its mouth, and has nearly seven feet of water at the bar ; within this obstruction vessels ride at anchor in depths of 35 or even 40 feet. The other rivers, following northwards, although generally rising nearer to the coast and less voluminous, are all equally navigable. Some even send down sufficient water to fill the coast lagoons on both sides, and carry far seawards two banks of alluvial matter. One of the largest is the Sibun, which reaches the sea a few miles south of the capital, after traversing a region of limestone hills pierced by underground galleries. It receives some of the waters flowing from the Cocks- comb range, which however is chiefly drained by the Mopan, or Belize as it is usually called by the English. This river rises south-east of Lake Itza, or Peten, in Gua- temala, and after a winding north-easterly course enters British territory at the Garbutt Falls. Here it is known to the inhabitants by the Spanish name of Rio Viejo, or " Old River," probably because before the arrival of the English settlers it had already been used as a navigable waterway. The Belize deposits a great quantity of sediment in the shallow waters about its mouth, where a long alluvial peninsula has thus been formed, which projects beyond the normal shore- line. North of tlie Belize no other rivers worthy of the name are met except the Nuevo and Hondo, which discharge their waters at the south-west corner of Chetumal Bay. The Hondo, that is, " Deep," deserves its name, being navigable for a great part of its course, which forms the frontier-line between British Honduras and * Bellamy, loc. cit. BEITISH HOXDrEAS. 195 that part of Yucatan which is still held by the independent Indians. Eoth the Xuevo and Hondo traverse low-lying districts studded with shallow lakes which communicate with the shifting fluvial channels. The SiLiBOARD. For a distance of loo miles, between the Amatique and Chetumal inlets, the whole seaboard is fringed b}" an outer coastline formed by coral reefs, which here and there develop wooded cays, islands, and inlets, the lines of mangroves grow- ing even on the still submerged banks. The space between the two coasts, which is no less than eighteen miles wide, is for the most part occupied by shoals covered by only a few yards of water. Xevertheless winding channels sheltered from the surf run parallel with the seaboard between the coral beds, and thus form a valuable line of inland navigation available for the coasting trade. Seen from the high sea, the chain of breakers separating the inner lagoons from the outer waters seems impassable, nor can they be crossed vrithout a pilot even by skippers provided with the best charts. Js^evertheless some of the passages are very deep, that of BeHze, amongst others, ranging from 50 to 150 feet and upwards. Others, again, are so shallow that the local fishermen are able to wade across them. The opening between the Yucatan mainland and Ambergris, largest of the cays, is accessible only to small craft drawing less than 30 inches. Chetiunal Bay, which is separated from the sea by Ambergris Island, presents the same general features as the two more northerly bays of Espiritu Santo and Asencion in Yucatan, but it is far larger, having a superficial area of some 400 square miles. The whole basin teems with coralline life, and the reefs in process of formation, covered with a mean depth of from 10 to 16 feet of water, are highest at the entrance of the passage, growing more slowly towards the head of the inlets, where depths of 24 to 26 feet are met. The inland basin itself is navi- gated only by flat-bottomed craft, which are engaged in shipping timber and dye- woods about the mouths of the rivers. It is noteworthy that both shore-lines, the already consolidated beach on the mainland and the outer chain of cays, run nearly parallel to each other, and that the latter forms the direct southern continuation of the east Yucatan seaboard. Moreover, the valley traA'ersed by the Belize river above its great bend round to the east is continued northwards by a series of lagoons and by another fluvial valley, that of the Eio Xuevo (Xew Biver), all of which are disposed in the same direction, forming with the west side of Chetumal Bay a third line parallel with that of both shores. The Eio Hondo also flows in the same diiection along the foot of a cliff which may likewise have been an old shore- line. Lastly, still farther inland, the parallel- ism is maintained in the interior of Yucatan by the twin Mariscal and Bacalar lagoons, and if the maps of this part of British Honduras can be trusted, other lagoons, such as Aguada San Pedro, Aguada Concepcion and Aguada Carolina, au follow the same general direction, which would appear to be that of successively developed coastlines. But this hypothesis still awaits confirmation from the 196 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. geological survey of the interior, which will probably show that the banks of the parallel rivers and lagoons are really composed of coralline rocks constituting west and east a series of terraces with very broad steps. An analogous pheno- Fig. 83. — Paealielism of the Old and Eeceijt "Watebcottbses. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. Depths, Oto60 FathomB. 50 to 600 Fathoms. 500 Fathoms and upwards. . GO Slilcs. menon is presented by the concentric shores of Florida, which were successively formed by the coral-builders during the course of ages. The islands in the gulf beyond the fringing reefs also follow the general direction and belong to the same formation. Thus Turneffe, that is, Tierra Nueva, a verdant group facing Belize, rests on a foundation of reefs whose chanuels, partly BBITISH HONDUEAS. 197 obstructed by sand, form natural reservoirs for fish and turtles. Turneffe may be regarded as a large island disposed in a line with the Chinchorro bank and Cozumel Island in the Yucatan waters. It looks like a first instalment towards a future beach, while yet another shore-line in course of development seems to be indicated by the more distant Glover and Lighthouse rocks. Climate, Flora, Fauna. British Honduras, a mere political enclave at the neck of the Yucatan peninsula between Mexico and Guatemala, differs little in its climate from these regions. At Belize the mean temperature is about 78" or 80' Fahr., and although even in summer it scarcely rises above 86', the heat is very difficult to bear, owing to the humidity of the atmosphere. In the town of Belize, surrounded by rivers, lagoons and swamps, fogs are frequent and dews abundant ; hence the sky is mostly overcast, and when the west wind blows, the mosquitoes arrive, with intermittent agues caused by the exhalations from the neighbouring marshes. "Winter is the best season, when the northern winds prevail, and when the roar of the breakers is heard on the chain of islands, under whose shelter the water remains calm at Belize. The flora and fauna of British Honduras resemble those of Yucatan, but in all the non-calcareous and well-watered valleys the forests are far more extensive and leafy. In the interior the woodlands alternate with pastures such as those of Peten, where hundreds of thousands of cattle might be raised, but where the destructive nigua (jmlex peiiefram) has been introduced from the east. The British Honduras waters are well stocked with fish, and here large numbers of turtles are captured for the London market. Topography. The town, which under the Spanish form of Belize stiU bears the name of its founder, the freebooter "VTallace, lies on the west side of the inner lagoon, where the scarcely emerged land is traversed by the Rio Yiejo (Mopan, or Belize). The two quays of the port are connected by a wooden bridge which crosses the mouth of the river. But the ground is so low that it has had to be artificially raised with the ballast of vessels frequenting the harbour, with driftwood and other flotsam. Nevertheless a tide a little higher than the usual, which scarcely exceeds twenty inches, would stiffice to flood the houses, ilost of these are built of wood, or rest on pUes, for stone or brick would soon sink into the spon^v soil. A few villas stand on the neighbomiag islets, these being considered more salubrious than the town, beyond which extends a marshy tract crossed by embank- ments. The harbour shoals so gradually that it is accessible only to vessels of light draught ; it is also exposed to the east winds, though the surf is broken by the islands fringing the coast and by the more distant reefs. The only supplies procurable on the spot are the fish and other produce of the neighbouring waters ; 198 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. it is quite impossible to raise any crops on the flooded or swampy ground in the neighbourhood, and Belize formerly drew nearlj^ all its provisions from Bacalar in Yucatan, whence they were forwarded by Chetumal Bay. But since the destruction of that place, supplies are drawn from various parts of the seaboard, and especially from the United States across the Gulf of Mexico. Although surrounded by rivers, Belize is unable to procure any water even from the Mopan, and is supplied by cisterns. But while the neighbouring forests abounded in mahogany, campeachy wood and cedar, which were easily floated down in the Fig. 84. — Belize and the Cockscomb MouNTAr:Ja. Scale 1 : i.eon.ocn. Leplhs. n f 5 Fathoms. 5 to 50 Fathoms. 50 to 500 Fathoms. 500 Fathoms and upwards. 30 Miles. form of rafts, the settlers did a flourishing trade, and grew rich despite the many drawbacks of the position. Now, however, timber of large size has become rare, and the inhabitants, mostly blacks or people of colour, have been compelled to engage in other pursuits, and at present the trade of Belize consists chiefly in produce and wares imported from the United States and Great Britain, which are redistributed amongst the Atlantic ports of Guatemala and Honduras. The local e-Kports are chiefly fruits, and most of the traffic is served by a steamer plying regularly between New Orleans and Belize. The population of the town has fallen from nearly 11,000 in 1844 to less than, 6,000 in 1889, and Belize can scarcely fail to continue to decline whenever more z I : BRITISH HONDURAS. 199 frequent direct commuuications are established between the Central American ports and those of Europe and the Uuitcd States. A revival of prosperitj^ ™;iy, however, be brought about by developing the neighbouring sugar, coffee, banana, orange, Fig 85. — Domains of Bkitish Honduras. Scale 1 : 2,500,000. Crown Liuids. Domam of the Other CoQcessions. Belize Estate Company. , 60 Miles. caoutchouc and henequen plantations, and by opening new routes or railways with the inland districts of Peten and Yucatan. But such pro.'ICAEAGUA, COSTA RICA). I. — Gener.\l Survey. ^TIE long strip of tropical lands disposed iu the direction from nortii- west to soutli-east between the Tehuantepec Isthmus and the Atrato vaUey, constitutes a geographical region quite distinct from the great continental masses of North and South America ; they are, =J however, usually grouped with the northern section of the New World, to which they are attached by a broad base gradually narro \ ing south- wards. In a remote geological epoch they were detached from both, constituting a chain of islands analogous to those of the West Indies. But the exploration of these lands is still far from complete, except in a few districts separated from each other by less-known intervening tracts ; hence it is not yet possible to indicate the exact outlines of this insular chain before the marine channels were filled up. It seems evident, however, that this process was not accomplished in a single epoch, and some of the passages stiU persisted for long ages after others had been changed to dry land either by eruptive formation? or by alluvial deposits. Some of the ancient interoceanic channels, such as those of Tehuantepec and Nicaragua, may still be clearly traced along their primitive shores. The Costa Eica and Panama peninsulas are also now attached to the mainland by isthmuses whose original marine character is easily determined. The other straits are more difficult to recognise ; but it is no longer doubtful that the sea formerly occupied the central depression of Honduras at the Guajoca and Eancho Chiquito passes, as well as the central plateau of Costa Rica, at that of Ochomogo. Other channels flowed between Chiriqui and David Bays, while the track of the Panama and Darien Canals was already indicated by the former marine depressions, one of which is also now occupied by the valler of the lower Atrato. The narrowest part of these isthmuses has been attributed politically to the South American State of Colombia ; but such official awards correspond in no way with, the divisions far more sharply traced by the hand of nature herself. Thus the physical limit of Central America is still clearlv determined ia Colombian territory by the course of the Atrato, the wooded morasses lining its banks and the depression connecting this fluvuil basin with that of the San Juan. 202 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST ^DIES. Central America, tuken in its narrowest political sense, that is as the region of isthmuses-excluding Chiapas, .-hich belongs to Mexico, and the double crescen of Panama, which is mcluded in Colombia-has more than once constituted a .mgle political dominion. Under the Spanish rule the Eoyal Aui:enza of GuateoKda, ^hich also comprised the present Mexican province o£ Soconusco, extended south- wards to Chiriqui Bay. In 1823, when the independence of Guatemala was pro- claimed, the southern provinces continued to form part of the new repubUc, of which Guatemala was the capital. But in 1838, after much cud strife, this con- federacy was definitely dissolved, and Central America became decomposed into tne Fig. 86.— Old Stkait3 in Ce.vteal Amebica. Scale 1 : •215,0>)0,0U0. Wesl oF Greenwich ^ 300 Wiles. five autonomous States of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, NiCAU.iGUA and Costa Eica. . . But in 1879, the constitution of Guatemala already anticipated an intimate political union between the various republics, and engaged on Its part to maintain and cultivate " mutual family relations " with them. It also expressed the wish of the people to again form part of a larger Central American nationality. All natives of the neighbouring republics became by right Guatemalan citizens by merely expressing a desire to that effect. At the same time, all these acts of fraternal legislation were accompanied by warlike armaments, to compel the other states to join the union should they prove refractory. In 1886, on the mitiative of Guatemala, a congress was held for the purpose of preparing a new scheme of CENTE-IL AMERICAN STATES. 203 federation, aud next year it was decided that all disputes between the several states should be henceforth decided, not by war, but by arbitration. In order to give practical effect to that principle, Costa Rica and Xicaragua, at that time at war about a question of frontiers, appealed to the decision of the United Slates President. Lastly, the congress assembled ia September, 1889, in the city of San Salvador, concluded a treaty of union between the five states, thereby constituting themselves a federation under the name of " Centro-America," for a provisional term of ten years. According to this ofiicial project, the novitiate llg. 87. — Political Dmsioxs of Cexteai. Asiebica. Scale 1 : 17,500,000. , SOOJIiles. should be brought to a close in 1900, when the definite federal constitution will be proclaimed. But scarcely had this federal compact been signed when disappointed ambi- tions tore it to shreds. A fierce war broke out between San Salvador and Guatemala ; Costa Rica and Honduras soon after joined in the frav ; and no sooner had these troubles been momentarily quelled than Hondni-as became the scene of a sanguinary revolution, calling for the active interference of Guatemala. In the middle of Xovember, 1890, President Bogran, of Honduras, had to fly for his life, and a de facto government was proclaimed by General Sanchez, leader of the revolutionary party. Sanchez was soon after captured aud shot. But towards 204 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. the close of the year the outlook was extremely gloom}', and nil the Central American states threatened to be involved in a general conflagration. The great leno-th itself of Central America, which extends south-eastwards for a distanje of about 750 miles, with a comparatively narrow mean breadth, seemed already to point at a future rupture between the various ethnical groups in this reo-ion. Here the inhabited zone is even considerably narrower than the strip of land itself. The civilised populations, Spanish or Mestizo, have nearly all settled along the Pacific coast, so that, on the opposite slope, the great fluvial basins of Gu itemala, the northern forests of Honduras, the almost unexplored valleys of Mosquitia, are, so to say, so many desert regions, occupied by a few half-savage scattered tribes. Thus the civilised peoples, those who have con- stituted themselves in republican states, form little more than a slender cordon of towns and villages stretching along the west side of Central America. This ethnical contrast beWeen the two oceanic slopes is in great measure explained by the physical contrasts of soil and climate. On the Pacific side are found nearly all the more fertile and less humid lands, which offer a more regular alternation between the dry and the rainy seasons. But other causes also tend to the relative depopulation of the Atlantic seaboard. Columbus here first began to kidnap the natives, and his example was followed by the West Indian planters in search of slaves to cultivate their estates. Thus all the lands accessible by sea, or by the rivers, were wasted, and the populations that escaped capture by the slave-hunters took refuge in the remote interior. Then the Spanish settlers were naturally unable to establish factories and develop plantations in a depopulated and unculti- vated region. Nevertheless, they needed, at any cost, fortified stations to main- tain the communications with the mother country ; but when Spanish supremacy in the "West Indian waters was supplanted by that of the buccaneers, these posts themselves were often attacked and captured. Thus, of the two Central American seaboards, the eastern, facing towards Europe, was the " dead," the western, skirting the boundless waste of Pacific waters, the " living " coast. But the relations have greatly changed since Central America has ceased to be a remote dependency of Spain. In the first place the population has increased more than threefold ; at the census of 1778 the " kingdom " of Guatemala, excluding the province of Chiapas, had a total population of 847,000, which had risen to about a milKon in 1821, when Guatemala declared its independence of Spain. Since that time the inhabitants of the five republics have more than trebled ; the groups of settlers, formerly isolated, have been gradually brought closer together by the foundation of intermediate colonies, while the Atlantic slope has been partly reclaimed for cultivation, and already possesses its towns and seaports. Before the introduction of steam navigation, the communications were rare and uncertain, depending on the seasons and the winds, and even under the most favourable conditions they were always less rapid than at present. The general service of packets plying between the seaports and on both sides, arriving and departing with the regularity of clockwork, has reduced by more than nine-tenths CENTRAL AMEEICAN STATES. 205 the dimensions of Central America, measured not by miles, but by hours. More- over, the interoceanic roads and railways have almost brought into close proximity coastlands which were formerly separated by journeys of several days, and even ■weeks. A project has recently been submitted by the President of the United States to Congress, having for its object the exploration of the Central American States preparatory to the construction of a railway to run longitudinally from Mexico, through Oaxaca, Guatemala, and San Salvador to Panama. But much preliminary geographical work remains to be done before any such scheme can be taken in hand. Certain regions, such as the metalliferous districts of Darien, which were formerly well known, have even fallen into oblivion. In the uninhabited tracts, so difficult are the routes across the swamps and densely- wooded uplands that small exploring parties run great risks, over and above the exposure to the dangerous hot and moist climate. Paths have to be cut through the dense tangle of trees and creepers, and the traveller has to avoid the im- penetrable thickets, precipitous escarpments, slopes liable to frequent landslijjs, gorges flooded by rushing torrents, bottomless quagmires, from which escape is impossible. Explorers provided even with the best guides and porters have often been unable to advance more than one or two miles a day, and have at times been fain to give iip the struggle and retrace their steps. The labour already expended during the course of four centuries in discovering or creating interoceanic highways represents a prodigious outlay of energy, which would have certainly sufficed to accomplish some one great work had it not been frittered away in a thousand different essays. The first survey was made by Columbus himself, who, in lo02-3, skirted the Central American sea- board from Honduras to Vcragua in search of the passage which he hoped would lead him to the "mouths of the Ganges." During this voyage he at all events heard of another sea, which lay a little farther west. Ten years afterwards Nunez de Balboa, at the head of nearly 800 Spanish soldiers and native carriers, forced his way across swamps and rivers, through forests and hostile populations. In twenty-three days of incessaint struggles and hardships he succeeded in crossing the isthmus, here 40 miles wide, and thus reached the sj)acious inlet which he named the Gulf of St. Michael. Advancing fully armed into the rising flood, he took possession of the new ocean " with its lands, its shores, its ports and islands, from the north to the south pole, within and without both tropics, now and for ever, so long as the world shall last, and unto the judgment day of all mortal races." But the strait still remained undiscovered, and it was being sought in the waters west of the Antilles, when Magellan had already found it at the southern extremity of the American continent. When it became evident that there existed no marine passage between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific, the idea naturally occurred of opening such a passage across one or other of the narrow isthmuses separating the two oceans. Such an undertaking was beyond the exhausted resources of Spain ; nevertheless expeditions were made for the purpose of studying the problem at the isthmus of Tehuantepec, on the banks of the San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, at Panama, 200 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. and other points. Since the Central American states have asserted their inde- pendence such projects have followed rapidly one on the other, all based on individual or collective surveys, and promoted by costly expeditious, official encouragement and concessions, lastl}' even by colossal operations actually begun and actively prosecuted for years. The annals of Central America record no less than a hundred plans and schemes for cutting the isthmuses since the year 1825, when the Mexican Congress had the Tehuantepec region again surveyed, and more accurate information brought to bear on the project brought forward by Orbegozo in 1771. Panama, like Constantinople and Alexandria, lies at a point of paramount importance for the growing commerce of the world ; if before the era of universal peace the leading nations agree to proclaim the neutralisatiori of certain places essential to the well-being of the human race, assuredly the American isthmuses wiU be included in the category of such territories. II. — Guatemala. This republic is by far the most important of the five Central American states, for it contains nearly one-half of their collective population. Like its Mexican neighbour, it still bears a name of Aztec origin, the term Guatemala (Quauh- temallan), according to some interpreters, meaning " Eagle Land," though a less poetic etymology gives it the signification of " Land of the Wooden Piles." Others again write, U-ha-tez-ma-la, a group of syllables which would mean, "Mountain vomiting water," the whole region being so named in reference to the Agua (" AVater ") volcano, one of its loftiest cones. Guatemala corresponds very nearly to the two former Spanish provinces of Quezaltenango and Guatemala, though the frontiers have been shifted in many places, while in others they were never accurately determined. Those at last officially adopted coincide neither with the natural geographical divisions nor with the distribution of the ethnical groups. Thus the whole of Soconusco with a part of Chiapas would seem properly to belong to Guatemala, of which they form an orographic extension. On the other hand Peten, inhabited, like Yucatan, by Mayas, and also resembling that region in the nature of its soil and products, should form a political dependency of that ri-gion rather tlian of Guatemala, from which it is separated by a steep mountain range. Towards British Honduras the frontier has been drawn by a straight line across mountains and valley's, from one torrent to another, the political border coinciding with the natural features only in the district where it follows the Sarstun river to its mouth in Amatique Ba}'. Eastwards the territory of the republic is limited by a meandering line, which runs north-east and south-west from the mouth of the Rio Tinto on the Atlantic to that of the Rio Paza on the Pacific. This line follows the crests of the hills throughout a great part of its course, though here and there the boundary is purely conventional. Taken as a whole Guatemala, excluding the northern plains, has the form of a triangle with its base on the Pacific and its apex projecting towards Honduras Bay. GUATEM.y:.A. 207 Physical Features. In its main outlines the relief of Guatemala is extremely simple. The more elevated part of the plateau skirts the Pacific at a mean distance of 50 or GO miles from the sea, and presents in this direction its more precipitous but also its more regular escarpments. The slope facing the Atlantic, although much longer and more gentle, is more difficult to traverse, owing to its abrupt ravines and the deep gorges excavated by the running waters. The Guatemalan range does not terminate in a sharp crest, but, on the contrary, is rounded off towards the summit, where it broadeus out in granitic plateaux of various extent, forming, so to say, so many mesas, or " tables," somewhat analogous to those of Anahuac. The great irregularity of the sierra is due to the volcanoes, which have risen above these Fig. 88. — Tkesd of the Guatemalan Raxges. Scale 1 : 4.600,1X10. , CO Miles. mountains but which are not disposed in a lino with the sierra ivself. Towards the frontier of Chiapas and in the Altos, or uplands, of Quczaltenango, the great eruptive cones lie exactly on the upper edge of the plateau, their slopes merging in the escarj^ments of the pedestal on which they rest. But farther on, that is, in the direction of Salvador, the axis of the volcanoes running almost due south- east ceases to coincide with that of the sierra, which trends more to the north, while the lofty pyramids rise midwaj' on the slope of the range, where they are enclosed by a rampart of ravines. But to the traveller coasting along the Guate- malan seaboard, the peaks which he sees rising at intervals above the land horizon seem to shoot up from the very crest of the mountains. The elevation of the escarpments rising above the southern shores of Guatemala falls gradually from the frontiers of Chiapas south-eastwards in the direction of Salvador. In the Altos or "Heights," as the western part of the state is called, 208 ilEXICO, CENTEAT. AMERICA, WEST INDIES. the plateaux exceed 6,500 feet ; that of Totonicapam rises even to 8,000 feel, while the chief summits tower some 3,000 feet still higher. The great central plain of Guatemala, lying on the waterparting between both oceanic slojies, has a mean altitude of 5,000 feet, and is dominated bj' the crater-shaped peaks of the Antigiia district, which reach an elevation of 10,000 feet. Lastly, in the eastern provinces the uplands do not appear greatly to exceed a mean height of 3,300 feet, with culminating peaks from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. South-east of the active Tacana volcano, which has been chosen as the boun- dary between Mexico and Guatemala, the next igneous cone is Tajomulco, which also exceeds 11,600 feet; it dominates the plateau undt.r the form of a huge and perfectly regular cone clothed at its base with dense forests. The Indians here find large quantities of suljihur, which led DoUfus and Mont-Serrat to sup- pose that the deposits were constantly renewed by solfataras as fast as they were cleared away. Here flames were distinctly seen shooting up by BernouilH in 1863. Beyond Tajomulco no burning mountains occur till Quezaltenango is reached. This group comprises three cones disposed north and south, the northern, some ten miles from the town, being a mere hillock 600 or 700 feet high. But the southern, Santa Maria, whose superb peak, 12,400 feet high, is visible from the sea, is one of the most imposing mountains in Guatemala. Like the other it h is been extinct from time immemorial, and dense forests now clothe both its flanks and the crater. In most of the Central American eruptive groups the southern volcanoes have remained longest active; but here it is the central cone, the Cerro Quemado, called also the Quezaltenango volcano, that still continues in a dis- turbed state. Less elevated than Santa Maria, the Oerro Quemado (10,250 feet) in no way presents the aspect of a typical volcano. Its symmetry was doubtless destroyed during the last eruption of 1785, whea the entire terminal cone was blown away, leaving in the place of the crater a spacious irregular plaia covered with a chaos of boulders, between which fumeroles are now seen to rise. Since then it has been quiescent. East of the Quemado and be3-ond the deep gorge of the Rio Samala rises Mount Zufiil, or the " Volcano," as it is emphatically called bj' the natives. Yet no record remains of any eruption, nor has any explorer yet discovered, in the dense forests clothing its flanks, the aperture through which the lavas were formerly ejected from this cone, which, like those of the surrounding district, consists of trachytic porphyry. About eighteen miles farther on, and in a line with the axis of this igneous system, the extinct San Pedro (8,300 feet) raises its pyramidal peak near the south-west corner of Lake Atitlan. About ten miles farther east three other cones, connected at their base, are disposed north and south transversely to the main chain. The two northern peaks, both about 10,000 feet high, terminate in small craters already overgrown with vegetation ; but the underground forces are still active in the southern member of the group, which is commonly known as the Atitlan volcano, and which towers to a height of 11,800 feet. At the time of the conquest, Atitlan was in a state of commotion, and when the natives heard the continuous rumblings in the interior of the mountain, they threw a young i PHYSICAL FEATUrvKS OF GUATEMALA. 309 maiden down the crater iu order to propitiate the angrj' demon. It was again active in 1828 and 18-i''3, and since that time abundant vapours have been con- stantly emitted by the crevasses near its summit. But the most famous volcanoes in this region are those which dominate the central part of the plateau in the vicinity of the successive capitals of Guatemala. Looking southwards from the pleasant city of Antigua, the eye sweeps over a Fi.^ 89.— Chain OF the Fuego Volcano. Scale 1 : 00,000. ■-u^ o.-f*l West or breen\vich . 2,200 Yard magnificent prospect of cultivated plains, where the horizon is bounded on both .sides by the harmonious profile of the mountain ranges, towering 6,000 feet above the surrounding plateau. On one side is the chain terminating in the Fuego, or "Fire," on the other the Agua, or " Water," volcano. The eastern sierra, where one crater is still active, is itself merely an elevated ridge above which rise nine or ten eruptive cones, all disposed in the direction from north to south. The northern craters, which are all extinct and overgrown with vegetation, \oi,. x\ii. p 210 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. culminate in tlie AcatenangD cone, called also Fico Mai/or, or Pa Ire del Volcan ("Father of the Volcano"), because it rises higher than Fuego, and is, in fact, the loftiest summit in the whole of Central America (l^i.TOO feet). It was ascended in 1868 by Wyld de Duefias, who found nothing but three nearly obliterated craters, although sulphurous vapours were still escaping from a crevasse in one of them. Acatenango is separated by a deep ravine from the southern group, which includes the vast but jjartly breached Meseta cone. Beyond it follows Fuego (13,200 feet), whose summit, scaled for the first time by Schneider and Beschor in I8G0, terminates in a narrow bowl about 85 feet deep ; immediately to the south is scan a tremendous chasm, nearly perfectlj' roimd, over 4-30 yards in diameter and no less than 2,000 feet deep. Fuego was in full eruption at the time of the Spanish invasion, and the terror it inspired in the natives seemed to show that they had previous experience of its destructive energy. Since that time explosions have been frequent, and the surrounding districts have often been laid under ashes. Agua, which corresponds to Fuego on the other side of the valley, although not quite so lofty (12,360 feet), presents a more majestic appearance due to its completely isolated position. Seen from Escuintla, near its southern base, it seemed " the most lovely sight in the world " to DoUfus and Mout-Serrat, by whom it has been scaled. The gaze here follows the perfect curve of its escarp- ments unbroken by any disturbing prominence, while the vegetable zones — cultivated ground, leaf}- forests and pine groves — follow with their varying tints one above the other along its regular slopes. Despite repeated assertions to the contrary, Agua has never been in eruption since the epoch of the conquest. The catastrophe to which it owes its name was caused by the bursting of the rim of the crater, which was flooded by a terminal tarn at the summit of the mountain. To reach this point travellers usually pass through the breach, and here some idea may be formed of the liquid mass formerly contained in the -basin suspended thousands of feet above the plains. Assuming that the reservoir, about 230 feet deep, was entirelj^ filled, it would have been nearlj^ a third of a mile in circum- ference at its upper rim, and 760 feet round at the bottom ; consequently, its volume could not have been much more than 35,000,000 cubic feet. But when the side of the crater gave way on the disastrous day in 1541, the aperture occurred immediately above the capital, which the Spanish conquerors had just founded on the site of the present Ciudad Yieja. The avalanche of water rushed down the mountain, tearing up the ground, sweeping rocks and trees along its irresistible course, and bur}'ing the city beneath heaps of mud and debris. Agua is separated by the deep valley of the Rio Michatoya from the Pacaya, a group of igneous peaks so named from a species of palm growing at its base and producing edible flowers. A near view of Pacaj'a reveals a cluster of irregular summits, where the supreme cone seems to have disappeared during some prehistoric convulsion. The loftiest cone, which is still active, rises to a height of 8,400 feet, or some 3,000 feet above the surrounding plateau. Close by is a wooded peak, and both of these crests are enclosed within the breached PHYSICAL FEATURES OF OUATEMATiA. Ul marffin of an enormous crater some miles in circumference. Ou a neisrlibourinsr terrace also stand two otlier orators, one of which, the Caldcvu, or "Cauldron," of the natives, contains a lake of pure water, while from tlic other light vapours are still emitted. According to a local tradition the smoking peak of Pacaya was O the scene of an eruption in 1565, and since that time it has never ceased to eject ashes, vapours, and even lavas. None of the other volcanoes in the eastern part of Guatemala have been disturbed in recent times. Two of these lie a short distance east of Pacaj a at p 2 212 MEXICO, f'EXTRAI. AMERir'A, WEST INDIES. the villnge of Cerro Itedondo, or "Round Hill," which takes its name from one of the cones. Farther on another is mentioned by travellers, beyond which the normal igneous chain is cut at right angles by a transverse fissure which extends for over 60 miles towards the north-east. It begins near the coast, where the Moyuta or JMoj'utla peak rises far to the south of the main axis, and it is con- tinued on the opposite o.r north side by Am:ij-o, Cuma or Columa, Santa Catarina, or Suchite])ec and Ipala, loftiest pe ik of this transverse range (5,4(35 feet). Ipali terminates in a flooded crater, Fig. 91.- Pacaya Volcano. Seile 1 : 130,000. and on one of its flanks is rooted another igneous cone called Mount Rico. The Guatemalan igneous system terminates near the frontier, where the perfectly symmetrical cone of Chiugo rises to a height of over 6,600 feet above the prolonga- tion of the main range. Chingo is said to be extinct, although DoDfus and Mont-Serrat fancied they saw some vapours escaping from its summit. North of the Guatemalan plateau the regions carved by the run- ning waters into nuraei'ous separate masses present a chaotic appearance in many places, especially towards the diverging sources of the Motagua and Usumacinta rivers. Here the highlands form a central nucleus whence radiate several elevated chains. The loftiest of these sierras is probably the Altos Cuchuinatanes, which runs north of Huehuetenango towards Tabasco ; it is also known as the Sierra Madre, although it is separated from the other Guatemalan ranges by the deep valley of the Usumacinta. East of this copious stream the ranges are disposed mostly west and east, and gradually diminish in altitude in the same direction. Taken as a whole, this northern region of Guatemala draining to the Atlantic, and limited southwards by the lofty rampart of the main range, may be compared to a stormy sea breaking into parallel billows. One of these great billows, consisting of mica schists, runs north and parallel to the Motagua under the name of Sierra de las Miuas, so desig- nated from its auriferous deposits. Farther east, where it is known as the Sierra . Si Miles. RTTEKS OF GUATEMALA. 213 del Mico, or " Monkey Range," it reaches the coast between the Eio Golfete and St. Thomas's Bay, where it terminates in the Cerro de San Gil, a conic mountain said by the natives to be a volcano. At the point where it is crossed by the main route, about 60 miles from its eastern extremity, the Minas Range is about 3,000 feet high. The ridge running north of the Rio Polochic takes the nama of Sierra Cahabon in the pro\-ince of Alta Vera Paz. Towards its eastern extremity the Sierra de Santa Cruz, as it is here called, develops the headland which separates the Rio Golfete from Amatique Bay. In the north of Guatemala the last great chain is the Charaa, which trends north-eastwards round the sources of the Rio de la Pasion. Towards the east it is connected by a few low ridges with the Cockscomb Mountains in Briti-sh Honduras. The passes over this sierra, which have been traversed by few explorers, are extremelv rugged and ditEcult, not so much because of their elevation as of the vertical disposition of the rocky crests. North of the Sierra de Chama stretch the savannas, which are continued northwards in the direction of Yucatan. But these plains are dotted over with isolated hills, for the most part wooded, rising like verdant islands in the midst of a verdant sea. Speaking generally, the southern and central parts of Guatemala are almost entirely covered with pumice in the form of tufa. The granites, mica schists and porphyries are only seen here and there, on the more elevated parts of the plateaux and mountains, or in the depressions eroded by running waters. The quantity of pumice ejected by the volcanoes was prodigious, the deposits accumulated in every part of the country having a thickness of loO and even 200 yards. There exists scarcely a single valley which has not been partly filled in, or a plateau that has not been levelled by these deposits. On the masses of pumice lies a layer of yellowish clay, with a mean thickness of twelve or fifteen feet, which has probably been formed by the surface decomposi- tion of the uuderl\-ing rocks. It is in these clays and in the pumice immediately below them that are found from time to time the remains of mastodons and of Elephas Culombi, animals which lived during quaternary times. Hence this was the epoch during which occm-red the prodigious eruptions of the Guatemalan volcanoes. EivKHs AM) Lakes. The rainfall is sufficiently abundant in Guatemala to feel a considerable number of watercourses. But rivers in the strict sense of the term could scarcely be developed except on the Atlantic slope, where the disposition of the land and its gradual incline afforded space for the running waters to ramify in extensive fluvial systems. On the Pacific side, where the escarpments of the plateaux fall abruptly seawards, the torrents descend rapidly through the parallel ravines furrowing the flanks of the mountains. Almost waterless during the dry season, but very cojiious in winter, these streams for the most part discharge into the coast lagoons. In fact, they do not communicate at once with the sea, from which they are separated by sandy strips several miles long, and the seaward channels themselves are often 214 MliXlCO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. sliifted by the tides and tempests. One of the largest streams on the Pacific side is the Suchiate, which forms the common frontier between Guatemahi and Mexico. A still more extensive basin is that of the Siimala, which flows from the Quezal- tenango and Totonicapam heights. The Iztacapa is a smaller river, although it receives the overflow of ]j ike Atitlan, not through a surface stream, but through underground flltrations across the scoriae covering the plain of San Lucas, on the southern bank. Lake Atitlan itself, which has an area of 6-5 square miles, develops an irregular crescent at an altitude of 5,140 feet, round the spurs of the Atitlan volcano, which rises on its southern margin, and which cre.ited the lake by damming up the fluvial vallej's. The waters thus jjent up by the accumulating beds of ashes and lavas gradually filled the vast Atitlan basin, which is said to have a depth of over 1,650 feet. The water, being continually renewed, thanks to the subterranean outflow, is perfectly fresh and limpid. Farther e;.-it the sm lUer Lake Amatitlan has been forme 1 under analogous conditions at an altitude of 4,000 feet. Here the waters have been graduall}^ dammed up by the lavas and scoriae deposited by the Pacaya volcjno on the south side of the lake. Formerly its busin was oven far more extensive than at present, and traces of its old level are still distinctl}^ visible at distances of several miles from the present margin. The water of Amatitlan, which exceeds 200 fathoms in depth, is as fresh a-3, but less pure than, that of Atitlan, and along the margin its temperature is raised by thermal springs. Nearly two hundred years ago .Thomas Gage ?poke of it as " somewhat brackish," adding that sdt was collected on irs shores. Such is no longer the case, its flavour being in no way affected by the slightly purgative salts of soda and magnesia which it contains in solution, though, they give rise to a strong odour during the dry season. It is probably fed by underground affluents, the few surface streams draiuinar to the basin being insufficient to create an emissary. The overflow is discharged south-eastwards to the Michato\'a, or " Fidi River," which escapes from the plateau through a deep gorge 600 or 700 feet below an escarpment of the Pacaya volcano. Farther on the affluent has a clear fall of 200 feet near San Pedro Martir, beyond which point it; loses itself in the coast lagoon? a little to the east of the port of San Jose. Amatitlan lies about midway between Atitlan and Ayarza (Ayarcesj, a third flooded depression at the southern foot of the Mataquezcuintla mountains, which here rise to a height of over 8,000 feet. But Ayarza already belongs to the San Salvador hydrographic system, draining through the Ostua t> the fluvial basin of the Rio Lempa, main ai-tery of the neighbouring state. On the Atlantic slope, also all the western and northern regions, at least one-half of the whole territory belongs to the Usumaeinta basin, which throughout its lower course flows through Sfexican territory'. The largest watercourse entirely comprised within the limits of Gruatcmala is the Motagua, which, like so many others in Spanish America, is called also the Rio Grande. It rises in the central mass of the Altos de Totoni- capam, where its headstrcams are intermingled with those of the Usumacinta. Farther oast it collects all the tori'ents descending from the main Guatemalan watcrparting, which in many i)laces is contracted to a narrow ridge furrowed on EIVEES OF GUATEMALA. 215 both sides by deep ravines. But the Motagua flows, not through one of these eroded vallej's, but through an older fissure belonging to the original structure of the land. After its confluence with the copious affluent from the Esquipulas and Chiquimula, the Motagua becomes navigable for small craft. From this point it follows a north-easterly course, skirted on both sides by picturesque wooded heights all the way to its mouth in Honduras Bay. During the floods it is a broid and deep stream, navigable for over 100 miles in a total length of 300 miles. But the approach is obstructed by a bar at the mouth of the chief branch in the delta, which has usually scaixely more than thres feet of water. The other branches are also inaccessible to vessels of large draught, and the whole of the low- lying alluvial tract is a region of swamps and backwaters fringed with mangroves, almost as dangerous to approach from the land as from the sea. So unhealthy is the district that the inlet enclosed by the long promontorj' of Tres Puntas, pro- jecting north-west towards Amatique Buy, is called Hospital BaJ^ This inlet is connected with the main stream by a partly artificial channel ; but the true port of the fluvial basin lies, not in the delta, but immediately beyond it at the foot of the last spurs of the Sierra del Mico. Here is St. Thomas's Bay, the best haven along the whole Atlantic seaboard of Central America. After rounding a dangerous sandbank large vessels penetrate through a narrow channel into a circular basin enclosed by an amphitheatre of wooded hills. Here is ample space for hundreds of ships in a perfectly sheltered sheet of water with a superficial area of six square miles and depths ranging from 14 to 30 feet. Like that of Motagua, the Polochic basin is entirelj' comprised within Guatemalan territory. Although a smaller stream, it is navigable by flat- bottomed boats for about an equal distance from its mouth. Rising in the Cohan mountains, which here form the divide towards the Usumacinta valley, the Polochic flows almost due east to its junction with the Cahabon, which descends from the Sierra de Chama to its left bank below Teleman. Like the Motagua it ramifies through several arms at, its mouth, where numerous shoals bar all access except to light flat-bottomed craft. The delta, however, lies not on the Atlantic, but on an inland sea known as the Golfo Dulce or Izabal Lagoon. This "golfo " certainly appears to be a lacustrine basin rather than a marine inlet, for it has not the slightest trace of salt, and during the floods its level rises about 40 inches. It has a mean depth of from 35 to 40 feet, and as it has an area of over '2o0 miles, it might easily accommodate all the navies of the world but for the shallow channel through which it communicates with the sea. Towards its north-east extremity the current, elsewhere imperceptible, begins to be felt ; its banks, here low and swampy, gradually converge, and the Golfo Dulce becomes the Rio Dulce, whose depth falls in some places to ten or twelve feet. Lower down the water grows more and more brackish, and the Rio Dulce enters another basin, whose saline properties betray its marine origin. Below the Golfete or " Little Gulf," as this basin is called, the banks again grow higher, developing cliffs and escarpments, where the lianas, twining round the branches of great forest trees, fall in festoons down to the stream. During ebb-tide the water 21 G MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. flows in :i swift current seawards through a rocky gorge about 600 feet deep, but with scareeh- six feet at the bar. From this bar to the Polochic delta there is a clear waterway of about GO miles navigable by schooners. North of the Golfo Dulce and its sti-aits the only important river is the Sar.stun, whose lower course has been chosen as the frontier towards British Honduras. Farther north the quadrilateral space comprised between Tabasco, Yucatan and Belize is drained partly by the Usumxcinti, and partly by the Bios Mopnn and Hondo, leaving only a few lakes dotted over the northern savannas with no outflow. The largest of these is Lake Itzal, so named from the Itzas, a Yucatan nation which took refuge on its shores in the fifteenth century. It is Fig. 02. — Golfo Dulce and the Lowek JIoiAGri Scale I : l,7r'0 '"^"l. iJepLQS. 10 to .iO Fathoms. 50 Fatlioms and upwards, CO .Miles. also called Peten, or the " Island," from an isolated hill where the immigrants founded their first settlement. Peten has the form of an irregular crescent, with its convex side facing north-westwards, and is divided into two basins by a peninsula projecting from its south side. Enclosed between low limestone banks, the lake rises several yards during the rains, while in some places it has a normal depth of over 180 feet. Some of the creeks, however, are shallow enough to develop a rich growth of waterlilies, whose seeds in times of scarcity are ground and kneaded to a sort of bread which is astringent but little nutritive. Peten is at present a closed basin, but other lacustrine depressions scattered over the savannas appear to have formerly connected it on one side with the San Pedro affluent of the Usumacinta, on the other with the Rio Hondo, which flows to Honduras Bay. GUATEMALA. 217 Climate, Fi.nitA, Faixa. Tlie distribution of the climates in vertical zones of temperature is far more clearly marked in the southern parts of Guatemala than in Mexico itself. The regular ramjDart of mountains which dominate the Guatemalan seaboard presents almost exactly the same geographical conditions throughout its whole extent, and here the zones of hot, temperate, and cold lands follow uniformly from base to summit, each indicated by its special types of vegetation. Above the cold zone coinciding with the edge of the plateau there is even distinguished a " frozen zone," that of the higher summits snow-clad for a short period of the year. This highest zone is uninhabitable, and the same might almost be said of the lowest, especially for European settlers. Here the mean temperature varies from 77° to 82° Fahr., while the glass often rises even to 10i°. The two intermediate temperate and cold zones, the former suitable for the cultivation of the banana, sugar-cane, and coffee, the latter for cereals and European fruits, comprise by far the greater part of the Guatemalan territory, and here the populations of European or mixed origin can be acclimatised. The temperate zone especially, which lies mainly between the altitudes of 1,600 and 5,000 feet, occupies a collective area of considerable extent. In other words Guatemala is_, relativelj' speaking, far more favourably situated than Mexico for the cultivation of economic plants. Its ch;iracteristic growth is the banana, the alimentary plant in a pie- eminent sense, which here flourishes throughout the whole of the temperate zone. Lying, like Mexico, within the range of the trade winds, Guatemala is exposed especially to the north-east currents, which pass between the cones of the volcanoes down to the Pacific seaboard. But these regular currents are frequentlj' deflected from their normal course, and then the fierce iioiies sweep from the uplands down to the low-lj'ing valleys. The rainfall is verj' unevenly distributed over the different regions of Guatemala. The Atlantic slope is natural!}' the most abundantly watered, the prevailing wind being charged with the vapours from the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. " It rains thirteen months in the year," say the inhabitants of Izabal. But the Pacific seaboard has also its share of humidity, and here the temperate lands more especially receive copious downpours. Here the wet season lasts .six or even seven months, with a short interrui^tion in the month of August, due to the fact that the cortege of clouds has followed the sun farther north towards the Tropic of Cancer. Even during the dry season few months pass without some rain, the effect of which on the growth of vegetation is magical on these rich volcanic lands. Fogs also are by no means rare at this period, and contribute to support plant life. The mean rainfall has been recorded only for the capital, where it amounts to 54 inches On the lower slopes of the temperate zone it certainly exceeds SO inches, while on the Quezaltenango Altos it must fall short of 20 inches. In its natural history Guatemala resembles the conterminous j)rovinces of 218 MEXICO, CEXTRAI. AMERICA, WEST INDIES. East Mexico — Chiapas, Tabasco, and Yucatan. In its forests are intcrnjingled various species of oaks and conifers, some of the latter growing to a heiglit of loO or 160 feet. In many regions the traveller might fancy himself transported to the pine-groves of the Landes in Gascony, or else to the Pomeranian woodlands. On the low-lying Pacific seaboard the bamboo grows in dense thickets to a height of 100 feet; these thickets, which wave in the breeze like tall cornfields, are traversed by narrow, gloomy galleries made by wild beasts. As in Tabasco the giant of the Guatemalan forests is the ceiha, or pyramidal bombax. In the neighbourhood of their settlements the Indians of the plateaux and escarpments generally clear a large space round the ceiba to give it ample room for the development of its wide-spreading branches and rear its majestic form more imposingly above the throng of worshippers at its feet. As in south Mexico the whole surface of the forest is interwoven with the coils of lianas gliding snake-like from tree to tree. In Vera Paz the enclosures are often formed by a species of arborescent thistle, which grows rapidly and interlaces its stems so as to form a compact greyish wall carpeted with mosses and ferns intermingled with the large foliage of the plant. The forests of the hot zones near Katalhulen, as well as those of the Polochic, have become famous for their magnificent orchids. Another remarkable Guatemalan jilant is well known to the Indians for the heat emitted by its efflorescence at the moment of fertilisation. Hence its rame of Jior de la cakiitura ("fever flower") given to it by the Spaniards. The tapir, peccary, and a few other mammals inhabit the Guatemalan forests, where, however, no special forms have been discovered except amongst the lower orders of animals. The alligator and some thirty species of fishes in Lake Peten were unknown before Morelet's expedition. Here also has been found a species of trigonocephalus, which completes the smes of these dangerous snakes between South Carolina and Guiana. Vera Paz is the earthlj' paradise of ornithologists ; here is still met the wonderful qiiezal, or " resplendent couroucou " [trogon. 2>nroriiin.<<, pliaromacnm paradmeus), a member of the gallinaceous faniil}', with an emerald-green silky plumage dashed with a golden lustre above, with a lovely purple hue below, and a tail fully three feet long. The Guatemalan republic has chosen this bird as the national emblem. Imiaiutants. The common Guatcmalo-Mexican frontier traverses regions whose populations on both sides have the same origin and speak the same languages. Thus the Ma j'as of Yucatan are found also in the Peten district ; east and west of the Usuraacinta the Lacandons have their camping grounds ; Chols, Tzendals, and Mames occupy the heights and slopes both of the Guatemalan Altos and of Soconusco. But central and east Guatemala are inhabited by ethnical groups distinct from thcis3 of the Mexican republic. Various attempts iiave been made to classify these heterogeneous populations according to tlicir afhuities, usages, and languages ; but IXHABITANTS OF GUATEMAL-V. 219 the work begun by Erinton, Stoll, and others is still far from complete, and meantime the tribes are dis;ippearing, and several languages spoken down to the present century are now extinct. East of the meridian of Lake Amatitlan, nearly Kg. 93 — Landscape nc Socth Guatemala— Bameoo Jungle. ^J^«fi* ! !s"*^«=^ *2S=^^ all the Indians have already become Ladinos, and no longer speak their priiniiive tongues. Nererthele-'ss, according to Stoll, as many as eighteen native languages were still current within the limits of the republic in 1883. The Aztecs, the dominant indigtnous element in .Anahuac. are represented in 220 IIEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Guatemala only by the single grouiD of the Pipils, -who dwell, not in the neigh- bourhood of the Mexican frontier as might have been supposed, but in the eastern provinces near others of the same race, settled in Salvador. At the time of the conquest the Pij^ils occupied a far more extensive territory than at present. But their domain has been gradually encroached upon, not only by Spanish, but also by the spread of other native- tongues, such as the Cakchiquel and Pokoman. At present the Pipil forms two separate enclaves, one at Salaraa and on both banks of the Motagiia (Rio Grande), the other at Escuintla and Cuajiniquilapa in the Guacalate and Michatoya basins. Some historians regard the Pijnls as a branch of the fugitive Toltecs who migrated southwards after the overthrow of their dominion by the Chichitnecs, and it is probable enough that such a migration may have taken place at some remote epoch. Juarros tells us that Pipil means " Children," and that the people were so called by the Mexicans because they were unable to speak the Nahuatl language correctly. But according to another interpretation the Pipils of Guatemala and of the other Central American republics represent the ancient Pipiltins, that is, the " superior " or " better," the nobler branch of the Aztec family. This name they are supposed to have themselves assumed when they settled amongst the less civilised populations south of Mexico. The great majority of the Guatemalan Indians belong to the same .stock as that of the Huaxtecs in the Vera Cruz uplands, and of the Mayas dominant in Yucatan. All the populations speaking various forms of the common language are collectively called Maya-Quiche, from the two most important members of the group, the Mayas of the Yucatan plains and the Quiches of the Guatemalan plateaux. Within the limits of the latter state the Mayas, properly so-culled, occupy an extensive territory, comprising the Petcn district and nearly the whole region bounded southwards by the Pasion and Mopan rivers. In this region the Maj'a nation is represented by the Itzas, one of the very purest members of the family. Thanks to their isolation in the petcii, or " island," of the great steppe lake, the Itzas were long able to preserve both their political independence and the puritj' of their race and national usages. The Lacandons, who dwell farther west, between Lake Peten and the Usumacinta river, are also a pure IMaya people, although frequently called " Caribs " by the Spaniards and even by the Mayas themselves. Like the Itzas, they have maintained their independence, and although admitting strangers into their country, they yield obedience to no one, and still regard them- selves as masters of the land. However, they are but a small group, scarcely numbering more than 4,000 or 5,000, according to the estimate of travellers who have visited them. They are described as an anicniic people, "flabby and soft," which should perhajjs be attributed to their mode of life passed entirely in the humid atmosphere of dense forests. The Mopans, who are met in scattered groups south of Lake Peten and in the upper valley of the Rio Mopan (Belize river), are also independent Mayas, although their language is said to differ from that of the Itzas and Lacandons. Their southern neighbours, the Chols, that is, " Men," who roam the steppe INHABITANTS OF GUATEMALA. 221 between tlio Usumacinta and the Golfo Dulce, belong to the same widespread Maya family. They were met on his expedition to Honduras by Fernan Cortes, who was able to converse with them through Dona Marina, she being acquainted ^^ ith the Chontal dialect. The Chols appear to have been one of the most civilised nations in the region now known as Guatemala, for in their territory are situated the fine ruins of Quirigua. But they are greatly reduced in numbers, and both people and language seem to be dying out. Owing to the former slave-raiding expeditions of the Spaniards, the whole Atlantic seaboard, from Yucatan to Xicaragua, is almost entirely destitute of a native Indian population. After the extermination of the Espanola and Cuban natives, and before their places could be supplied by negroes imported from Africa, the planters of those islands sought to recruit their gangs by introducing " Caribs," that is, Indians of all races, whether in the islands or on the mainland. These so-called Caribs were accused of cannibalism and of every other crime under the sun, and could consequently be enslaved with a free conscience. Man-hunting expeditions were im^dertaken, especially along the coast between Capes Catoche and Gracias-a-Dios ; these lands were completely depopulated in a very few decades, and when no more victims remained, the raiders had to ascend the rivers and lay waste their valleys in search of fresh captives. It is evident from Bemal Diaz' descriptions that at the time of Cortes' expedition to Honduras the shores of the Golfo Dulce were, in many places, lined with settlements and plantations. South of the Choi camping-grounds, which are still met in the upper valley of the Rio de la Pasion, the district about the headwaters of the Polochic is occupied by the Quekchi and Pokonchi, who form a special branch of the Maya family. Their territory was formerly known by the name of Teztdutlau, that is, " Land of War," because the Spaniards made frequent expeditions against the natives ; without, however, succeeding in reducing them. Their submission was, in fact, brought about by the celebrated Bishop of Chiapas, Bartholomew de las Casas, and the Dominican missionaries who soon acquired unlimited power over the people. Then the territory changed its name from " Land of War " to Vera Paz, "True Peace." But although they thus became the voluntary serfs of the Domi- nican friars, the Quekchi and Pokonchi were, after all, but outward converts, and their usages still recall those of pagan times. One of the chief indigenous nations is that of the Pokomans, in whose territory the present capital of the state has been founded. They are also one of the best- known Guatemalan tribes, for the Indians of the large settlement of Mixco, who suj)ply the capital with fuel and provisions, are all Pokomans. They are of Maya stock, and display the same remarkable power of passive resistance and tenacity as other branches of that race. They have gradually encroached on the Pipil domain, dividing that nation into two separate section; by conquering the region of the main Guatemalan waterparting. The (iuiches were, with the Aztecs and the Mayas, the most cultured inhabi- tants of Central America at the time of the conquest. At that epoch they were also a very numerous nation, the chronicles speaking of " several millions." They 222 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. are now greatl}' reduced, though still occupying nearly the same territory as when Alvarado first attempted to subdue them. In certain districts, notably in that of Totonicapam, they still energetically resist tbe intrusion of the Spanish tongue, which, how3ver, as the officiil language, c:innot fail, sooner or later, to prevail in the towns, if not in the rural districts. The Quiche linguistic domain comprises especially the region of the Quezaltenango and Totonicupam Altos; but it also extends north and north east towards the upper Usuinacinta and Motao-ua basins, while southwards it re iches the sea along the Pacitic slope of the main range. For over sixty miles it holds the seaboard south of Rstalulheu and Mazatenango. Quiche, the language of the old rulers of the land, is one of the few American idioms which possess, if not a literature, at least some original documents. The Popol- Vuh, or " Book of History," written by an unknown native soon after the conquest, to replace another national history which had been lost, possesses great value for the study of Central American myths and legends. It was translated into Spanish at the beginning of the eighteenth century by the Dominican friar, Xiraeues, and afterwards edited, with a French translation, by Brasseur de Bourbourg. Cakchiquel, which is spoken on the plateau from Solola to Chimaltenango and Antigua, that is, in the zone comprised between the Quiche and Pokoraan domains, is, like Quiche, also a literary language. Brasseur do Bourbourg has described a document containing the history of the Cakchiquel nation from the creation of the world, and in several passages harmonising with the Popol- Yah. Cakchiquel, Quiche, and Tzutujil, whieh last is spoken in a small enclave south of Lake Atit- lan, are described by Spanish grammarians as the " three metropolitan languages," because each was at one time a court idiom current in a royal residence. All closeh' resemble each other, while the Mem, or Mame, differs greatly from Quiche, although also belonging to the same linguistic stock. This language of " Stam- merers," as it was called by the Quiches and Cakchiquels, because of the difhculty they had in understanding it, prevails throughout all the western districts of Huehuetenango and San Marcos, as well as in the Mexican provinces of Soconusco and Chiapas; it forms a distinct group with Ixil, Aguacatan, and perhaps some other dialects spoken by the little-known tribes of the upper Usumacinta basin. Nearly all the native languages current within the limits of Guatemala belong to the Maya stock. Besides those already mentioned, almost the only other exception is the Carib, which still survives amongst the fishers a>\d woodmen, who are descended from the West Indian Caribs removed by the English to the main- land at the close of the last century. Stoll has endeavoured to draw up a genealogical tree of the Maya languages, which is intended to show the order of succession in which the various members branched off from the parent stem. The Huaxtecan of Vera Cruz would appear to have become first detached, and it has diverged all the more that to the modifications introduced by time have been added those derived from a totally different environment surrounded by popula- tions of totallj^ distinct speech and usages. Then the pircntstem split into the two great Jfaya and (Juiche divisions, the former subsequently throwing off the INIIARITANTS OP OUATEMALA. 223 Mexican branches (Tzcndul, Tzotzil and Choi), while Quiche ramified into the various Guatemalan subdivisions of Pokoman, Pokouchi, Cakchiquel and modern Quiche with Ixil and Mame. The pure Indians, who constitute over two- thirds of the whole population, differ little in their physical appearance, to whatever linguistic group thej- may belong. The Cakchiquels, who may be taken as typical Guatemalan Indians, are of average or low stature, but stoutly built, with clear eye, prominent cheekbones, large nose, firm mouth, black, lank hair, thick eyebrows, low forehead, somewhat depressed by the strap passed round the head to support their loads. They never grow grey, and preserve to old age their well-set dazzling white teeth and muscular frames, which never put on too much flesh. They are indefatigable walkers, and the women may be daily seen trudging to market, doing their three and a half miles an hour under loads of 90 to 110 pounds, with the baby perched on the hip. The Guatemalan Indians are much addicted to the practice of eating an edible earth of volcanic origin, of a j^ellowish-grey colour and strong smell, which is taken as an accompaniment or appetiser. Reference is alrec;"dy made to this habit in the Popol- Vuh. Christians going on pilgrimages also eat little earthen figures, which they obtain at the holy shrines, and which are supposed to heal all mala- dies. Gage was acquainted with two Creole ladies, who ate " handfuls of earth " to brighten the countenance. The natives age rapidly, doubtless owing to their extremely monotonous existence, unrelieved by any incidents which might stimu- late curiosity or afford food for reflection. After the age of thirty they have passed through all their experiences, and nothing further rt mains to be learned. Musical gatherings are greatly enjoyed ; the least pretext, such as the death of a child, which has become an angel in heaven, serves to get up festivities, to which everybody is invited. The natives, and especially the Mayas of Peten, have a delicate ear for music, and in this respect are said to be supe rior to the Spaniards. The Itzas sing in perfect tune, and even vary their parts with much originality ; according to Morelet their songs are lively and bright, very different from the plaintive melody of the Ladinos. The same traveller believed in the native origin of several musical instruments, such as the c/iiriiiu'i/a, somewhat like a clarionet, and the marimba, a series of vertical wooden tubes formed of uneven calabashes, which are disposed like those of a reed-pipe, pierced at the lower extremity and half shut by a thin membrane ; its notes are said to be more powerful than those of the piano. The marimba, however, is not an Indian but an African invention ; it is widely known in the Niger and Congo basins and as far south as Kaffraria. Its name is of liantu origin, and it was doubtless introduced into Central America by the African slaves. Although more fervent Catholics than the Ladinos, the Indians have none the less preserved the old religion under a new form. In many places dolls repre- senting the gods of their forefathers are hidden under the altars of the churches, and by this device both divinities are simultaneously worshipped. When kneeling before Saint Michael they light two tapers, one for the dragon, the other for the archangel. An old deity corresponds to each personage of the Christian religion, 224 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. the suu to God the Father, the moon to the Madonna, the stars to the tutelar saints. Most of the Indians think there are two gods, one of whom, the D/o-v de la Monttthd, " God of the Forest," attends specially to the aborigines, taking no notice either of the Ladinos or of the whites. He is often called Diuho dd Palo, " Lord of the Tree," because he dwells in the ceibas, and to the foot of these gigantic trees in the forest clearings are brought the firstfruits of the harvest Fig. 94. — Natite Populations op Gxiatemala. Scale 1 : 4,500,000. 9P' West oF Greenwict- CO Miles. and the chase. The earth also is wor.shipped, but feared as representing the prin- ciple of evil. In every village the natives are grouped in coiifradiux, or " brotherhoods," which are evidently organised on the model of the old Aztec calpuUL Each has its tutelar saint, who is feted with much pomp, the male and female " captains " collecting the money required for the costumes, mu-ic, tajjers and decorations. Sometimes this costly worship plunges the whole community into debt for months together, but the saint is only all the more highly esteemed. Mimetic dances represent mv-thological or historical dramas of Indian origin, TOPOGRAPHT OF GUATEilALA. 225 but since the arrival of the Spaniards more or less modified by tne addition of new legends. Thus in the " Moors' dance " the chief personages are Charlemagne and Tamerlane. There are also the " negroes' ball," and even the " dance of the conquest," the performers on these occasions -wearing wooden masks and fantastic garbs of leaves or herbage, and exciting themselves to a pitch of frenzy. Such is the passion and fury of these Bacchanalian dancers that one easily realises the ancient religious ceremonies, when the devotees fell on the palpitating bodies of the victims and devoured their flesh. Conscious of the strength derived from numbers, and even miadful of the evils brought on them by servitude, the Indians have kept aloof from the Ladinos, and have often taken advantage of the local revolutions to rise i:i revolt against their oppressors. In 1838, an Indian army, under Eafael Carrera, penetrated victoriously into the capital, proclaiming that they had been " raised up by the Virgin Mary to kill the whites, foreigners and heretics." But in their very triumphs they had to feel the ascendency of the more civilised Ladinos, with whom they are brought yearly more and more into contact. As the term "white" is sometimes applied to the Ladinos, who are all of mixed origiu, many of the rural populations are in the same way regarded as pure Indians though they also have a strain of foreign blood. On the plantations crossings continually take place between the ruling class and their serfs, and the black slaves originally introduced by the Dominican friars to cultivate their lands have also contributed to this mixture of races. Pure negroes can scarcely any longer be found in Guatemala, although their metre or less modified features may be recognised in whole pomdations. Topography. The Guatemalan population is grouped chiefly in the cold and temperate lands of the Pacific coast range. All towns of any importance are situated on the high grounds between the coastlands and the upper Motagua and Usumacinta valleys. Near the Mexican frontier the first town on the plateau is San Marcos, which lies in the cold zone on an eminence whence is commanded a wide prospect of the sur- rounding coffee plantations. On a neighbouring plain stands the native town of Sail Pedro Sacalepeqncs, whose inhabitants no longer speak Mame, the old language of West Guatemala. By a recent decree they have been declared Ladinos, which has the consequence of allowing them more freedom in the administration of their local affairs. The natural outlet of San Marcos and its plantations is the Ocas estuary some 50 miles towards the south-west. On this part of the coast the plains are vast low-lying savannas, often under water, dotted over with permanent lagoons and forest tracts. In April the traders and planters from Soconusco, in Z^Iexico, and from west Guatemala assemble at this place for the transaction of business. The Ocos estuary was Ions resarded as the frontier between Mexico and Guatemala. West of the port, which is open to foreign trade, the frontier station has been fixed at the village of Ayuila, a place of pilgrimage much fre- quented by the Soconusco Indians. VOL. XVII. Q 22G MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES- About 30 miles south-east of Siin Marcos, Quezaltenanrjo, second capital of tlie republic and chief town of the Altos, occupies an extensive space, 7,740 feet above the sea, on a hilly plateau south of which rises the still smoking Cerro Quemado. In 1838 this place was the capital of a state which comprised the three eastern provinces of Totonicapara, Quezaltenango, and Solola. The houses are built of lava blocks quarried at the foot of the volcano. The small industries are repre- sented by woollen and cotton weavers, dyers and leather-dressers. A speciality of the Quiche artisans is the preparation of gold-embroidered mantles, feather hats and the masks used by the natives in their dances, processions, and scenic per- Fig. 95. — The Axtos Region. Scale 1 : 1,100,000. •-^ -^^J- ~h>^' Jf^ .^f-J,-^ -I/rf^ ,Sf» ,p, 9r50' ' V e-it oh Greenwich . 18 Miles. formancos Probably from this feather industry the city took its Mexican name of Quezaltenango, which means " Green-Feather Town," not, as is often asserted, " Town of the Quezal Birds," a species which is not found in the district. In the capital of the Altos region reside most of the great landowners, whoso estates cover the Costa Guca slopes facing the P.icific ; here also dwell the traders and the moneylenders, who are the real masters of the land. They prefer this salubrious place to Rctalhuku, which, although lying much nearer to tbe zone of plantations, is one of the most unhealthy towns in Guatemala. Eetalhulcu, that is, the " Signal," stands at an elevation of not more than 1,360 feet, that is, in the very heart of the hot lands under a climate with a mean tem- perature of 82° to 84*^ Fahr. It is a very ancient market, probably founded by the Quiche kings to procure a sufficient supply of cacao and cotton. Cacao, which TOPOGEAPHY OF GUATEMALA. 227 was formerly the chief crop, has recently been replaced by coffee and the alimen- tary plants required by the hands employed on the plantations. Hence the neigh- bouring port of Champerico, which is connected by rail with Retalhuleu, now exports little except coffee. Being a hotbed of fever in the rainy season, «Champerieo is scarcely inhabited except in the dry period, and especially in April and Xo%ember, when the skippers, nearly all from the United States, come for their cargoes of coffee. Totonicapam stands on the same plateau as Quezaltenango, twelve mUes more to the north-east, but in a colder climate, at an altitude of 8,200 feet, that is, 460 higher than its neighbour and 660 higher than Mexico. Its inhabitants are chiefly Quiche Indians, who still mostly speak the national language, and who, so far from considering themselves inferior to the Ladinos, constitute, on the contrary, a sort of local aristocracy. Many, in fact, descend from the old " caciques " of Tlaxcala who accompanied Alvarado on his expedition, and who in return for their services received special class privileges together with exemption from taxation. The best dwellings in the town belong to these Tlaxcalans. Like the neighbouring capital, Totonicapam is an industrial centre, producing textiles, earthenware, furniture, guitars, marimbas, and other musical instruments. Sahraja, a few miles to the south-west, although now an obscure village, was at one time a place of some note. It was the first settlement founded by Alvarado in 1524, and its church, dedicated to the Virgin of Victory, became a famous place of pilgrimage. Afterwards most of its inhabitants removed to Quezaltenango. Between these two towns flows the Olintepec brook, called by the natives XiquigU, or " Bloody River," to comme- morate the day when it flowed with the blood of thousands of Quiches massacred by Alvarado in the decisive battle which made him master of the land. Another historic place is Santa Cruz Quiche, or simply Quiche, which still bears the name of the nation whose capital it was, but which is now almost exclusively inhabited by Ladinos. It stands at an altitude of 6,220 feet, about 25 miles north- east of Totonicapam on a plain of the temperate zone watered by the headstreams of the Rio Grande (Motagua). This plain is enclosed by deep barrancas separat- ing it from the terraces on which stood the monuments of Utatlnn, residence of the ancient Quiche kings. Surrounded by precipices over 1,300 feet high on the soiith side, the terrace of the Acropolis presents a nearly level surface for about a third of a mile in all directions, and is connected w^th the neighbouring heights by a precipitous track which was formerly defended by strong fortresses. The palace of Utatlan, said by the chroniclers to have rivalled that of Montezuma in size, was spacious enough to contain a whole population of women, servants and soldiers ; the school contained over 5,000 children educated at the charge of the sovereign, and when this potentate mustered his forces on the terrace to oppose the advance of the Spaniards, he is said to have passed in review as many as 72,000 combatants. The pyramid known as the Sacrificatorio still presents a somewhat regular contour, and preserves the traces of steps. Beyond the citadel, the slopes of the hiUs, the surrounding heights and plains are strewn for a vas!^ space with the ruins of edifices now for the most part overgrown with vegetation. The excava- y2 228 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. tions made at various times have brought to light statues, bas-reliefs, and much decorative work. South-eastwards on the verge of the plateau stands the healthy town of San Toiiins Chichicadenango, which is still inhabited by the descendants of the ancient Quiche nobility : it was here that the Dominican, Xinienez, made the lucky find of the Popol-Vuh, or "Book of Myths." West of Quiche, the chief headstreams of the Motagua intermingle with those of the Usumacinta, in the department of Huehuetenango, one of the most sparsely peopled in the republic. IIiiehHctcnango {Guegucfenango), that is, " City of the Ancients," has also replaced an old Indian town, Zakuica, ov "White Earth," which is said to have been the capital of the Mame nation. The modern town lies in tha temperate zone, and in a fertile district yielding both European aad tropical fruits, and watered by a stream descending from the north-west to the Grijalva. In the neighbourhood is the flourishing town of Chiantin, whose convent, enriched by the offerings of multitudes of pilgrims, was formerly one of the wealthiest in the New World. Argentiferous lead-mines, now no longer worked, also contributed to the opulence of the Dominican friars of this district. On the upper Chixoy, which is the m liu headstream of the Usumacinta, the only town is the Quiche settlement of Sacapu/as, which crowns an eminence 3,840 feet high, on the right bank, a short distance below the Rio Negro and Rio Blanco confluence. Immediately below the town numerous thermal springs flow directly from the granite cliffs, at temperatures varying from 104° to 158° Fahr. They are both saline and bitter, somewhat like seawater in taste, which is due to the simultaneous presence of sodium chloride and sulphate of magnesia. Other springs flowing farther east, although less saline, are more utilised by the natives in the preparation of salt. The chief salt pan is at present that of Mngdalenci, about ten miles north-west of Sacapulas, beyond some steep intervening cliffs. Here two copious streams, one yielding over twenty gallons a second, and contain- ing four per cent, of pure salt, flow from the foot of a hill, which was formerly forest- clad, but which, since the opening of the works, has become completely treeless. Sulamn, capital of the department of Baja Vera Paz, is also situated in the upper Usumacinta basin, on an eastern tributary of the Chixoy, 2,865 feet above sea-level, consequently quite within the tropical zone. San Gcronhno, an old Dominican establishment a few miles east of Salama, has become the centre of a flourishing sugar plantation, the produce of which is exported far and wide, despite the difficult communications. This Vera Paz region, which, for several years after the arrival of the Spaniards was known as the " Land of War," contains numerous ruins of large cities, now overgrown with rank vegetation. Purblo Viejo, or the " Old Town," which stands on the slopes above Sm Geronitno, occupies the site of the ancient Xtibabal. Rahinal lies farther west on an affluent of the Chixoy, surrounded by banana, orange, and sugar plantations, in a district dotted over with numerous old sejiulchral mounds. Northwards are seen the ruins of a fortress, and about six miles to the north-west the remains of Nim- Pokom, formerly a capital of the Pokoman nation, and traditionally said to have TOPOGEAPHY OF GUATEiL\LA. 229 contaiaed 100,000 iuhabitants. The ruius occupy a considerable space on tbe crest of a hill ; but the Pokoman language has been driven farther east by Quiche, the idiom of the people who, before the arrival of the Spaniards, had gradually acquired the political ascendency. Nearly all the summits in the Eabinal district are crowned with ancient strongholds, now overgrown by a luxuriant vegetation, while the Pakalah valley, facing the confluence of the Rabinal and Chixoy rivers, is occupied by the temples, palaces, and citadels of Cahuinal, form- ing the finest group of ruins in Tera Paz. The towns situated on the plateaux and heights to the east of Quezaltenango and Totonicapam, although still standing at a great elevation above the sea, are not regarded as belonging to the region of the Altos. Solola, which has given Fig. 96. — Solola axd Lake Atitlax. -i^^ ^ --r^/- ' ' ~_^ its name to one of the departments of the republic, lies at an elevation of 7,000 feet on a terrace terminating towards Lake Atitlan in a rocky peak which rises to a height of nearly 2,000 feet. Two deep ravines on the right and left sides give to the terrace the aspect of a superb promontory, entirely detached from the rest of the plateau except on the north side. Beyond the last houses of Solola is seen the rampart of walls and huge blocks piled up and cemented with an argillaceous mortar without apparent tenacity. Thus the vast ruin seems as if about to fall with a crash into the blue lake, which is enclosed on the north by steep cliffs, on the south by gently-sloping green banks, rising in a succession of graceful curves towards the Atitlan volcano. A path cut at sharp angles in the tufas and rocks of the escarpment leads from Solola to the margin of the lake, and to the village of Paiiajachef, whose name is sometimes extended to the basin 230 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. itse'f. Solola, ancieut capital of the Cakchiquels, and still iuhabited by the descendants of these proud and industrious Indians, bears also the name of Tecpan- Atitlati, or " Communal Palace of Atitlan," in contradistinction to the Afiilan of the Ladinos. This place lies on the opposite or south side of the lake, and was formerly capital of the Tzutujil nation, whose language still survives in the district. An easy pass, lying between the Atitlan and San Pedro volcanoes, leads down to the rich plantations of Costa Grande, which cover the lower slopes of the mountains. But Tecojate, the nearest seaport, being too dangerous for shipping, the produce is mostly exported through Champerico. A road partly accessible to wheeled traffic runs from the shores of Lake Atitlan through Mazntenango to Ectalhuleii. The coffee grown in the Mazatenango district is one of the most appreciated in the European market. On the lofty piLite lus separating the basin of Lake Atitlan from that of the Rio Mofagua are seen the remains of one of the numerous cities which bore the name of Quauldeinalan, or Guatemala, a name afterwards extended to the whole region. The city, which was the capital of the Cakchiquels, and which they called Iximche, has a circumference of " three leagues." It stood on a terrace encircled on all sides by precipices, and accessible onlj^ by one approach, whose two gateways were each closed by a single block of obsidian. The Spanish conqueror Alvarado made it his residence in 152-i, and gave it the name of Santiago. A second Guatemala, standing on a terrace near the Iximche plateau, is distinguished by the epithet of Tecpan-Gantcmala, or " Communal Palace of Guatemala." About eighteen miles farther east, on a terrace overlooking the Motagua valley, are seen the still more famous ruins of Mixco. Cliiinaltenango is at present the capital of the department of like name, a region roughly coinciding with the ancient domain of the Cakchiquels. It stands at a height of about 6,000 feet exactly on the waterparting between the Atlantic and Pacific near the northern extremity of the chain of volcanoes which terminates southwards in the Fuego peak. For trading purposes, it lies in the zone served by the railway which runs from Guatemala to Escuintla and San Jose. Between Chimaltenango and Guatemala, but nearer to the latter place, is situated the present Indian village of Mixco, to which were removed the captives taken at the surrender of the old city of this name. The first Guatemala of Spanish foundation, which succeeded the two others of Cakchiquel origin, is the place now known as Ciudad Vieja, or " Old Town." It was founded in 1527 by Alvarado, in the picturesque Admolonga valley on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, which flows through the Guacalate to the Pacific. It would have been difficult to choose a more delightful situation with a more equable and milder climate, a more fertile and better-watered soil, or more romantic scenery, than this upland valley between the Fuego and Agua volcanoes. Yet the city lasted only seventeen years. In 1541, after long rains, the edge of the flooded crater of Mount Agua, dominating the rising town, suddenly gave way, and nearly all the inhabitants, amongst whom was Alvarado's wife, Dona Bcatriz Sin Ventura, the "Hapless," were either drowned or crushed beneath the TOPOGEAi^liY OF GUATE.MALA. 281 ruins. Nothing remained except a magnificent tree, under whose shade the Spaniards had assembled before the building of the city. Ilts site is at present occupied by a few little houses lost amid the surrounding plantations. To avoid another such disaster — which, however, could not have been repeated in the same ■way — it was decided to remove the town farther north, and in 1542 Alvarado supervised the foundation of a second capital — Santiago de hs Caballeros la Nueva, the " new," but now called Antigua, the " ancient," to distinguish it from the modern Guatemala. The city flourished to such an extent that in a few j^ears it became the most populous place in Central America, and this despite a succession. Fig. 97. — SircCESsrTE Dispiacesients of Guateiuxa. Scale 1 : 750,000- k-:: , 3 0"- '%^&^ t'#;^;^.-^" v5i^^''«? 91° 90'-ir)- WcsloFGr 12 Miles. of storms, floods, earthquakes, and epidemic*. Its inhabitants, remarked Gage, dwell between " two mountains which hold their ruin in suspense : the Agua volcano threatens them with the deluge, and Fuego opens to them one of hell's gates." The people had many a time made every preparation for flight, and then, the danger over, had done nothing but repair their dwellings, when nearly all the buildings were overthrown by the terrific earthquakes of 1773. At last it was decided to select a third site for the capital, and choice was made of the hamlet of Ermita on the elevated Las Vacas plateau, about 25 miles farther to the north-east. The work of reconstruction began immediately after the disaster that had overtaken Antigua, but the official transfer was not made till the vear 1779. The first house of Guatemahi, the hacienda de la Virffen, still exists, aud is pointed out to strangers as a historic monument. Nevertheless, 232 MEXICO, CEXTE.VL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Antigua was never completely abandoned, and it now ranks for size as tlie fiflli city of the republic. The population even continues to increase, its thermal waters attract numerous invalids, the inhabitants of Guatemala have their country resi- dences hei'e, and many of the demolished structures have been rebuilt. This third Guatemala, at present the largest city of Central America, lies on a gentle slope in a depression of the plateau about 5,000 feet above the sea on the divide between the two oceans. Guatemala is dominated by a little porjjhj'ry eminence, the Cerro del Carmen, where stands the old hermitage, whence the place takes the nams of Ermita still in use amongst the Cakchiquels. From this knoll a view is commanded of the whole city, which covers a considerable space. The surrounding landscape is unattractive owing to the absence of trees on the scrubby watershed of Las Vacas, or the " Cows," which throughout the Spanish occupation has been used as a cattle ranche. But the vast panorama stretching bej'ond this district, and limited southwards bj' the two lofty volcanic cones, presents a superb prospect : no other capital occupies a more marked central and commanding position over the region sloping in all directions at its feet. Guatemala, which is laid out with the perfect regularity of a model city, presents in the interior a somewhat monotonous aspect. According to the original municipal regulations, inspired by the memor}' of the disasters that had overtaken Antigua, the builders were for- bidden to erect any houses exceeding 20 feet in height, and although this law is no longer observed, the churches having here as elsewhere their domes and belfries, most of the structures are very low, gaining horizontally what they lose vertic ill\'. Hence the population is somewhat scattered, except in the suburbs, where every narrow cabin is occupied by an Indian family. Tcjwards the middle of the century, when it was scarcely half its present size, travellers were wont to compare Guate- mala to a city of tombstones. Formerly all the large buildings were convents or churches. Now the Jesuits' establishment has been transformed to a national iastitution with an observatory. The city also possesses a polytechnic and other schools, learned societies, libraries and a museum. But the industries only suffice to supply the local wants, and provisions are mostly brought from the surrounding villages and plantations on the Pacific slope. Water is also brought from a con- siderable distance by the two aqueducts of Mixco and Pinula. On the plateau itself, covered with volcanic scoriae in some places to the depth of 600 or 700 feet, the rain water is rapidly absorbed, reappearing lower down in remote valleys. But to this very circumstance, preventing the accumulation of stagnant waters, Guatemala probably owes its complete immunity from the ravages of typhus. Still the place is not very healthy, and all maladies affecting the respiratory organs are aggravated by the clouds of dust raised by every breeze from the loose igneous soil. Hence most of the well-to-do citizens remove during the dry season to some umbrageous ru,ral retreat : the most fashionable places at present are the towns and villages situated farther south in the neighbourhood of Antigua. The railway descending from Guatemala towards the Pacific branches off from the valley of Antigua southwards in the direction of Lake Amatitlan, which it skirts on the west side. The town of Aitiatiflan, situated on the lake at the outlet muMWimmmth TOrOGEAPUY OF GUATEMALA. 283 of the Rio Michatoya, was formerly a large hacienda belonging to the Dominican friars, whose estate has become a vast plantation. During the flourishing days of the cochineal industry Amatitlan was a large place, with a population of 13,000 in 1865. But the ruin of the old dyeing processes was fatal to the prosperity of the district. Eiscuiiitla, the ancient Ifzruintlan of the Nahuas, is the chief station between Amatitlan and the sea. This place, which before the Spanish conquest was a capital of the Pipil nation, lies quite within the hot zone at an altitude of not more than 1,450 feet above sea level. The well- watered volcanic district dominated by the Agua volcano is covered with an exuberant tropical vegetation, and before Fig. 98. — Thicklt-Inh^vbited Region of G-uatem-ila. Scale 1 : 3,500,UOU. ^3.?^,^-^ ."^^ - 4^ > ^^^n"^ ,5 Re's TO- ^ / .'- -^^ yjiy-sifr'SflMi^' "'rw- '- *^ 16' We t or (jr n 60 Miles. the opening of the railway the wealthy citizens of Guatemala usually resorted during the winter months from December to February to Escuintla, which enjoys a milder climate than that of the plateaux. But its reputation as a rural retreat has beL'n impaired by the occasional outbursts of malignant fevers. In the same climatic and vegetable zone, and some 25 miles farther west, lies the large town of Santa Lucia Cozioiial/iKapa, which has become famous for the discovery of statues and curious bas-reliefs representing the '"King of the Vultures" [sarcoramphus })apii), in which the local Nahua artists display a talent at least equal to that of the Aztec and Maya sculptors. 8an Jose, terminal station of the railway on the Pacific, boasts of an ii-on pier projecting 1,000 feet seawards and provided with 234 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. rails and cranes for the convenience of barges in connection with the shipping which has to ride at anchor over half a mile from the port. The department of Santa Rosa, conterminous on the east with Amatitlan and Escuintla, has no large towns ; its only trading station is CuaJiniqHiliijjd, which lies on the highway from San Salvador on the west side of the deep valley of the Rio de los Esclavos, so called from the " Slaves," that is, the Sinca people occupying its banks. The broad stream is here crossed by an eleven-arched brido-e, built in the seventeenth century by the Spaniards, and regarded as the finest monument of Central America. At the south-east extremity of the republic stretches the pastoral and agricultural department of Jutiapa, with chief town of like name. This region is yearly increasing in importance for its exports of live stock, indigo, and other produce to the neighbouring state. A few other centres of population have assumed a somewhat urban aspect in the eastern districts of Guatemala comprised within the Motagua basin. Such is Jalapa, which stands at an altitude of 5,600 feet in an upland valley of great fertility. The town of E'fqiiipiilas, also on an affluent of the Motagua, but near a pass leading down to the sources of the Lempa in San Salvador, is for the greater part of the year almost deserted, except by a scattered community of about 2,000 Indians. But on January 15th, feast of Nuestro Sefior de Esquipulas, a vast crowd throngs the streets and squares lined with temporary huts. The sick and afflicted bend the knee before a black effigy of Christ, with votive offerings of silver, carved wooden objects, feather and straw work. "With the religious feast is combined a fair, which down to the middle of the century, before the construction of the Panama railway, was frequented by pilgrim traders from Guatemala, Salvador, and even Mexico. As many as 80,000 persons, we are told by Juarros, were at times assembled on the plain of Esquipulas. Near the town stands one of the most magnificent churches in Central America. In a neighbouring southern valley are worked the Alotepeque silver mines, the most productive in the state. On the stream flowing from Esquipulas northwards to the Rio Motagua lie the towns of Chiqiiimala and Zacnpn, both capitals of departments of like name, and destined to acquire considerable importance in the future development of the country. They stand on the route to be followed by one of the projected railways between Guatemala and Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic. About midway between the two the Copan River joins that of Esquipulas after watering the plains of Comotan and Jocofan, formerly centres of the cochineal and indigo industries, now surrounded by rich tobacco plantations. About six miles below Zacaj)a the united streams fall into the Rio ^Motagua, which a little farther down becomes navigable for steamers, the heads of navigation being Gttalan during the floods and Barhasco in the dry season. In the forests of the Sierra del Mico north-east of the latter place, the site of an Indian city, whose very name has perished, is indicated by numerous pyramids and some fine ruins, especially carved monoliths, covered with hieroglyphics, human figures, turtles, armadillos and other animals. This group of monuments takes at present the name of Qairiijua, from a village five miles off. In 1839, when Stephens and Catherwood began their archaeological TOPOGRAPHY OF GUATEMALA. 235 exploration of Central America, the very existence of these ruins was unknown, and travellers passed within a few miles of the place without hearing of them. At that time nothing was known of any abandoned Indian city in this district except Copan, which lay just hevond the Guatemalan frontier towards the source of the Cumotan. According to StoU, the Quirigua remains strike the spectator especially for their remarkable state of preservation, although not built of particu- larly hard materials and exposed to a destructive climate at once very damp and very hot ; moreover, the inundations of the Motagua occasionally reach the site of the ruins, and furrow the surface with ravines. Hence he infers that the monuments cannot date from any remote period, and perhaps were even in a perfect condition when the Spaniards made their appearance in the country. The slave-hunters, who wasted the land in quest of labourers for the Cuban and St. Domingo plantations, may have been the destroyers of these Indian cities, although ilaudilay thinks they must have already been in ruins at the time of Cortes' expedition. Being everywhere in search of provisions for his starving followers, the conqueror would certainly have applied to Quirigua for succour had such a large city been in existence at that time. The ruins of Chapuko, which are said to lie on the south side of the Motagua valley over against Quirigua, have not yet been explored. Paved causeways and sepulchral mounds occur here and there in the surrounding forests. The present route from Guatemala to the Atlintic diverges from the Motagua valley at Barbasco, and after crossing the Mico range a little to the east of Quirigua, leads down to Izabal, an unhealthy place on the south side of the Golfo Dulce. Under the Spanish rule this port, which has the immense advantage of Ijing some 60 miles inland, but which is inaccessible to vessels of deep draught, ■was unable to develop any trade, owing to the corsairs at that time infesting the surrounding waters. But after the declaration of independence, Izabal almost entirely monopolised the foreign trade of Guatemala, such as it was. Then the discovery of the Californian goldfields, and the establishment of regular lines of steamers between Panama and San Francisco, had the result of diverting the whole life of Guatemala from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboard. Thus Izabal found itself abandoned, and its silent streets are now overgrown with the sensitive mimosa. But the improvement of the communications, and peojjling, or rather repeopling of the land facing the Atlantic, cannot fail to revive and even increase the trade of Izabal. At the mouth ol the Piio Dulce, on the Gulf of Amatique, stands the seaport of Liriiicjston, so named in honour of a jurist who drew up the legal code of Guate- mala. The first colonists settled herein 1806, and the place is at present inhabited by Caribs, agriculturists, fishers, and seafarers, who carry on a coasting trade with Belize and Honduras. Livingston has recently been declared a free port, and is already much frequented by American skippers, who here ship bananas and other fruits in exchange for spirits. This port is the third in Guatemala, ranking next in importance to San Jose and Champerico. On the east bank of the neighbouring Rio Dulce, and near the present village 23G MEXICO, CENTRAL AJ^IERICA, WEST INDIES. of San Gil, stood the great citj' of Nifo, which was cai)tured by Cortes' lieutenant, Olid, and which he wished to make the cajjital of an independent state. The eastern headland, at the issue of the Rio Dulce on the margin of the lake, is crowned by the citadel of Sun Felipe, one of the most unhealthj' places on the seaboard. It has accordingly been chosen by the Government as a state prison. Cohan, capital of Alta Vera Paz, stands 4,380 feet above the sea in the healthiest and one of the most fertile districts of Guatemala. It is a flourishing place, with an increasing population of over 18,000, mostly industrious Quekchi Indians, who raise considerable crops of miize and beans. Coffee, cinchona, and the wax plant {myrica cerifera) are also successfully cultivated. The neighbouring rocks are pierced by numerous caves, and the whole region may be said to rest on limestone vaults, the most remarkable of which is that of Sau 99. — Lake Peten. Scale 1 : 720,000. r , EI Remate Maca'nche* , °° /.'AA/o^ 30"io- VVest oF breenwpch 89'dO- 12 Miles. Agostin Langnin, where a little affluent of the Polochic has its source. A good carriage-road running south-east and east through the villages of Tactic, Tamahu, Tucunt, and Tcleman, leads to the riverain port of I'aiizos, where the local produce is forwarded by a small steamer down the Polochic to the Golfo Dulce. No trace now remains of the Nueva Seiilla, founded in 1544 near the mouth of the Polochic ; but in 1825 the English established in the district the colony of Ahbotsville {Boca Nueva), which was not more successful than its Spanish predecessor. Lihertad, capital of the department of Peten, better known \>\ its Indian name of Sacluc, lies on an affluent of the Pasion, a main branch of the Usumacinta. The few inhabitants of the surrounding savannas are occupied chiefly in stock- breeding. Excellent pasturage is afforded by the whole of this lake-studded i-egion stretching northwards in the direction of Yucatan. An island in the TOPOGRAPHT OF GUATEMALA. 237 neighbouring Lake Peten is occupied by the ancient city of Tayasal, now re-named Flores in honour of a victim of the civil war of 1826. A steep road leads from the place to the crest of a hill, whence a fine prosj^ect is commanded of the islands, headlands, wooded heights, and blue waters of the lake. On the opposite shore are seen the two large Indian settlements of San Andres and San Jose dis- posed along the slopes of the encircling hills. The whole territorj- of Peten is Pig. 100. — Density of the Popuiatiox in Guatemala. Scale 1 : 4,500.000. Inhabitan'* to llie Square MUe Oto2. 2 to 20. 20 to 40. 40 to 60. 60 to 100. 100 and upwards. • Towns of over 25,000 inhibitants. . 60 Miles. surprisingly fertile, maize yielding two hundredfold without manure, while the cacao, coffee, tobacco, and vanilla of the surrounding plantations are of the best qualit}'. The fishes inhabiting the lake are said to be all of distinct species. According to the legend they were formerly of larger size than at present, being fed in pre-Columbian times on the bodies of the dead. Of the ruined cities that are scattered over the clearings north of the lake, in the direction of Yucatan, Ti/ciil alone has been explored. It lies 20 miles to the north-cast of Peten, and is noted 238 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. for its lofty verdure-clad pyramid, the most majestic Maya structure seen by Maiulslay during kis explorations of Central America. Here BernouilU found about a dozen hieroglyphical tablets of sapota wood, which are now preserved in the Museum of Basle Economic Coxdition of Guatemala. The population of Guatemala is steadily increasing almost exclusively by the natural excess of births over the mortality. Foreign immigration is so slight that not more than 2,000 strangers are settled in the republic. Of these the most numerous are the "Tiroleses," a term applied generally to all North Italians, whose industrious habits have earned for them the contempt of the Indians, hitherto accustomed to regard their white masters as a superior race above the necessity of manual labour. Since 1778 the jjopulation has grown from 260,000 to 1,450,000, and the increase has been uniform in all the departments, except in some of the northern districts on the Atlantic coast. At the same time illegitimacy is exces- sive, especially amongst the Ladinos, or "civilised" Indians, nearly one-half of whom are returned as born out of wedlock. With the exception of wheat grown with potatoes on the Altos (uplands), the agricultural produce amply suffices for the local demand. Like those of Mexico, the Indians of the temperate zone live almost exclusively on maize, beans, and bananas ; even fasajo, or jerked meat, is a rare delicacy, and pork is eaten only on feast-days. Water is their usual drink, except on pay-day, when they get drunk on a fiery brandy here bearing the Peruvian name of " chicha," or on other fermented liquors such as tiste and jmnqne, which, like the povola of Tabasco, is food and drink combined. When Guatemala proclaimed her independence, next to nothing was raised for the foreign markets ; but cochineal, for which the country is as well suited as Oaxaca itself, soon became a lucrative industry, especially in the Amatitlan and neigh- bouring districts. The export rose from 16,000 pounds in 1827 to nearl}' 2,250,000 in the middle of the century. But the cochineal industry was ruined by the dis- covery of dyes extracted from coal, and nopal-fields are now rarely seen. They have been replaced by coffee, which'is now the staple of the export trade. In the districts where it is cultivated — Boca Costa, between Retalhuleu and Escuiutla, Antigua, Petapa, Amatitlan — the shrub thrives in the shade of leafy trees from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea, and on open plantations up to 4,000 and even 5,000 feet. The Guatemalan coffee is highly esteemed, and the plant has hitherto escaped the ravages of parasites. The crop of 1890, yielded by over 50,000,000 shrubs, was estimated at 30,000 tons, worth £3,000,000. The temperate zone is also suited for sugar- growing, although, for want of capital, Guatemala is unable to compete with the wealthy planters of Cuba, Louis- iana, and Brazil. Nevertheless, from 5,000 to 6,000 tons are raised in the Costa Cuca and Costa Grande districts, for the local wants and for the production of rum. But distillers are so heavily taxed that little profit is made, except by smugglers. The cultivation of cacao {theobroma) has been almost abandoned, although the ECONOMIC COXDinON OF GUATEMALA. 239 local varieties are of exquisite flavour. During the Spanish rule the cacao of West Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved for the Court of Madi-id ; now it is no longer exported, though it commands a higher price in the country than th& best varieties exported to Europe. Indigo, formerly raised in the Retalhulcu district, is. also now neglected, hut, being a vigorous plant, it continues to grow wild, and in many places has invaded the sugar and other plantations. Cotton is scarcely Pig. 101. — Chief PEODtrcis of Guatehaia. Scale 1 : i-SOXOOO. West o'^ Greenes ;ch W llilM. cultivated, except by the Indians of the hot zone. The competition of foreign importers has also nearly ruined the native weavers. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to introduce caoutchouc {castilloa elasfica) into the temperate zone, but it is stiU collected in the forests, although the wild plant yields an inferior gum. The cocoanut palm has been planted round most of the coast towns and farmsteads, but more for ornament than use. On the other hand, cinchona is extensively cultivated, especially in the Cohan district and on the Pacific slope; as many as 1,5-30,000 trees had already been planted in the year 1SS4. 240 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Vast tracts, formerly under primeval forest, have been cleared, and mostly converted into savannas for stock-breeding. Even in the districts under cultiva- tion, the planters have their pofreros, or saccitaks, little plots reserved for pasturage. Nevertheless, the stock is insufficient for the local demand, and cattle have to be imported at high rates from Mexico and Honduras. Sheep are confined chiefly to the Altos, where the wool is used in the manufacture of coarse fabrics. As in ilexico, most of the Indians employed on the plantations are held in a state of real bondage by the hahilitacioncs, or advances in money, which they are unable to refund, and for which the produce of their future labour becomes pledged. Hence, as in the days of slavery, the planters keep overseers to prevent the men from escaping. Statute labour, and even the lash, flourish in spite of the law, and the magistrates themselves supply the landowners with "hands" for a small consideration. Nevertheless, in many districts the Indians are still free, and own the land they till. In virtue of a recent law, all mayors, or the jefes politico^ (political agents), of the Alta Vera Paz communes, where the civilised Indians are most numerous, are required to allot to each native as his share of the public domain a plot of about 4,400 square yards with free title, but on condition of neither selling, letting, nor mortgaging the concession for the first ten years. Vast spaces are still unoccupied, and these baldios, as they are called, all belong to the State, which sells or leases them at pleasure. In order to safeguard what remains of the vacant lands it has been decided to make no grants of more than 3,400 acres to a single person, who must be a native or naturalised citizen. Although, compared to Mexico, Guatemala possesses little mineral wealth, the Izabal district, on the Atlantic seaboard, was said to abound in auriferous deposits, hence the expression " Gold Coast " often applied to it in official documents of the seventeenth century. These treasures were worked exclusively by English miners, who, according to the tradition, extracted enough gold to purchase " a kingdom of Spain." In recent times they have been succeeded by Americans, who have at least discovered gold washings, though the yield is valued at no more than £6,000 a year. Quicksilver mines exist on the Huehuetenango plateaux ; but the Indians, who from time to time oifer the pure metal for sale, have hitherto refused to reveal the locality. A mountain in the Cumbre de Chixoy is also said to contain over 35,000,000 cubic feet of lead ore, three-fourths of which is pure metal. The foreign trade of Guatemala, although steadilj' increasing, is still less than £2,000,000, including all the exchanges. About nine-tenths of the total exports are represented by coffee, the other articles in order of importance being sugar, skins and hides, caoutchouc, silver, and bananas. Great Britain has the largest share of the foreign traffic, the United States, France, and Germany ranking next in importance. The railway system is little developed, the only important lines being those from San Jose to Guatemala, and from Champerico to Eetalhuleu. It is now proposed to continue these lines to the Atlantic, and Puerto Barrios, on St. Thomas Bay, has been chosen as the eastern terminus of the transoceanic railway. A few miles have already been constructed at the Atlantic end, but the ascent to ECONOMIC CONDITION OF GUATEMALA. 211 tlie plateaux, tlie bridging of the Motagua, and otlaer difRculties, havo arrested the progress of the line, the total length of which is estimated at ISG miles. Even good carriage-roads are still rare, and the only bridge crossing the Motagui Fig. 102.— GrATEiiAiAN Alcaldes, Altos Region. has been swept away by the floods. Meanwhile, all merchandise destined for the Atlantic has to be tran.sported by pack mules. In the thinly -peopled regions of the interior the postal service is still carried on, as in the tim'e of Montezuma, by VOL. XVII. ^ 242 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. relays of couriers, by means of whom letters and verbal messages are transmitted witb great rapidity. But the development of the telegraph, and even of the telephone, must soon supersede this antiquated system. Education is still in a backward state, and in 1890 there were only 1,200 schools, with an attendance of 53,000, in the whole republic. The three colleges for secondary instruction are frequented by about 1,200 students, and in all the higher schools English is obligatory. The Guatemalan constitution has undergone many changes. At one time part of a larger state, at another an independent republic, alternately ruled by the "Serviles" and the " Liberals," exposed to the tyranny of a Carrera or the cruelty of a Barrios, the nation has had to modify its political charter with every fresh revolution. The last constitution was that of 1879, completed in 1889, though fresh changes will have still to be made if Guatemala is eventually to become a member of the contemplated Central American Confederacy. The legislative power is vested in a chamber of deputies, in the proportion of one to 20,000 inhabitants, elected by all citizens capable of reading and writing. The deputies, half of whom retire by rotation every two years, number at present 69, and are returned by electoral districts, which are represented by one, two, or three members, according to their population. The executive is entrusted to a president elected for six months, assisted by a state council, and six ministers having charge of foreign affairs, the interior, public works, war, finance, and public instruction. Lastly, the judicial functions are exercised by a high court of final appeal, and lower courts, all judges being appointed by election. Imprison- ment for debt is abolished, and the domicile, as well as private correspondence, is held to be inviolate, except in time of war or invasion, when all rights are suspended. In the departments and communes, the aijuntamientos are constituted by popular suffrage, although the Government reserves the right of dissolving these assemblies, and replacing them by a judge. It also appoints to each department a jefe jmlitico, who is always a military officer, although charged with civil func- tions. His power over the Indians is almost unlimited, and in each commune a comisionado politico or gohernador, often chosen amongst the descendants of the ancient caciques, transmits his orders to the alcaldes, of whom there are two or three, according to the population of the district. The " first alcalde " has special charge of the Ladinos, the " second "of the Indians, and both wear the traditional hat and band as the badge of their authority, besides the cruciform or silver- mounted rod. The Church, long supreme in Guatemala, has no longer any recognized privi- leges. According to the constitution, no cult enjoys any pre-eminence, and the free exercise of all religions is authorised, although in 1890 there was only one Protestant church in the capital. The Jesuits had already been expelled in 1767, and in 1871 their establishments were finally suppressed and their property con- fiscated. The same fate had befallen the other religious communities in 1829, although they subsequently recovered part of their effects. But the property of ECONOMIC C0M)1TI0X OF GUATEMALA. 243 all religious orders was " nationalised " in 1872, and in 187-i all nunneries were suppressed except one. Some of the convents were used as schools or depots ; but most of the ecclesiastical domains benefited the " politicians " alone, many of whom suddenly found themselves in possession of vast fortunes. OflSciallj- all citizens between the ages of 18 and 50 are bound to military- service ; but the law exempts the only sons of widows, professors, officials, and all capable of purchasing exemption by an annual payment of 50 dollars. Pure Fig. 103. — PoLmcAi. Divisio>-3 of GuiXEiLU-i. ScilB I 4.500,000. 130 Miles. Indians are not enrolled, but in time of war they are pressed into the transport service. The yearly budget varies from £800,000 to over £1,000,000, mostly raised from the customs levied on nearly all foreign imports, or derived from the excise on the manufacture and sale of spirits, ilost of the revenue is absorbed by the army, though a yearly sum of £80,000 to £100,000 is devoted to public instruction. In 1S90 the national debt was about £4,200,000, over half of which was due to English capitalists. R 2 244 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. The republic is divided iuto 23 administrative departments, all of which are less than -3,000 square miles in extent, except the three great divisions of Huehue- tenango (6,000), Alta Vera Puz (7,000), and Peten (10,000). The chief towns, mostly bearing the same names as the departments, have all populations of less than 20,000, except Totonicapam (20,000), Quezaltenango (24,000), and the state capital, Guatemala (06,000). III. — Sax Salvador. San Salvador, or simplj' Salvador, smallest of the Central American states, is the richest and relatively the most densely jjeopled. Its area is estimated at about 7,250 square miles, or less than that of British Honduras, though its popula- tion is at least twenty times greater than that colony. It forms a narrow zone of quadrilateral shape on the Pacific slope, 186 miles long and with a mean breadth of not more than 50 miles. The landward frontiers are mostly conventional lines, or else indicated by streams both banks of which are inhabited by peoples of the same origin. Towards Guatemala the line follows the course of the little river Paza to the Chingo volcano, beyond which it intersects Lake Guija and trends round east- v^ards to Honduras, where it traverses mountains and vallej's with equal disregard of the physiciil and ethnical relations. Northwards the frontier is not indicated by the crest of the sierra, but by the river Sumpul, a tributary of the Lemj^a, then by the Lempa itself below the confluence, and lastly by another stream belonging to the same basin. On the east it follows the course of the Goascoran, which leaves to Salvador only a small part of the margin of Fonseca Bay. The main range and the volcanic chain, which had already ramified in Guate- mala, continue to diverge to a considerable distance eastwards, so that the former belongs entirely to Honduras, the latter to Salvador. Here the prevailing rocks are undoubtedly of eruptive origin, although many volcanic cones are no longer easily recognised, their craters having been obliterated, and their slopes covered with the same grey, white or yellowish clay which also overlay the Mexican and Guatemalan mountains. The plains encircling the volcanoes consist to a great depth of ashes and jiumice, the upper crust of w hich, when decomposed, yields a soil of extraordinary fertility. East of Guatemala the chief range is that of the steep Matapan Mountains (5,000 feet), which rise to the north-east of Lake Guija, and which from a distance seem quite inaccessible. But no igneous cones are here visible, and most of the active craters lie nearer to the Pacific coast, between Ahuachapam and the \'illage of San Juan de Dios, where is developed a line of the so-called aiisoks disposed transversely to the volcanic axis. At many points along this line gases are emitted in abundance, but all the most remarkable ausoles, presenting every transition from tlie mud volcano and gas jet to the hot spring, are concentrated close to Ahuachapam, on the main route between the cities of Guatemala and San Salvador. Over the plain are scattered large mud lakes, kept in a state of ebullition b}' the underground vapours, and the clays deposited by the ausoles present every shade of colour — blue, green, yellow or red, evidently due to the disintegration of ferru- SAN SALVADOR. 215 ginous rocks intersporsed with alum and siilpliur. To judge from tlie accounts of early writers, all the ausoles would appear to have diminished in temperature and activity during the present century. Farther east is developed an igneous system, the Madre del Volcan, with peaks from 5,500 to 6,500 feet high, all of which — Apaneca, Launita (Lagunita), San Juan, Aguila, Naranjo and others — are said by the inhabitants of Sonsonate to be true volcanoes. But according to Dollfus and Mont-Serrat thej^ are rather masses of trachytic porphyry, covered with yellow clays and ashes ejected by distant volcanoes. One, however, the Santa Ana (C,650 feet), appears to be a real crater, which has been recently even in eruption. A far more celebrated, though less elevated, volcano is that of Izalco, which Kg. 101. — AUSOL AT Ahuaohapam. belongs to the same system, and which, like the Jorullo of Mexico, lias made its appearance since the arrival of the Sj^auiards in the New World. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, its site, or at least the district near Sonsonate, was occupied by ausoles like those of Ahuachapam, which, however, appear to have after- wards become extinct. But on February 23, 1770, the ground suddenly opened and ejected copious lava streams. Then the cone began to rise above the surface, and has ever since continued to expand ; but since the first eruption it has ejected nothing but ashes. Formerlj' the explo-.ions were almost incessant, and the volumes of fiery vapour rolling up from the crater at night earned for Izalco the title of the Faro del Salvador (" Salvador Lighthouse "). Dollfus and Mont- Serrat, who ascended it during a short period of repose in 1SG6, estimated its height 24G MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. at a little over G,000 feet, and found the summit pierced by three craters, one of which emitted vapours with hissing and rumbling noises. Izalco is a perfect cone, " as regular as if turned out by a lathe." San Salvador, a volcano rising to a height of G,'200 feet, about six miles north of the capital, appears to have been quiescent since pre-Columbian times. From a distance it presents none of the distinctive features of an igneous cone, being an elongated mass with irregular base, and wooded nearly to the summit. But it terminates in the so-called boqueron, an immense crater nearly round, about three miles in circuit and flooded by a green transparent lake 650 feet deep. On the flanks is an ausol constantly discharging vapours, and near the north base are some Fig. 105. — Volcanoes of West Salvadob. Scale 1 : 1.200^000. Y¥W? 18 Unes. parasitic cones, one of which, the Quezaltepec volcano, was the scene of a small eruption at the beginning of the century. But although the volcanoes in the neighbourhood of the capital have not been the scene of any important eruptions during the historic period, earthquakes have been frequent and almost as disastrous as in any region of the globe. They are all the more dangerous that the ground on which San Salvador is built consists of a whitish tufaceous rock, light and unstable, " floating," so to say, in the depressions of the solid crust without coalescing with it. The city has been overthrown and rebuilt on the same site no less than seven times during the last three centuries. The sudden catastrophe of 1854 swallowed up many victims, while that of 1873 was even still more destructive to the buildings. This disturbance appears to have radiated from Tiuke Ilopango (Apulo), a deep ILOPAXGO VOLCANO. i SAN SALVADOE. 217 basin six miles cast of the capital, about 1 ,600 feet above the sea, encircled by steep rocky shores. The lake, which has an area of 2-1 square miles, has frequently chaDged its level, and towards the middle of the eighteenth century it was much lower than at present. But after a series of landslips its eastern emissary, which flows in a deep barranca to the Jiboa, a direct affluent of the Pacific, was dammed Lip, thus causing a considerable rise in the level. In 1873, the lake was violently agitated and raised about three feet above its normal level, and in 1879, a fresh disturbance was followed by another rise of four feet. Then the waters overflowed their banks, and rapidly excavated a channel, Fis lO'j. — Lake Ilopaxgo. Scale 1 : l70/y«i. tlopan£( West oi GreenwicK iJeptha. to 50 Fathoms. 60 to 100 Fathoms. 100 Fathoms and upwards. __ 3 Tililee. whereby a subsidence of eight feet was effected in three hours. In 54 days there was a total fall of 35 feet, the volume discharged being estimated at over 20,320 million cubic feet. The noxious vapours which at first accompanied these convul- sions were followed by discharges of lava, and islets composed of eruptive matter rose gradually above the surface of the seething waters. But when all was over nothing remained except an island of hard lava 160 feet high, in the immediate vicinity of which the sounding- line revealed a depth of over 100 fathoms. During "the eruption the geologist Goodyear recorded no less than 440 violent shocks. 218 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. North-east of Lake Ilopan go rise the spurs of the Cojutepec volcano (3,-100 feet), whose crater, though still visible, has been quiescent throughout the historic period. Farther on follows Chichontepec, the " Twin-peaked," now known by the name of San Vicente, highest volcano in S^ilvador (7,920 feet). Like Agua, in Guatemala, its terminal cone formerly contained a tarn, which after a long rainy season, burst its margin and rushed down to the plains through barrancas scored in the flank of the mountain. The summit of San Vicente presents the finest panoramic view in Salvador, embracing Lake Ilopango, the richly culti- Fig. 107. — Volcanoes of East Salvadoh. Scale 1 : eoj.oon. 12 Miles. vated slopes descending towards the Pacific, and the deep valley of the Rio Lempa. Beyond the gap caused by this fluvial valley the chain of igneous cones is continued by the Tecapa volcano, also containing a lake of considerable extent, whose waters, according to the natives, " are cold on one side and hot on the other." Farther on follow the mountains of Usulutan and the four-crested Chinameca (5,000 feet). None of these have been the scene of recent disturbances, while Chinamcca's vast crater, nearly a mile in circumference, is completely closed. Sail Miguel, one of the loftiest summits in Salvador (7,100 feet), which, thanks RIVERS OF SALVADOR. 249 to its isolation, its rugged slopes, and sharply-truncated upper crest, presents an aspect of unrivalled grandeur, offers a superb prospect of the surrounding plains and river valleys away to the Pacific and ramifying inlets of Fonseca Bay. San Miguel has been in eruption several times during the historic period, and in 1844: as many as fourteen fissures on its flanks discharged diverging streams of lava, one of which flowed ten miles northwards to the outskirts of the city of San Miguel. The terminal crater is one of the largest in Central America, being nearly two miles in circuit and 500 feet deep. Farther east the volcanic chain terminates in the twin crested Conchagua, ■whose gently-inclined wooded slopes project into Fonseca Bay. Conchagua, whose chief summit, the Cerro del Ocote, rises to a height of 4,100 feet, was supposed to be extinct till the j'car 1868, when a fissure was opened on its flanks, whence issued dense volumes of vapours, accompanied by violent earthquakes and avalanches of rocks. The lava streams which have been discharged parallel with the Pacific coast have certainly contributed to modify the hydrographic system of Salvador by damming up the streams and compelling them either to excavate fresh channels or to fill vast lacustrine depressions. A distinct waterparting has been formed by the volcanic range, whence on one side flow rapid torrents seawards, while, on the other, the running waters converge in the great valley of the Rio Lempa, running parallel with the igneous axis and the main Honduras range. The Lempa, one of the chief rivers of Central America, rises in Guatemala, one of its headstreams descending from the famous shrine of Esquipulas. After crossing the frontier it receives the overflow of the great Lake Guija, which is itself fed by the Ostua and numerous torrents from the surrounding mountains. Below the confluence the Lempa continues to flow parallel with the Pacific coast, receiving on both banks numerous tributaries from the northern and southern ranges. Beyond its junction 'with its largest afiluent, the Sumpul from the Honduras mountains, it is joined from the east by the Tonola. Beyond this point the mainstream forces a passage through the escarpments of the plateau down to the plains, where its yellow waters, scarcely 10 feet deep in the dry season, flow with a sluggish current a few yards above the level of the Pacific. During the floods its lower course has a depth of from 20 to 26 feet, but at its mouth it is obstructed by a bar never more than six or seven feet dei p. Thus the Lempa, with a course of about 185 miles, a catchment basin 6,000 square miles in extent, and a mean discharge of from 16,000 to 24,000 cubic feet per second, is inaccessible to marine navigation, though river steamers can ascend its lower reaches to the great southern bend at the Tonola confluence. The San Miguel, which flows in a nearly parallel channel farther east, enters the sea at the Estero de Jiquilisco, an inlet which might easily be connected with the Lempa. The Salvador coast, like that of Guatemala, has been subject to numerous changes of level in past times. Banks of recent shells lying some distance inland show that the beach has been upheaved, or else that the neighbouring waters have subsided. 250 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Climate, Flora, Fauna. Being intersected by 13° 30' north latitude, with a general southern incline, the Salvador coastlands are exposed to great heats which, despite the refreshing sea- breezes, range normally from about 78° to 83° Fahr. But the coastlands are the least inhabited part of the country, most of the population being concentrated in the elevated volcanic zone between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above sea-level, where the mean temperature falls to 7-1° and even 70° Fahr. Farther north, in the low-lying valley of the Lempa, which is inaccessible to the sea-breezes, the climate again becomes hot and insalubrious ; hence this district also is but sparsely peopled. The rains, which are more copious on the seaward slopes of the mountains, begin to fall about the middle of May, and last, with a short interruption towards the end of June, till the month of September. They are always brought by the vendavales, or southern winds, and are at times accompanied by storms, and even by cluihancos, or cyclones. During the dry season, when the north winds prevail, the coastlands are also exposed to storms, the so-called fcrrah's, which are much dreaded by the fishing populations, especially in the months of February and March. In its flora and fauna Salvador differs little from Guatemala. A characteristic species is the balsam {myrospcrmum sah'ctforensr), which has given its name to the section of the coast between Acajutla and Libertad, and which was formerly called " Peruvian Balsam," because forwarded to Spain by the Callao route. Salvador is especially rich in medicinal plants, gums, and resins. Of late years the planta- tions have been somewhat frequently visited by clouds of locusts. Inhabitants. The Pipils, that is, the Aztecs of Guatemala, were also in possession of west Salvador at the time of the Spanish Conquest, as is attested by the local nomen- clature. The centre of their power was at Suchitoto, north of the present capital, and Bernal Diaz tells us that their social, religious and political institutions were identical with those of the Mexican Aztecs. Their territory was limited north and east by the Rio Lempa, which river long arrested the advance of the Spaniards. The very name of the river is a corruption of Lempira, chief of the Chontal Indians, who offered the stoutest resistance to the invaders. After the conquest, the Pipils, like their Mexican kindred, were reduced to a state of abject servitude ; yet they became gradually assimilated to their x-nasters by crossings, and at the time of the declaration of independence in 1821, the Salvador half-breeds greatly outnumbered the whites. At present, about four- fifths of the population are of mixed Hispano-Tndian descent. But there still survive some nearly if not quite full-blood Indian communities, such as the Pipils of Izalno, who stiU speak a Mexican dialect. But the native customs and language are best preserved by the people of the Balsam coast, south of the volcanic range. These Indians, who dwell in low huts covered v/ith foliage, cultivate a little maize, and do some trade in bananas with TOPOGRAPHY OF SALVADOR. 251 the seaports. The money derived from this traffic is spent in decorating their churches and feasting their patron saints, all being now at least nominal Catholics. Physically, they differ little from their Guatemalan neighbours, except in their darker complexion, and the much smaller stature of their women. T0P0GR.\PHY. Ahuachapam, the first town near the Guatemalan, is perhaps the city of Paza (Pasaco), whence was named the Rio Paza, fonning the present political frontier between Guatemala and Salvador. Ahuachapam, with the neighbouring towns of Atiquisaija, ChalchHitpa, and Santa Ana, lies in a marvellously fertile district, on which sugar and coffee are largely grown, but which has often been a battle-field Kg. lOS. — San Sai-vador a>."d its Exvteoxs. Scale 1 : 230,000. " ^E» .tincnjo- '•'S'S^bi-t^Sp- >»-::■■' r3- ^5' 1 i ■>:!- / . Ar, ti|;uo Cuscatlan 13- 40' ; -5 TecUy . .. .C.Mevi S. Salvador); ■ \ ■ i^ t -wsm ii^ • 69"i6' .- -. '"'"^^ ^ . ^■^^^M/iiiitf^ \ T-- ;,'■ Greenwich PTS . 6 lliles. in the wars between Guatemala and Salvador. It was at Chalchuapa that the dictator, Eufino Barrios, was overthrown in the ^jinguinary engagement of 1885, which put an end to the hegemony of Guatemala over the other Central American states. Sonsonafe, or the " Four Hundred Springs," also lies in a rich and well-watered plain, which is often illumined at night by the fires of Izalco. Formerly the most important place in west Salvador, Sonsonate has now been eclipsed by Santa Ana, which lies to the north of the volcano of like name on the main route between Salvador and Guatemala. Since the earthquakes h\ which the capital has been twice destroyed, Santa xVna has become the largest city in the republic ; it is an important agricultural centre, and the neighbouring: district of Mctwpan, on 252 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. the north side of Lake Guija, abounds in productive iron, copper, silver, and zinc mines. Acajutla, the outlet of this western division of Salvador, lies on the west side of a spacious bay, open to the western and southern winds. Despite its exposed position, Acajutla has become the largest seaport in the state, shipping coffee and other produce in exchange for foreign manxjfactured wares. It is the seaward terminus of the first railway built in >Salv;;dor, which runs north to Sonsonate and Armenia, the ancient Giiaymoco, and which is ultimately to effect a junction with the projected trunk line from Mexico to Panama. A branch in course of con- struction runs through the Guayuiwd towards the flourishing coffee plantations of Santa Ana, whence the main highway leads to San Sahadur, capital of the republic. This place was originally founded in 1525 in the Suchitoto valley, much farther north than its present position in the fertile plain, 2,300 feet above the sea, at the east foot of the San Salvador volcano. The district, covered with coffee and other plantations, is watered by the Aselguate, a southern affluent of the Rio Lempa, while immediately to the south other streams flow in parallel channels down to the Pacific. The city thus stands on the waterparting, and has the further advantage of occupying a strong central position, defended by wide and deep barrancas of extremely difflcult access. But the district is exposed to frequent and violent earthquakes, by which San Salvador has been twice destroyed during the present century. On these occasions, many of the inhabitants sought refuge elsewhere, and especially at Santa Tecla, nine miles to the north-west. Santa Tecla thus became the temporary capital, and even received the name of Nuevo San Salvador, but being equally exposed to underground disturbances, as well as to volcanic eruptions, it scarcely offered much more security than the first place, which has been rebuilt of wood, on a principle of elastic frames calculated to resist sudden shocks. San Salvador has now resumed its position as seat of the administration, but has not yet recovered the population of 30,000 which it possessed about the middle of the century. It communicates by a well-kept road with its seaport of La Libertad, an exposed roadstead, where the shipping rides at anchor in the surf over half a mile from the shore. East of the capital the main route passes north of Lake Ilopango to Coju- tepeqne, an Indian town, followed successively by Jihoa and San Vicente, the latter founded in 1638 on a wesiern affluent of the lower Lempa on the site of the ancient Aztec city of Tehuacan. The ruins of this place, known bj' the name of Opieo, stand on a lateral terrace of the San Vicente volcano. The route leads thence through Sacatecoluca to the port of Concordia, at the mouth of the Rio Jiboa. In the marshy and insalubrious valley of the Lempa there are no centres of population, the nearest towns being Suchitoto, Ilohasco, and Sensiintepeque, which stand on breezy headlands, whei-e the temperature is lower than in the low-lying fluvial basin. Chalatcnango, the only town in the northern district between the Lempa and the Sumpul, lies also at some distance from the mainstream. TOPOGRAPHY OF SALVADOR. 253 East of the Lcmpu tlie largest place is Chinameca, which is inhabited by Tndiaus and half-castes. San Miguel, lying farther east on the river of that name, derives some importance from its fairs, which are frequented by traders from all parts of Central America and Mexico. Its seaport of La Union stands on one of the numerous sheltered inlets of Fonseca Bay, where excellent anchorage is afforded at about a mile from the shore. MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Economic Condition of Salvador. Despite its foreign wars and civil strife, Salvador is a prosperous country, as shown by tlie rapid increase of population unaided by any foreign immigration. Since 1778, when it was originally returned at 117,436, tbe population has certainly more than quadrupled, the census of 1886 yielding over 651,000, and the estimate for 1890 being at least 675,000, or about 70 inhabitants per square mile. At the same proportion the United States would have a population of from 340,000,000 to 350,000,000, instead of 63,000,000 according to the census of 1890. Recently Salvador has given a striking proof of its vitality by the ease with which it has accomplished a great economic revolution. Till lately its revenue Fig. 110. — Denbitt of the Popdiation op Salvadok. Scale 1 : 2,700,000. n OtolO. Inhabitants to the Square Mile. a ffl ffl 40 to 60. 60 to 80. SO to 120. Each square represents a population of 50O. • Towns of over 20,000 inhabitimta. 120 and upwards. 60 Miles. depended mainly on indigo, its only article of export. But since the discovery of the various coal-tar dyes superseding the use of indigo, the Salvador planters have had to abandon its cultivation and replace it chiefly by coffee and sugar. The yield of the silver mines has also contributed to pay for the textiles, hardware, corn, and other articles imported from abroad. The total value of the exchanges is about £4 per head of the population, amounting in 1890 to over £2,250,000. Inland traffic is facilitated by carriage-roads with a total length of 2,700 miles in 1890, but in the same year there were only 36 miles of railways. The telegraph and postal services are also in a backward state, though education, now gratuitous and obligatory, is making considerable progress. In 1889 the schools were attended by over 40,000 scholars, or one-eighteenth of the whole population, nOXDUEAS. 255 exclusive of 1,300 frequenting the tigh schools and 180 following the courses of the national university in the capital. Salvador has been an independent state only since 1859, and even since then its constitution, which should be representative, has been frequently modified or superseded by a military government tempered by insurrections. In theory the legislative power is vested in a national assemblj- of 42 members, elected for one year by popular suffrage, while the executive is exercised by a president, who is also elected by the people, but for four years, and who chooses his own ministrj', consisting of four secretaries of state. The standing army comprises about 2,000 of all arms, with a militia nominally 40,000 strong. The administration of justice is entrusted to a supreme court situated in the capital, with courts of appeal at Santa Ana, Cojutepeque, and San Miguel, tribunals of first instance for each of. the three judiciary districts, and justices of the peace for the towns and communes. As in most American states, the revenue is mainly derived from the customs, about one-third being contributed by monopolies on tobacco and spirits. Not more than a fourth of the national income is absorbed by the army, a proportion less than that expended on education and public works. In 1890 the debt amounted to £1,300,000. Under the Spanish regime Salvador formed part of the viceroyalty of Guate- mala, comprising the four provinces of Sonsonate, San Salvador, San "Vicente, and San Miguel. At present, the republic is divided into fourteen adminis- trative departments, grouped under three divisions, for which see Appendix. lY. — Honduras. The verj' name of Honduras recalls the times of the discovery, when the Spanish pilots, advancing cautiously along the coasts, reported shallow soundings {Jionduras) in the waters at the head of Honduras Bay. Columbus, who in 1502 first explored these waters between Capes Caxinas (Honduras) and Gracias-a-Dios, ran great risks amid the surrounding reefs and shoals. But its present name was given to the seaboard not by Columbus, but by Bartholomew de las Casas, who in his Discovery of the West Indies by the Spaniards, speaks of the land of " Hondure," as if this name were of Indian origin. Twenty-two years later, at the time of Fernan Cortes' famous expedition across Yucatan, the country was known to the Spaniards by the name of Hibueras or Higueras, and it has also been called " New Estremadura " After forming part of the Guatemalan viceroyalty, Honduras was separated from the mother country with the rest of Central America, and at present forms one of the five sister republics. But despite its natural advantages of cL'mate, central position and excellent harbours on both oceans, its progress has been relatively slow. Under the Spanish rule the seaports and cultivated plains on the Atlantic side attracted the attention of the corsairs by whom these coast- lands were ravaged for a great distance inland. The country has, doubtless. 256 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. been gradually resettled, but the bighest estimates assign it a population of not more tban six pei'sons to the square mile. Physical Features. Like Guatemala, Honduras is of triangular shape, but its position is reversed, 60 that its base rests on the Atlantic, and its apex reaches the Pacihc at Fonseca Bay. The limits of the state are, how- Fig. in. -Ixteeoceanio Wateepaetixg, IIoxdukas. g^gj.^ almost everywhere indi- Sc.ile 1 : 480,000. , T , , ' . . , , . cated, not by conventional lines as elsewhere, but by such natural featui-es as mountains and river valleys. In the north-west it is separated from Guatemala bj' a winding frontier, which, while assigning to Honduras the Guate- malan valley of Copan, coincides in a general way with the crests of the Merendon, Espiritu Santo and Grita ranges, beyond which it follows the course of the Rio Tinto to a secondary inlet of Honduras Bay. Towards Salvador the frontier is formed m.ainly by the Rivers Sumpul, Lempa, Tonola and Goas- coran, and towards Xicaragua by the Rio Negro on the Pacific side, and by the Ocotal and Segovia on the Atlantic slope, the common waterparting being indicated by the Dipilto range. The interior is Still imperfectly known, but the country may, in a general way, be said to be di- vided into two unequal slopes by a sierra madre disposed parallel with, and at a mean distance of about GO miles from, the Pacific coast. This range is much more precipitous on the Pacific than on the Atlantic side, so that the south side should be regarded rather as the escarpment of a plateau carved into distinct masses by streams flowing north to the Caribbean Sea. Towards the west or Guatemalan frontier the Sierra de Pacaya (6,600 feet) branches off from the Merendon range and farther on merges in the Sierra de Selaque, round which the running waters diverge in all directions. Here the 12 Miles. PHYSICAL FEATURES OF HONT)IIIlAS. 257 Honduras orographic system appears to culminate in several peaks exceeding 10,000 feet in height. Farther on the uplands fall and again rise in the direction of the east, where they develop the Opalaca and San Juan ranges. At the extremity of this chain is opened the great depression forming the natural highway of communi- cation between the two fluvial basins of Humuya on the north, and Goascoran on the south. Here the waterparting is indicated only by the relatively low passes of Guajoca (2,300 feet) and Eancho Chiquito (2,400), which are already traversed by a road, and which will probably soon be crossed by a railway of easy ascent and free from tunnels. Eocks of tertiary formation overlying the older strata recall the epoch when this depression was still flooded by a channel flowing between the two oceans when Central America formed a chain of islands, not, as at present, a. continuous isthmus. Beyond the depression the main range, here called the Sierra Lepaterlque, soon ramifies into a northern and a southern chain, the former running north-east to Cape Gracias-a-Dios, the latter southwards to the main range of Nicaragua. The igneous system, which in Salvador and Nicaragua runs between the main range and the Pacific coast, disappears altogether on the Honduras mainland, but is represented in the islets of Fonseca Bay. A slight upheaval of the marine bed would suflice to connect Sacate Grande and the other volcanoes in this bay with the opposite coast. Sacate Grande, largest of the group, rises to a height of 2,000 feet, while the neighbouring Tiger Island is 600 feet higher. On tbe Atlantic side the Merendon main range is continued north-westwards by the long crest of the Espiritu Santo and Grita chains, which run at a mean altitude of over 6,700 feet between the valleys of the Guatemalan Rio Motagua and the Honduras Bio Chamelicon. The system rises probably to 10,000 feet in the Omoa group, which forms its seaward terminus near the port of Omoa. A northern spur of the Opalaca hills terminates in the huge and nearly isolated bluff of Mount Puca, while the San Juan crags, dominating the interoceanic depression, are continued in the same northerly direction by the MonteciUos and the Sierra de Canchia, which confront the Comayagua Mountains on the opposite side of the depression. Eastwards the Lepaterique hills are connected with the central mass of the Sierra de Chile, whence various ridges ramify between deep valleys in diflerent directions. Lastly, the parting-line between Honduras and Nicaragua is formed by the Cordillera de Dipilto, which is continued seawards to the converging point of the rectilinear Honduras and Mosquitia shore-lines. In the interior of the state the Sierra Misoco runs due north-east nearlj' parallel with the Sulaco and Pija ridges, and Mount Paya, rising to a height of 3,730 feet, near Cape Cameron, probablj* belongs to a branch of the same system. On the northern edge of the Honduras plateau the Congrehoy ridge, which cul- minates in a peak 8,200 feet high, seems to form a distinct chain disposed parallel with the neighbo\iring Baj- Islands. Some of the mountains of the interior have been spoken of as volcanoes, but VOL. XVII. s 253 MEXICO, CENTEAL MIEETCA, WEST INDIES. they have never been seen in eruption, nor have they j'et been ascended by any scientific explorer. Such pretended volcanoes are Teapasemi (3,000 feet), in the Dipilto range, about midway between the two oceans, the Guaymaca and Boqueron heights in the Misoco chain. Rivers, Islands, Inlets. Honduras, being well exposed to the Atlantic rains, is traversed by numerous watercourses,' nor are there any closed basins, as in Mexico and Guatemala. In the west the first copious stream is the Chamelicon (Chamlico), which flows from the Merendon Hills parallel with the Motagua of Guatemala, terminating, after a rapid course of over 160 miles, in a delta connected by one branch with the Puerto-Caballos lagoon. The Chamelicon might almost be regarded as an aflfluent of the Ulua, its lower course running for 30 miles parallel with that stream through the same low-lying plain, where their waters are intermingled during the floods. But apart from the Chamelicon, the Ulua is the largest river in Honduras, its catchment basin comprising about a third of the whole state, and occupying all the space between the llerendon and Chile ranges. From the west it is joined by the Santiago (Yenta), swollen by the E,io Santa Barbara, and various emissaries from the great Lake Yojoa. From the south comes the Humuya, which may be regarded as the main branch ; from the east, the Sulaco. Lake Yojoa (Taulebe) has the form of an upland valley disposed crescent-shape from south to north, and without any visible afiluent at low water. But during the floods it rises to a great height, sending its overflow through the Jaitique at its south-eastern extremity to the Santa Barbara. But there are other outlets by which its waters also escape, disappearing in the 2^0^08 or cavities of the sur- rounding fossiliferous limestone rocks and reappearing lower down as tributaries of the Santa Barbara. According to Stanton and Edwards, there are no less than nine of these underground emissaries all flowing during the rainy season to the headstreams of the Ulua. Durioff the floods the Ulua is accessible to small steamers as far as the Sulaco o confluence ; but the bar at its mouth has scarcely more than three feet of water, so that shipping is obliged to anchor at some distance from the estuary. The next large river going east from the Ulua is the Aguan or Romano, which enters the sea through two channels between Capes Honduras (Caxinas) and Cameron. The Romano, which is said to have a course of over 120 miles, traverses a forest region of great sylvan beauty abounding in auriferous sands. But it Is a less copious stream than the Patuca, whose various sources flow from the Misoco and Chile ranges and unite in a single channel above the formidable gorge of the Portal del Infierno, or " Hell-gate." From this point the Patuca is navigable for the rest of its course to its mouth, which presents the same dlfla.culties as those of all the other estuaries along this coast. The abundjiut alluvia of the EIo Patuca have advanced in a sharp point beyond the normal shore-line, enclosing right and left shallow marine lagoons, which THE BAY ISLA^^)S. 259 communicate through several channels \rith the open sea. On the west is the Bnis (Brewer) lagoon ; on the east the much larger Caratasca (Cartago) basin, with a depth of 16 feet in the centre. The grassy shores of these inlets are dotted over with clumps of fir and other trees, giving the landscape the aspect of an English park. Although everywhere navigable, the Honduras waters rest on a submarine bed scarcely more than 50 fathoms deep, with banks, reefs, and islets rising above the surface. This plateau extends seawards for a mean distance of about 18 or 20 miles, when the sounding-line plimges suddenly iuto depths of Fig. 112.— Bat Isla^-ds. Scale 1 : 1,500,000. Depths. to 100 FaUioms. 100 Fathoms and apwanls. _^_ SO Miles. 500 fathoms. Beyond Cape Cameron the shallows extend to ilosquito Bank, which projects for nearly 130 miles ia the direction of Jamaica. The plateau, which has an average depth of "about 20 fathoms, reproduces east of Honduras the same limestone formation as the submerged terrace encircling the Yucatan seaboard. Above the submariae bed rises a long line of coralline islets, which are collectively called the Bay Islands, but of which one alone, UtUa, deserves the name of island. Utila stands at the western extremity of the group, at the very edge of the plateau, where the soundings suddenly reveal depths of over 200 fathoms s2 2G0 MEXICO, CENTILMi AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. on the north side. Roatan, Elena, Barbareta (Borburata), Bonaca and the other members of the group all lie in deep water, and are disposed in the direction from west-south-west to east-north-east. Roatan, which is by far the largest, is 30 miles long, and is continued eastwards by Elena and Barbareta. Although scarcely a mile wide, Roatan has a few hills, culminating westwards in an eminence 800 feet high. Bonaca (Guanaja), the lala de Pinos of Columbus, which lies at the eastern extremity of the group, is still more elevated, its pine-clad granite peak rising to a height of 1,200 feet. On the southern slope of Honduras, the two most copious streams are the Goascoran, the lower course of which forms the boundary-line towards Salvador, and the Choluteca, whose basin is entirely comprised within Honduras territorj^ The Choluteca flows from the Lepaterique hills to the marine inlet, to which. In 1522, GO. Gonzalez de Avila gave the name of Fonseca, in honour of Cortes' relentless enemy, Bishop Fonseca. This vast basin has a superficial area of over 800 square miles, with a breadth of 22 miles between the two outer headlands of Coseguina and Amapala. The narrowest of the four navigable passages by which it communicates with the sea is about two miles wide between the Conchagua and Conchaguita volcanoes, with a mean depth of about 40 feet. Within these passages the gulf develops several secondary inlets, such as those of L'Estero Real and La Union, the former penetrating south-eastwards into Nicaragua, the latter north-westwards into Salvador. Above the surface rise several reefs and islands, conspicuous amongst which is the symmetrical cone of Tiger Island. Notwith- standing its great extent, the Gulf of Fonseca is too shallow to be regarded as a marine basin ; it is probably little more than a flooded depression, nowhere more than ten fathoms deep, and navigable only by vessels of moderate draught. Climate, Fi-ora, Fauna. Owing to its mean elevation of at least 3,000 feet above the sea, Honduras enjoys a comparatively temperate climate, though the low-lying coastlands are oppressively hot and insalubrious. The Atlantic seaboard especially suffers from the excess of moisture brought by the vapour-charged trade winds. Here the mean temperature ranges from 75° to 82° Fahr., whereas it is scarcely more than 68° at the capital, Tegucigalpa, which stands at an altitude of 3,320 feet. Accord- ing to Squier, the annual rainfall on the Atlantic slope is about 120 inches. The Central American flora and fauna differ in details only at their two exiremities, the isthmuses of Tehuantepec and Darien. But here and there sharp transitions occur between the species, and in certain regions the secondary differences between the various orffanic forms are more numerous than elsewhere. Such is the case in central Honduras, where the Humuya and Goascoran valleys with the intermediate depression constitute a natural biological parting-line. Hero the flora and fauna on either side often present remarkable contrasts. One of the characteristic Honduras trees is the pine, which occurs in all the upland districts, and even on both slopes down to the vicinity of the Pacific coast. But here it HONDURAS SCENERY. INHABITAXTS OF HONDURAS. 261 does not reach lower than an altihiclc of about 1,250 feet, whereas on the Atlantic slopes, especially on the plains of Sula, it descends as low as 250 feet, while along the watercourses of Truxillo it is dotted over the savannas like the clumj^s of trees characteristic of English scenery. IxilAlilTAMS, About three-fourths of the population of Honduras appear to be Laiinos, or more or loss civilised Hispano-American half-castes. The pure Indian element scarcely numbers 70,000 altogether, and CA'en these " wild tribes " now live at peace with their Spanish-speaking rulers, and recognise their authority. To the Spanish conquerors their forefathers had offered a brave and steadfast resistance, and those of the interior at least escaped extermination, whereas most of those dwelling on the coastlands, or along the navigable rivers, were carried away by the corsairs, to perish on the plantations of the West Indies. In the western parts of the republic the natives are of the same speech as those of Guatemala. Such are the Chorti of Copan, kinsmen of the Pokoman Mayas. The most remarkable historic ruins of Honduras have been discovered in their territory, and the builders of these monuments are supposed to have been the ancestors of the Indians still inhabiting the district. Hence the Chorti were probably fully as civilised as the Aztecs and ilayas, and even if the other natives of Honduras have left no such monuments, they were all at least settled agricul- turists and skilled artisans. Various Aztec geographical terms occurring in south Honduras show that Aztec was regarded as the language of culture in a pre- eminent sense. At present the Honduras Indians are collectively designated by the name of Lencas. Tillages exclusively inhabited by them are scattered over the plateau, and are met even in the neighbourhood of the two capitals, Comayagua and Teguci- galpa. To the same stock belong the Xicacs (Hicacos), the Payas and the Toacas of the northern slopes and Atlantic coastlands. AU resemble each other in their low stature, thickset frames, and extraordinary staying power as carriers of heavy loads. The Toacas, who occupy the upper afEuents of the Patuca, and who shoot the dangerous rapids of that river in their light but firm ^j)};rt«/es of cedar-wood, also produce excellent cotton or wild silk fabrics interwoven with the down of birds. They speak a dialect different from that of the other Lencas, as do also the Xicacs, who number about 5,000 and keep quite aloof from the Ladinos. The Payas or Poyas of the Rio Negro near Cape Cameron have preserved their patriarchal customs ; like the Pueblo Indians of 'New ^Mexico and Arizona, they still dwell in large oval houses about 80 feet long by 30 feet broad, in which each family has its own apartments. The Payas, like all the other natives, call themselves Catholics, but this formal profession of faith is merely an act of submission to the dominant white race. After the extermination of the coast Indians negroes became niunerous along the seaboard. About the beginning of the seventeenth century a large slaver was 262 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. said to have been stranded near Cape Gracias-a-Dios, and the Africans, escaping from the wreck, founded a petty republican state in the district. Later they were joined by other fugitives from the "West Indies ; then some English planters introduced slaves and founded settlements in the hope of conquering the country. Gradually transformed by interminglings, the whole of this black population consisted at the end of the last century mainly of Sambos, that is, negro and Indian half-breeds. They were numerous, especially about the lower Patuca and the neighbouring Brus and Caratasca lagoons ; but a great invasion drove most of them southwards to the Mosquito Coast in Nicaragua. The invaders were themselves exiles, some 5,000 Carib Indians removed in 1796 by the English from St. Yincent to Roatan, one of the Bay Islands. Many remained as fishers and gardeners on this and other members of the group, but the majority accepted the offer made them by the Spanish Government of some lands near Trusillo on the Honduras coast. These Carib exiles from St. Yincent have gradually become the dominant race, not only in the Baj' Islands, but along the whole of the Honduras and Guatemalan seaboard, as well as throughout the southern part of British Honduras. They are at present estimated at about 20,000, and are a thriving industrious people, many already owning sugar and tobacco plantations besides local factories. Nearly all are more or less famihar with three languages, English, Spanish, and their West Indian mother-tongue, which, however, appears to be dying out. But while these communities are being gradually assimilated to the surrounding Europcauised popidations, there are many other Honduras Caribs who, while callui" themselves " Cristianos," still retain many of the usages of their pagan ancestors. They practise polygamy on the condition of assigning to each wife her separate establishment, cottage, and garden, and treating all exactly alike. On the Atlantic coast of Honduras, the English and Indian half-castes are the most numerous element, and a more or less corrupt form of English is the dominant language in many districts. This is partly due to the neighbourhood of Belize, partly also to the repeated attempts made by the English Government to acquire formal possession of the whole seaboard. In the last century the Jamaica freebooters had become masters of the Eio Negro (Tinto or Poya), where their plantations were protected by a fort, which, however, they had to evacuate in virtue of the treaty of Yersailles. But they attempted to return, as they had returned to Belize, and after seizing the Bay Islands, spoke of Roatan as a " new Gibraltar," the " key to Spanish America," and so forth. In 1819 Sir Gregor Macgregor, who had become cacique of the Payas, settled on the Rio Negro and founded a paper kingdom embracing a great part of Honduras and Nicaragua. Again in 1839 an English company, heirs to the Scottish cacique, endeavoured to appropriate the Atlantic slope of Honduras by founding the new province of " Yictoria," with its capital, Fort "William, over against the Bay Islands. But all these attempts at gaining a footing in Honduras were brought to a close by the intervention of the United States in 1850, when the disputed territories were restored to Hondvu-as. TOPOGEAPHY OF nONDUEAS. 263 Topography. Copan, which has given its name to the westernmost department of the republic, has become famous for the surrounding ruins, which were first described in 1576 by Palacio in a report to Philip II. They were then forgotten till the present century, when they were again visited and described hy Galindo, Stephens, and Catherwood. The chief building rises to a height of GO, and in some parts even 100 feet on the banks of the River Copan, three-quarters of a mile to the east of the village. Since its erection the river has evidently shifted its bed farther south, where it has eroded the base of the edifice. Trees also spring from the fissures in the masonry, while the summits are entirely clothed in vegetation. An opening, to which the j^ile is indebted for its Spanish name of Las Vcutanas, the " Windows," reveals the dense thicket now filling the inner courts of the temple. The irregular enclosing walls on the sides away from the river are flanked by pyramids, and interrupted by broad flights of steps, mostly forced upwards by the roots of trees. The numerous idols, which have also been displaced or else half buried in foliage, consist of sandstone monoliths, carved with a profusion of details unsurpassed by those of the Hindu temples. The central figure, of colossal size, but carefully modelled, is surrounded by reliefs of all kinds, ornaments, symbols, and hieroglj-phics, difi^ering little from those covering the Maya monuments. The huge blocks described as altars are for the most part less elaborately embellished than the vertical steles of the idols ; but most of them reproduce the type of high heads, prominent jaws, and receding foreheads figured on the temples of Tabasco and Yucatan. Still more remarkable is a semicircular altar, exactly like the fai-l;i of the Chinese, sj-mbolising the " great vault," the " pole of the world," the union of force and matter, the principle without beginning or end. The whole group of ruins stretches for some miles along the river, and an eminence 2,000 feet high on the opposite side is also crowned with crumbling walls, while huge blocks, intended for fresh structures, have been left unfinished in the surrounding quarries. The village of Cachapa, seven miles above Copan, also occupies the site of a ruined city. Santa Rosa, capital of the department of Copan, lies in the fertile district of Sensenti, which is watered by the Santiago branch of the Ulua, and which yields the best tobacco in Honduras. The Majocote afiluent of the same river traverses Gracias, which is also the capital of a department abounding in mineral w'ealth. Gracias was founded by Alvarado's lieutenant, Chavez, in 1536. Santa Bavhara, on a lateral tributary of the Santiago, is the chief town of the favoured department which comprises the rich plain of Sula, the alluvial lauds of the lower Ulua and Chamelicon, and the best ports on the Atlantic coast. But the Sula district, densely peopled before the conquest, is now almost deserted, though the town of San Pedro de Sula, on the west side of the plain, is the most important agricultural centre in the state. The chief seaports in the department of Santa Barbara, and on the whole sea- 264 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. board on the Atlantic side, are Puerto Cortes and Omoa, both of which lie to the west of the Ulua and Chamelicon estuaries. Puerto Cortes owes its name to the Mexican conqueror, who founded it at the time of his Honduras expedition ; but it is now more commonly known as Puerto Caballos. The harbour is enclosed by a tongue of land projecting westwards, and sheltering it from the winds and surf of the high seas. This spacious and deep basin might easily be greatly enlarged Pig-. 113.— Ptteeto Coetes and Lake Aivaeabo. Scale 1 : 60.000. SnndB exposed at low water. Uepcbs. to 5 Stathoms Fathoms. and upwiirda- —^ 1, ICO Yards. by the Alvarado lagoon, with which it already communicates through a channel about six feet deep. But despite its manifold advantages, Puerto Caballos, being exposed to the attacks of the buccaneers, was long abandoned for the more ea.sily protected port of Omoa, which is approached by a narrow passage six miles farther west. Now, however, Puerto Caballos has resumed its former importance as the terminus of a railway run- ning southwards to San Pedro de Sula for Comayagua, and eventually for the Pacific coast. Naco, famous at the time of the conquest, has disappeared, but it probably stood at the mouth of the Chamelicon, TOPOGRAPHY OF HOXDUEAS. 265 Puerto Sal and Tn'unfo, lying east of the Ulua, are merely exposed roadsteads, followed by the much more frequented port of Progreso, which is formed hx an indentation on the south side of Eoatan Island, penfectly sheltered from all winds, but a hotbed of deadly fevers. Truxillo, founded in 1524, and chosen as the capital of the new department of Colon, is also well protected from the trade winds by a promontory disposed, like that of Puerto Caballos, from east to west, and enclosing a basia accessible to the largest vessels. But the town is a mere collection of huts, inhabited by a few hundred Caribs, who are engaged in the export trade of mahogany, sarsaparilla, cattle, hides, and other produce brought down by convoys of mules from the mag- nificent province of Olancho. This highly-favoured upland region, watered by the headstreams of the Patuca and Eomano rivers, enjoys a perfectly salubrious climate ; its soil is extremely fertile, forest glades and woodlands alternating with rich arable tracts and savannas under succulent herbage, while copious streams flow through every valley, washing down auriferous sands from the wooded and picturesque slopes of the encircling heights. On an affluent of the Patuca stands the little town of JutigaljM, and in the neighbourhood the Indian village of Cafacamas, the products of whose industry might be forwarded northwards by the Eomano Yalley to Truxillo, south-westwards by the mountain passes leading down to the Gioluteca Yalley, and north-westwards by the Patuca river, accessible to the Carib canoes to the port of Belon, within a few leagues of Jutigalpa. Yet, with all its exceptional advantages, this glorious region is stUl almost deserted. For the whole of the extensive department of Olancho, the last census returned a population of little over 30,000, while that of Colon, comprising all the noith-west comer of Honduras, is occupied by less than 3,000 natives ; altogether scarcely 35,000 in a region where millions might easily be supported without any overcrowding, as in some of the "\Yest India Islands under the same latitude. Comai/agiia, chief town of the department of like name, and former capital of the republic, stands at an altitude of 2,000 feet on an extensive plain about mid- way between the two oceans. Founded in 1540 by Alonzo Caceres, Niiera Val/a- dolid, as it was fonnerly called, was a prosperous city of nearly 20,000 inhabitants before the year 1827, when it was besieged, taken, and sacked by the Guatemalan " Serviles." It never recovered from that blow, and at present its chief attractions are the numerous ruins of ancient cities by which it is everywhere surrounded. Of these the most remarkable is Tenamjiua (Piieb/o Viejo), standing on a lofty eminence nearly 20 miles south-east of Comayagua, and comprising within its enclosures a number of apparently religious edifices, pyramids, terraces, sculptures, and much painted pottery. West of the department of La Paz, whose present capital, La Paz, stands on the site of the ancient city of Las Piedras, the chief place towards the Salvador frontier is Esperanza, not far from the famous Erandique opal mines. Xear Virtiid, in the same hiUy district of Intibucat, is seen the remarkable cave of the " Agua de Sangre," a red fluid which coagulates as it falls and then putrefies, emitting an 266 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. odour of blood. Tho liquid, which owes its colour and peculiar properties to the living organisms contained in it, affords a certain nourishment to birds and other animals. The most densely-peopled part of Honduras is the basia of the Choluteca river, which descends to the Pacific at the Gulf of Fonseca. The iipper portion of the basin, which forms a natural transition between Salvador and Nicaragua west and east, comprises the department of Tegucigalpa, which gives its name to the present capital of the republic. This place almost suddenly acquired great importance in the year 1762 as the centre of a region abounding in gold and silver mines. Between 1778 and 1819 the Tegucigalpa district yielded nearly £40,000,000 to the trade of the world, and mining operations, interrupted by wars, revolutions, and oscillations in the value of the precious metals, have in recent times again been actively resumed. Teo^ucigalpa, chosen in 1880 as the seat of congress, and even designated as a future capital of the Central American Confederation, is by far the largest place in the republic, and is increasing from year to year. It rises in amphitheatrical form at the foot of a steep mountain on the right bank of the Choluteca, which is here crossed by a ten-arched bridge. Concepcion, on the opposite side of the river, forms an integral part of the city. Two other departments, also abounding in mineral resources, are comprised within the Choluteca basin. One of those, whose capital, Yuscaran, dates from the middle of the eighteenth century, has received the well-merited designation of Paraiso, or "Paradise," while the other takes the name of the river and of the Indian nation dwelling on its banks ; Choluteca, its capital, on the left side of the estuary, was the Xo-es de la Fronfera of the early settlers. Nacaomc, on the river of like name, which also flows into the Gulf of Fonseca, but much farther west, is noted for its mineral waters. Its port of San Lorenzo stands at the northern extremity of the inlet of like name, where shipping finds good anchorage in depths of 22 to 24 feet close to the shore. One of the projected interoceanic railways has its terminus at this port ; another is carried over the Rio Nacaome near its mouth, and, after crossing the marshy backwaters between Gueo-ensi and Sacate Grande and the mainland, terminates on the west side of the latter island over against a vast roadstead some 20 square miles in extent, and from 30 to 50 feet deep, close to the future terminus. Pending the construction of this important line, Amapala, the seaport of Honduras on the Pacific, stands on the north-west side of Tiger Island, at one time a stronghold of tho buccaneers. Sacate Grande and Tiger Islands both belonged formerly to Salvador, which allowed Honduras to occupy them in 1833 in return for her co-operation in tho local wars. Economic Condition of Honduras. Although fully one-half of Honduras is still almost a vast solitude, its popu- lation has increased at least threefold since the beginning of the century. The first census, taken in 1791, gave a population of 95,500, while the last (June, !5 O I— i H Pi o o o o < o O ECONOMIC COXDinOX OF HONDURAS. 267 1887) returned a total of 332,000, of whom nearly three-fourths were Ladinos. The stream of immigration has not yet been directed to the state, and in the whole country there are scarcely 500 foreigners, apart from the so-caUed "English" immigrants from Belize and Jamaica. Honduras has developed no industries, and even its agricultural produce scarcely suflSces for more than the local demand. The banana, caoutchouc and coffee plantations have, however, in recent years acquired some importance, while the tobacco of Copan and Santa Rosa has long been appreciated. Xext to gold and silver, the chief staple of the export trade was timber, especially the Fig. 114. — FoNSECA Bay. Scale 1 : 1,C«0.0C0. West-oF GreenwicK Otoo FaUxoma. Deptas. 5 to 12 Fathoms. 12 Fathoms and upwards. , IS iines. mahogany, which reaches its greatest perfection in the forests of Honduras. But the finest trees have been recklessly felled without any attempt at replanting, and as mahor(.(00 Haiti 2.7'-K).(»00 S. Domingo S.SOO.IKKI 2,900.000 4,200,000 Paraguay 4.7C0,lX)0 China 5,(Ji)ii,O00 Colombia \ i2,it*:'.ooo Honduras 1 ,. 13.L>4<',000 1 IJ-SOillMKl Uruguay .... 1 i-'"' Ain Ofto I Chili 1 ... 19.o2i).^,.'//.Ay. , ■ j I'ranci.' i-I,2i^^,7-_\i,IM->. [ ■ . ' , .^//^ revenue and about £40 per head of the population. As no interest has been paid since 1872, the state is virtually bankrupt. The interoceanic railway, which served as the pretext for this formidable debt, is far from being finished. The only completed section, about 56 miles, or one- fourth of the whole length, runs from Puerto Caballos across the Sula plain, where no heavy engineering works had to be executed. To finish the whole line a new company had to be formed, fresh surveys taken, and attempts made to raise more money. But the £8,000,000 required to complete this and other lines from Puerto Caballos to Truxillo, and thence to Jutigalpa, have not yet been sub- scribed. Meanwhile carriage-roads are projected for the transport of heavy goods ECONOMIC CO>n)ITIOX OF HOMDUEAS. 269 over the mountain passes between the Atlantic and Pacific slopes. The two main highways are the interoceanic route through Comavagua, and that running from Sensenti through Intibucat, La Paz, and Tegucigalpa to Jutigalpa. The postal and telegraph services are still iu their infancy compared with those of Mexico, as might be expected in a country where the great mass of the population is still absolutely imlettered. In 1887 not more than 19,000 adults Fig. 116. — Debt pee Head of PoprLAxios ra Vawous Cottsteies. Cnina Libena Swiaerland r Xonray — - S> 3 » * 2 8 8 13 8 19 7 112 8 -\ ... 1 13 4 -i 2 SU -, - S S 3 3 18 Japan ^- Xicaraziui — Salrailor .. . Mexico -^- Boiiria — Sw&lea .... -- Haiti Gotttemali Ecuador .... Colombia .. : — Turkey — - United Stntes ' — S. Afrlca!i K?p. \ — Russia i — - 3 110 3 2 1 3 2 6 3 6 1 — ; 3 6 6 — , .. 3 7 1 — ^ .. 3U 2 — ; .434 — ■ .480 Denmark ;= ; 5 12 6 Trnly \ ;i™ » 11 9 * H 1ft Spain Belmnm 16 13 4 -. 17 7 3 Peru - .'. . f ^ 21 8 4 P'TTiinl p ., ' could read and write, and only 74,000 children were receiving any kind of education. In the same year the periodical press was limited to four journals. The government of Honduras differs only in a few minor details from those of the other Central American republics. The constitution has been frequently modified between the years 1824 and 1883, during which period as many as forty- eight rulers have succeeded under various titles to the supreme power. In normal times the president is elected for four years by universal suffrage, and is assisted by a council of seven ministers for foreign affairs, the interior, public works, war, finance, public iastruction, and justice. The legislative functions are discharged by a congress of 37 members returned by the various departments in proportion to the population. 270 MEXICO, CENTRAL .iMEEICA, WEST IKDIES. The armj' consists legally of all able-bodied unmarried men between the ages of twenty and twenty-five, regulars and reserves comprising altogether about 25,000 of all arms. Usually, however, there are scarcely more than 500 engaged in garrison duty. For administrative purposes the republic is divided into thirteen departments, for which see Appendix. V. — Nicaragua. Nicaragua is the largest, but relatively the least densely-peopled, of all the Central American states. Yet within its limits is found the true centre of the Fig. 117.— Teeeitoey clahted at Vaeiou3 Times by Geeat Beitain. Scale 1 : 17,000,000. 4^ -^ .Eleivfields -- iS.Juan.J,! Norl- West of" b^eenvvicK . 310 Milea. isthmian region, and one of the cardinal points in the history of the New "World. This privileged region is the narrow strip of territory comprised between the Pacific and the shores of Lakes Managua and Nicaragua. Here reigned the famous cacique, Nicarao, whose name has been perpetuated in a Spanish form as that of the Ilispano-American republic. Like Honduras, Nicaragua suffered much from the incursions of the corsairs on its Atlantic side, and here, also. Great Britain long sought to secure a perma- nent footing. The section of the seaboard known as Mosquitia, or the Mosquito Coast, was even claimed by the English Government, and but for the intervention of the United States, the whole space comprised between the Nicaragua Eiver and Honduras Bay would have become British territory. In virtue of the Monroe doctriue, " America for the Americans," this territory was restored to the republic NICAEAGUA. 271 of Nicaragua, though its independence was again threatened in 1855 by the American National party itself. In that year the American adventurer, Walker, one of those men " who have all the qualities required for the throne or the gibbet," came to the aid of one of the native factions with over 12,000 filibusters, who were to be rewarded with extensive grants of land for their future victories. After a first repulse at the town of Rivas, Walker seized Granada, the chief city of the republic, and secured the election of his nominee to the presidential chair. Slavery was then revived, and an attempt made to attract capitalists with the view of converting Nicaragua into one vast plantation, on the model of the " Cotton States," such as Mississippi and South Carolina. But all the peoples of Central America had already taken the alarm, and a league was formed against the filibusters. From the south came the Costa Ricaus, from the north the Guatemalans, and the Nicaraguans themselves having also revolted, the adventurer was driven from port to port, and at last compelled to take refuge in Rivas,. where, after a four-months' siege, he had to capitulate in 1857. Though his life was spared, he twice attempted to return to Central America, but having fallen into the hands of the Hondurans, he was executed as a filibuster at Truxillo, in the year 1860. This failure was of more than local importance ; it was the first success of the abolitionist party in America itself. " I have defended the cause of the slave- holders abroad," said Walker when dying ; " they will soon have to defend it themselves In their own sugar and cotton fields." Since that critical epoch, Nicaragua has pursued a more tranquil course of development than the sister states. There has been a general increase of popula- tion and wealth without involving the usual consequences of civil discord and revolutions. Even the troublesome questions of boundaries have led to nothing more serious than diplomatic discussions with Honduras and Costa Rica, discus- sions which were finally settled by the mediation of the United States Government, appealed to as arbitrator. Apart from a few slight deviations, the two bold lines traced on the map, on one side by the course of the Rio Segovia, on the other by the southern shore of Lake Nicaragua and the bed of the Rio San Juan, are regarded as the frontiers of Nicaragua towards Honduras on the north and Costa Rica on the south. Physical Features. The Nicaraguan main range forms a south-eastern continuation of the Chile Mountains in Honduras, running parallel with the Pacific coast, with peaks ranging from over 3,000 to 4,000 feet In height. The chain falls gradually- southwards, rising to a mean altitude of scarcely more than 650 or 700 feet along the east side of Lake Nicaragua. This irregular system may be roughly regarded as the escarpment of an ancient plateau falling abruptly westwards, and Inclining eastwards to the Atlantic through a long declivity disposed by the running waters in numerous divergent valleys. Those of north Nicaragua run north-east 272 MEXICO, CENTEAL zVMliEICA, WEST INJJlES. parallel witli tlie E,io Segovia, and those of the centre due east, while those of the south, as, for instance, the valley traversed by the Rio San Juan, have a south- easterly trend. In several places these fragmentary sections of the plateau present the aspect of distinct sierras. Such are, iu the north, the Sierra de Yeluca, and in the south that of Yolaina, which terminates seawards in the Punta ilico, the Monkey Point of English writers. Amongst the various foot-hills of the main range, there is one ridge which had passed unnoticed by all goographei's till indicated for the first time by the naturalist Belt, in 1874, when it attracted universal attention owing to the curious resemblance of its name to that of the New World itself. This is the little Sierra d'Amerrique, near Libertad, otherwise remarkable for its sheer rockj^ walls, its obelisks and huge isolated crags. The name of the continent has now been connected by M. Marcou with these hitherto unknown rugged heights, the theory being that Amerigo Vespucci and other early naviga- tors hoard the natives speak of the hills in question as abounding in treasures, and then applied the term to the whole region ; thereupon it occurred to Amerigo to turn to his personal glory the accidental resemblance of this name to his own. The Sierra d'Amerrique, called also Amerisque and Amerrisque from a local tribe said to have been formerly powerful, lies in the territory of the ancient Lencas, as is shown by the ending riqm generally occurring in the Honduras regions inhabited by these Indians. West of the Nicaraguan main range, the region facing the Pacific was originally an extensive low-lj'ing plain, where the underground forces have raised two lines of eminences, or even mountains, some isolated, others forming veritable chains. The first of these ranges is so inconspicuous that, when seen from the plain, it seems merged in the chain disposed immediately to the east of it. Its indistinct cha- racter is due to the fact that the volcanoes have been upheaved on the very flanks of the plateau. Thus Guisisil (4,550 feet) rises in close proximity to the Mata- galpa Mountains, and by damming up the waters formerly descending to the Pacific, has deflected them through the Rio Grande eastwards to the Atlantic. South-west of Guisisil, loftiest of these volcanoes, other cones have emerged along the depression which is flooded by the two Lakes Managua and Nicaragua ; here the Cerro de la Palma, Cuisaltepe, Juigalpa, Platotepe, Pan de Azucar, Jaen, Picara and the Ventanillas are all disposed in a line running close to the east side of the great reservoir. But far more important in the geological history of the country are the peaks of the main range, which forms a continuation of the Salvador volcanic system. The truncated cone of Coseguina, at the southern entrance of the Gulf of Fonseca ■opposite Conchagua, is the first link in this igneous chain ; it still rises 3,860 feet above the sea, but according to Belcher, the regular cone must have been at least double that height. Before the Krakatau explosion, Coseguina was usually referred to with Timboro, of Sumbawa Island, as a typical example of the tremendous catas- trophes caused by the sudden escape of gases pent up in the bowels of the earth. On January 20, 1835, the summit of Coseguina was blown to atoms, day was PHYSICAJ. FEATURES OF NICAR/VGUA. 273 changed to night for a space of several hundred square miles, the sea was covered with a dense layer of ashes and scoriae arresting the progress of ships for a distance of over 25 miles from the volcano, all verdure disappeared under a bed of dust at least 16 feet thick, and the very shoreline encroached on the ocean and on the Gulf of Fonseca. Westwards the trade winds wafted the dust 1,380 miles across the sea, eastwards the counter-current precipitated it on Honduras, Yucatan, and Jamaica, Fipr- 118- — MoMEACHO Volcano and Shobes op Lake Nicaeaoua. while the aerial eddies carried the ashes southwards to New Grenada. The crash of the ruptured mountain was heard on the Bogota uplands, a distance of over 1,000 miles as the crow flies. Altogether the ashes fell on a space of about 1,600,000 square miles, while the erupted matter was estimated at 1,750 billions of cubic feet. The explosion lasted forty- three hours, but the people of the sur- rounding plains had time to escape, with their domestic animals, followed by wild beasts, birds and reptiles, beyond the reach of the stifling gases. Some 30 miles south-east of Coseguina rises the twin-crested mass of the VOL. XVII. T 274 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMEPJCA, "WEST INDIES. extinct Chonco and Viejo (6,300 feet) cones, beyond whicli follows tlie Marrabios range of peaks, mostly little over 3,000 feet, but culminating about the centre of tbe system in Telica, 4,200 feet bigh. Somewbat east of tbe Marrabios tbe series of volcanoes is continued by tbe majestic Momotombo (6,150 feet), wbose base forms a promontory in Lake Managua, and wbicb bas been in eruption so recently as 1852. Formerly tbe missionaries baptised tbe burning mountains, but some monks wbo bad undertaken to plant tbe cross on Momotombo never returned. Cbiltepec (2,800 feet), wbicb rises out of tbe very waters of Managua, is followed by some less elevated cones on tbe mainland, wbere tbey are in close proximity to lagoons evidently at one time forming part of tbe lake. About midwaj' between tbe two basins stands tbe famous Masaya (2,800 feet), wbicb was formerly known to the Spaniards by tbe name of Infierno, " Hell," and wbicb in pre-Columbian times was said to bave borne tbe name of Popocatepetl, like tbe Mexican giant. Masaya, tbat is, tbe "Burning Mountain," was first ascended by Oviedo, wbo saw its crater filled with boiling lavas. At that time slight eruptions occurred at almost regular intervals of fifteen minutes, and the yellow fluid bubbling up on the bed of tbe crater was supposed to be molten gold. Two Spanish monks, accom- panied by three fellow-countrj-men and many Indians, having failed to secure any of the precious liquid, it occurred to Juan Alvarez, dean of tbe chapter of Leon, to tap the perennial stream by means of a tunnel driven through the flank of the moimtain. But before the work could be seriously taken in hand, Masaya boUed over of its own accord in 1772, and since then it has been quiescent, except in 1852 when it ejected a few jets of vapour. But in 1856, Nindiri, a parasitic crater on its flank, discharged large quantities of vapour. Mombacho (4,600 feet), which stands on tbe same pedestal as Masaya, but on tbe north-west shore of Lake Nicaragua, has long been extinct. But its former energy is attested by tbe surrounding lava streams and by tbe Corales, a cluster of eruptive islets encircling its submerged base. South-west of Mombacho the volcanic chain is continued In the lake itself, first by Zapatera (2,000 feet), and then by the large twin-crested island of Ometepe tbat is, the Mexican- Aztec Ome-tepetl, " Two Mountains," 5,360 and 4,200 feet respectively. The summit of Ometepe is crowned by a flooded crater, and on the flank of tbe mountain is a still larger crater overgrown with dense vegetation. From the top of the mountain a wide prospect is commanded of the whole lake, the narrow isthmus separating it from the Pacific, and the amphitheatre of bills sweeping round the eastern horizon. "West of the two lakes the isthmus constituting Nicaragua proper has also its little coast-range, of moderate elevation and interrupted by numerous gaps. Venturon, the culminating crest, is only 800 feet high, while the lowest pass scarcely stands more than 25 or 26 feet above the level of the lake, which at the narrowest point is rather less than 13 miles from the Pacific. In many places, the isthmian region is entirelj' covered by the so-called ialpdatc or tepdate, that is, eruptive matter deposited under the influence of the prevailing south-west trade FvIYEES OF NICAEAGUA. 27d winds. The consequence is that this region is destitute of springs or streams, all the rain water disappearing in the porous masses of scoriae and ashes. KI^^!Rs AXD Lakes. Although the Nicaraguan backbone is developed east of the lacustrine depres- sion, the narrow strip of land limiting Lake Nicaragua on the west side is the true waterparting of the whole region. The streams descending from the western Fig. 119. — IsTHiros or Eivas. Scale 1 : 1.200.000. V/est oF Greenwich 8S°AQ' Deptlis. 5 Fatnoms and upwards. 18 Hilcs. slopes of the Chontal Mountains do not flow to the Pacific, but after a winding course fi.nd their way to the Caribbean Sea. The pretended law that makes watersheds coincide with mountain ranges is nowhere more clearly contradicted. The parting-line, however, which is formed by the isthmus sends down nothing but rivulets on its west slope. The only Nicaraguan rivers that reach the Pacific have their sources on the opposite flank of the Marrabios hills, and flow to the Gulf of Fonseca. Such are the Estero Real, rising in the neighbourhood of t2 276 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Lake Managua, and, farther north, the Rio Negro, which has become the frontier towards Honduras. Both of these watercourses have frequently shifted their beds, owing partly to the erupted matter damming up their channels, and forming islands and peninsulas, partly also, perhaps, to seismic disturbances. Since the eruption of Coseguina in 1835 the Rio Negro has changed its course no less than four times, and at Fig'. 120.- TnE NiOAEAQUA- WATEErAKTIXG. Scale 1 : S.orio.OOO 'yS^^ii'''~^' '1^^ ^' West oF breenwich GO ALUes. present it intermingles its waters with those of the Estero Real in a common delta. The most copious river in north Nicaragua flows, under a great diversity of names, from the Matagalpa moimtains through the broadest part of the state down to the Atlantic near Cape Gracias-a-Dios. About its sources, within 50 miles of the Pacific, it is known as the Somoro, and lower down successively as the Cabrugal (Cabullal), the Coco (Cocos), Oro (Yoro, Yare), Portillo Liso, Tapacac, Encuentro, Pantasma, Segovia, from a town on its banks, and Gracias, or Cape River, from the low peninsula it has formed where it reaches the coast. It also takes the name EIVEBS OF NICARAGFA. 277 of Herbias, while the English call itTVanks or Yankes, this confusing nomenclature being due partly to the different languages current along its banks, partly to the lack of historic unity of the fluvial basin. "While the Spanish colonists were settling in the upper ralleys of the Eio Segovia, foreign corsairs of every nation were infesting its lower course. Pent in between mountain ranges, the "Wanks drains a relatively narrow basin, but, being exposed to the moist east winds, it is a copious stream accessible to small craft for a distance of about 170 miles below the rapids. At its mouth it projects its delta far seawards between banks of a reddish alluvium washed down from the upper valleys. The "Wanks drains an area of nearly 12,000 square miles, has a course of 400 miles, and a mean discharge of 17,000 cubic feet per second. Between this river and the San Juan, the largest watercourse is the Eio Grande, whose main branch, the ilatagalpa, probably at one time flowed west to Lake Managua. But having been dammed up by the heaps of scorise ejected from GuisisU, its course was deflected southwards and eastwards to the Atlantic. In one part of its valley it takes the name of Bulbul, while the Sambos of ilosquitia call it Awaltara. At its mouth it communicates through lateral channels with other watercourses, and according to Levy's chart there is a con- tinuous series of backwaters, false rivers, and passages extending for about 250 miles from Cape Gracias-a-Dios to the Blewfields lagoon, separated from the sea by a strip of sandy beaches and mangrove thickets. Most of these waters are narrow and obstructed by islands ; but the Pearl Cay and Blewfields lagoons are veritable inland seas, in parts overgrown by mangroves, but still leaving vast spaces open to navigation. The Blewfields basin, said to be so named from a Dutch corsair, BKeveldt, receives a river of like name, called also the Eio Escondido about its middle course. From the geological standpoint the present coast between Cape Gracias-a-Dios and Monkey Point indicates a state of transition between the old shoreline, that is, the west side of the lagoons, and the great Mosquito Bank, which advances seawards for a variable distance of fi'om 30 to 100 miles and which comprises numerous submerged and upheaved cays. One of these reefs is the Mosquito Cay, which has given its name to the whole bank, a name afterwards extended to the east coast itself and its inhabitants. Some of the islands on or near the outer margin of the banks are large and elevated enough to support a few settlements. Such are Tieja Providencia and San Andres, which belong politically to the Eepublic of Colombia, the little Corn Islands and Pearl Cays, dependent on Nicaragua. South of Monkey Point the Eio Indio reaches the coast just above the delta of the San Juan, which is the most copious of all the Xicaraguan rivers, but which only partly belongs to the republic. Most of its basin is, in fact, comprised within the neighbouring state of Costa Eiea, though its farthest headstream rises in the great lacustrine depression west of the Xicaraguan main range. Although the San Juan at present drains this depression to the Atlantic, there was a time 278 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INTDIES. when Lakes Nicaragua and Managua formed a continuous basin whicli sent its overflow to the Pacific at the Gulf of Fonseca. From that epoch dates the Intro- duction of the marine species, which have gradually adapted themselves to the fresh waters of Lake Nicaragua. Gil Gonzalez de Avila was assured by the natives that Lake Xolotlan (Man- agua) had an emissary flowing directly to the "Gulf of Chorotega" (Fonseca), but that the outflow was arrested by a lava stream from Momotombo. The emissary is now represented by the Estero Real, while Managua sought another Issue southwards to Lake Nicaragua, and thus became a tributary of the Atlantic. A slight upheaval would still sufiice to convert Managua into a closed basin. Fig. 121.— jMaeeabios Range and Lake Manaqtta. Scale 1 : 1,400,000. 30 Jliles. During the rains It feeds an emissary which at the Tipltapa salto has a picturesque fall of 17 or 18 feet; but In the dry season there Is no continuous current, the water slowly percolating through the sands and fissures of the rocks. A dry space of over four miles separates the outflow from the estero of Panaloya, which, although presenting the appearance of a river. Is merely a tranquil backwater communicating with Lake Nicaragua. Even during the rains Tipltapa is completely obstructed by reefs, and in 1836 Belcher had to transport a boat from one lake to the other. Hence It Is all the more surprising that projectors of Interoceanic canals should represent Tipltapa as the natural prolongation of a great transisthmian canal. Managua itself, although over 400 square miles In extent, Is obstructed by shoals, which render it EIVEES AND LAKES OF NICAEAGUA. 270 unnavigable by vessels drawing more than five or six feet of water. It stands at a mean altitude of 140 feet above the sea. Kicaragua. the Cocibolco of the natives, stands some 30 feet lower, or about 110 feet above sea-level. It has a mean area of 3,600 square miles ; but there are no abysses as in the .Alpine lakes, the deepest cavity being scarcely 280 feet deep. Some parts, especially near the San Juan outlet, are very shallow, and the general level varies with the seasons little more than seven or eight feet. But there can be no doubt that it formerly stood at a much higher level, for the islets south of Zapatera are covered with scoriae containing freshwater shells, like those still found on the neighbouring shores. During the rains vast spaces round the lake are transformed to absolutely impassable cienagas (quagmires), the waters from the surrounding heights pene- trating to a great depth into the pasty soil and converting the plains into a sea of mud. In the dry season the moisture evaporates, and the baked ground becomes fissured without anywhere clothing itself with vegetation. Nicaragua is fed by numerous affluents, some of which have acquired a certain celebrity in connection with various schemes of interoceanic canalisation ; such are the Eios Sapoa and de las Lajas in the isthmus of Rivas. But the most copious tributary is the Eio Frio descending from the Costa Eica uplands, and washing down vast quantities of volcanic sediment, which is gradually filling up the southern part of the basin, and raising its bed above the surface, as the neighbour- ing Solentiname archipelago has already been raised. Then the Eio Frio will become a tributary, not of the lake, but of the San Juan, and this river, thus charged with sedimentary matter, will form a chief obstacle to the proposed interoceanic canal. The San Juan, which escapes from the lake just below the mouth of the Frio, flows in a very sluggish stream till it approaches the Castillo, a little fort on the right bank 40 miles below the outlet. Here the river has forced a passage through the schistose ridge connecting the Chontal mountains with the Costa Eican Cerros de San Carlos. The rapids thus formed are followed some 12 miles lower down by another series of erosions, the raudal de ilachuca, so named from the first Euro- pean explorer of the San Juan. Farther on the mainstream is joined by the San Carlos, which sends down from the Costa Eican uplands a volume almost equal to that of the San Juan itself. A little above the delta follows the still more copious Sarapiqui afiluent, which also descends from the Costa Eican mountains, but which is so charged with alluvial matter that the idea of utilising the lower course of the San Juan for the proposed canal has been abandoned. In the delta itself the shifting branches of the mainstream are joined by the Ei - Colorado, a third affluent from Costa Eica. About the middle of the century nearly all the united waters of the San Juan basin entered the sea at Graytown (San Juan del Norte), where the powerful current had excavated a spacious harbour accessible to vessels of average draught. But most of this current was deflected by the opening of the Jimenez, a branch of the San Juan, which now joins the Colorado and whick, visually bears the same name. Other 280 ISIEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. ctannels at times carried off all the rest, leaving the harbour half choked with sands and almost cut off from communication with the river. Hence it has been proposed to remove the jjort to the mouth of the Colorado ; but the bar, with from 10 to 16 feet of water, varies frequently in depth, while the road- stead is exposed to the dangerous north winds.* Climate, Flora, Fauna. Nicaragua Is divided by the nature of its soil and climate into three distinct zones, an eastern, central, and western, each presenting special features in its vegetation, inhabitants, social condition, and history. The old schistose quartz and dolerite rocks of the plateaux and mountains on the Atlantic slope are watered by copious rains and vapours brought by the north- east trade winds. Hence these regions are covered with forests interrupted only by river beds, swamps, and marshy savannas. Here are found all the varieties of timber, cabinet and dye woods of the Honduras and South Mexican floras — cedars, mahogany, gayac, besides the characteristic cortes {tccoma sidcro.x ijlon) , which is hard as ebony and remarkable for the dazzling golden blossom with which it is entirely clothed towards the end of March, after the fall of the green foliage. Owing to the superabundance of moisture this region is necessarily unhealthj' and sparsely inhabited, the few Indian or half-caste natives being chiefly confined to narrow glades in the dense woodlands. The range of the Atlantic rains and rank forest-growths is sharply limited by the crest of the main Nicaraguan chain, so that it may rain for weeks or months together at Libertad on the east slope, while Juigalj^a, on the Pacific side, enjoys cloudless skies. The eastern rains last from May to January, with occasional intervals of fine weather, especially in October and November. Immediately beyond the forest region begins the central zone of savannas, varied here and there by a giant ceiba, which affords a grateful shade to numerous flocks and herds. Here the work of man in clearing the woodlands has been aided by the occodoma, a species of ant, which spares the hei'bage and confines its attacks to the sprouts and saplings growing on the verge of the forest. According to Belt, these ants are veritable agriculturists. They cut the tender leaves in squares, not for food, as was formerly supposed, but for manure to enrich the underground plantations of fungi on which they chiefly live. The eciton hamata, another species of ant in the same region, is placed by the same naturalist in the first rank for its intelligence. When a brook is bridged by a single branch too narrow to allow a horde to cross except in Indian file, a number of the insects cluster on both sides of the natural causeway in such a way as to double or treble its width. Amongst the remarkable phenomena presented by the fauna of this upland * Hydrology of the San Juan : — From the soiu-ce of the Rio San Rafael to Lake Managrua , 94 miles ; Lake Managua, 28 miles ; Eio Tipitapa, 18 miles ; Lake Nicaragua, 88 miles ; Desaguadero (San Juan), 125 miles; total. 353 miles. Extent of the basin, including the Colorado, 16,000 square miles ; discharge at the Lake Nicaragua outlet, 12,000 cubic feet ; at the fork of the delta, 25,000 cubic feet ; during the floods, 62,000 cubic feet per second. CEIBA. INHABITANTS OF NICAEAGUA. 2S1 zone Belt also mentions the timrtcs c/iiroii, a species of butterfly, whicli moves in coimtless multitudes over hill and dale, always in the direction of the south-east towards the Mosquito Coast. They come, probably, from the remote Honduras or Guatemalan forests, but never return. The third zone comprises the lacustrine plains and Pacific seaboard, that is, Nicaragua in the narrower sense — the " Paradise of Mohammed," in the language of the Spanish conquerors — the privileged region on which the other two zones naturally depend. It is at once the most fertile and healthiest region of the republic, though exposed to the fierce westerly gales here known as jmpagayos, from the Gulf of Papagayo, at the south-western extremity of Nicaragua. Here the native populations were formerly crowded together in vast cities " four leagues long," and the whole isthmus between the lakes and the sea was transformed to a vast plantation. Hence the local flora chiefly consists of cultivated plants, and others associated with them. Inhabitants. In Nicaragua the aborigines were exterminated, if not more ruthlessly, at all events, to a greater extent than elsewhere in Central America. There being no escape between the ocean and the lakes, the more numerous were the native com- munities, the more wholesale were the massacres. Even iu east Nicaragua, near the Caribbean Sea, many districts, formerlj^ covered with Indian villages, were completely depopulated by the buccaneers. Thus between Monkey Point and the Blewfields estuary, old cemeteries, heaj)s of potsherds, carved stones, and even human effigies are found in a region which is now a wilderness. The Spanish dwellings met along the course of the Mico are built with materials taken from older Indian structures. At present all the native populations of west Nicaragua are half-caste Ladinos. The Mangues, Nagrandans, Dirians, and Orotinans of the north-west are collectively grouped as Chorotegas, or Choroteganos, which is merely another form of Cholu- teca, the collective name of the neighboui'ing Honduras Indians, to whom they are related. Some ethnologists affiliate the Chorotegas to the Chiapanecs of east Mexico, while others regard them as Mayas expelled from Cholula in pre-Aztec times. They bore the name of Olmecs, like the jDredecessors of the Nahuas on the Anahuac tableland, and probabl}' belonged to the same stock. The final syllables of local names in various parts of Nicaragua cortainlj- indi- cate the presence of different peoples at different epochs. The ending, galpa, is Aztec, while rique denotes towns and heights on both sides of the Honduras fron- tier. In the valley of the Rio Segovia the names of places end in // or guina, and in Chontales ajM or ajm is most common. Fully a century before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Nahuas had advanced as conquerors through Guatemala, Salvador, and Honduras into Nicaragua. Here they were known by the name of Niquii-an or Nicarao, which some etymologists identify with the terra Nicaragua itself. Like their Mexican kinsmen they had their city of Tola or Tula, and like them also practised the art of writing, carved 282 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEEICA, ^VTIST INDIES. statues, and erected temples scarcely inferior to those of ]\rexico and Yucatan. The local topographic nomenclature shows that the Aztec nJe extended over nearlj^ the whole of Nicaragua, although their language has ceased to be current even in the isthmus of Rivas, where they at one time existed in multitudes. Spanish, enriched by numerous Mexican expressions, has become the common speech of all. In their stage-pieces, representing myths, historic events, or religious dramas, the languao-e employed is a jargon called by Brintou the " Nuhuatl-Spanish dialect of Fig. 122. — POPTJLATION or HONDUKAS AND NlCAEAGTJA. Scale 1 : 7,000,000. West of breenwuch . 121 Miles. Nicaragua." Most of these plays are accompanied by hciiks, or dances, and nearly all the old musical instruments are still in use. As in Mexico, the conquistadores endeavoured to destroy all memorials of the old culture. In 1524 the missionary Bobadilla raised a huge pyre at Managua, on which a bonfire was made of the religious and historical paintings, calendars, maps, and all other Nahua and Chorotegan documents that he could lay his hands on. The temples were razed to the ground, the idols overthrown, the cemeteries desecrated ; nevertheless, down to the present century there still survived nume- rous sculptured stones, especially in the islands of Lake Nicaragua, which the Spaniards had ceased to visit after exterminating their inhabitants. In the island of Momotombito alone Squier saw over fifty colossal basalt monoliths IXHABTTA>TrS OF NICAEAGUA. 283 representing tuman figures and recalling the monstrous statues of Easter Island, Polynesia. Xumerous antiquities, such as carved stones and rock inscriptions, ■were also found in the islands of Ceiba, Pensacola, and Zapatera. From the cemeteries of Ometepe, where the Xahua population has preserved its primitive purity, Brans- ford removed to the TTashington iluseum some eight hundred precious objects especially huge sepulchral urns containing seated bodies still decked ■with their ornaments. Another curious find made by Flint was the traces of thousands of human feet left on the yellow ashes ejected by llasaya and afterwards covered by subsequent eruptions. The uplands between the lacustrine and Atlantic basins are inhabited by abori- gines designated, like those of south-east ilexico, by the general name of Chontals, that is, " barbarians." Before the conquest they were already held in contempt by the civilised Xahuas of the plains ; nevertheless the ruins of cities and numerous vestiges of buildings and causeways show that these so-called barbarians had made considerable progress in the arts of civilisation. Gradually driven eastwards by the Ladinos, the Chontals have largely merged with the Zumas (Sooms, or Simus), the Popolacas or "Waiknas, that is, " Men," or else have altogether disappeared. In many districts nothing is now seen except their graves, usually disposed in a vast circle round the habitations. The Chontals appear to be related to the Lencas of Honduras ; their language is distinct both from Aztec and Maya, and they still number about 30,000, mostly designated by the names of the rivers inhabited by them. Some, however, bear distinct names, such as the Pantasmas of the upper Segovia, the Cucras following lower down, the Carcas, TV^ulwas (Uluas), Lamans, Melchoras, Siquias, and the Eamas of the Eio Mico, rudest of all the aborigines. One of the tribes on the Eio Grande has assumed the title of Montezuma, which for the populations of Mexico and Central America has become synonymous with the old national independence. This tribe, however, seems more akin to the Carib than to the Lenca stock. The word Carib itself, under the form of Carabisi, was current in this region long before the arrival of the Caribs from St. Vincent. "When speaking of the local idioms, Herrera mentions in the first place that of the Carabisi ; they have been identified with the present Zumas and Waiknas. On the other hand the so-called " Caribs " of the seaboard, more generally called Moscos or Mosquitos, are reaUy Sambos, that is, half-caste Indians and negroes, with a strain of European blood, due to the buccaneers who infested these shores. Many of the natives in the provinces of Segovia and Matagalpa have fair hair and blue eyes, which Belt attributes to the intermingling that took place in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries between the local Creoles and the French and English corsairs. In 16S7 the 280 rovers commanded by Eavenau de Lussan, having abandoned their vessels in the Gulf of Fonseca, crossed the continent, here 310 miles wide, and reached the Atlantic by the valley of the Segovia. Others ascended the same river, which had become " the great highway from ocean to ocean." 284 MEXICO, CENTEAi AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Nearly all the whites who settled in the favoured isthmian regions belonged to the vigorous Galician race, and the Gallego type may still be recognised, though their Spanish patois contains but few words borrowed from the Galician dialect. Non-Spanish immigrants, French, Italians, English, or North Americans, are very few, and their arrival dates only from the middle of the present century. Yet European artisans and labourers might easily adapt themselves to the climate, especially in the Matagalpa province. ToPOGRAPTIV. Chinandcfja, the chief place in the north-west on the Honduras route, compi-ises two distinct townships. El Viejo, on the slope of the mountain of like name, and the new town a few miles to the south-east, to which the name of Chinaudega is now exclusively applied. It was at one time a flourishing place, but it has lost its trade since the encroachments of the land on its ports of Tempisque in the north and Realcjo in the west. The present harbour of Corinto is sheltered by the island of Cardon, and affords excellent anchorage in 22 feet of water at ebb and 40 at flow. Corinto, which exports large quantities of dyewoods, is by far the busiest seaport on the Paciiic side. Leon, the chief citj' of the republic, lies between Lake Managua and the two estuaries of Corinto and the Estero Real. At the time of the conquest its pre- decessor, the Indian city of Subtiaba, contained a population of about 100,000. But the first Spanish town of the district was founded in 1523, not on the plain dominated eastwards by the Marrabios chain, but at Imhita, on the south-west side of Lake Nicaragua. Owing to various disasters, the settlement was afterwards removed to the vicinity of Subtiaba, capital of the Nagrandan nation. The new city, seat of the administration, soon became a flourishing place, and the English buccaneers who sacked it in 1680 carried off a vast amount of booty. At the close of the eighteenth century, Leon and Subtiaba were said to have a collective population of 50,000 ; but during the present century this number has been greatly reduced, especially by wars and civil strife. In recent years Leon has somewhat recovered its losses, and it is now connected by rail with Corinto and the other isthmian towns. The neighbouring thermal waters are little fre- quented, the whole region round about the city being still almost a wilderness. During the rainy season Leon is exposed to frequent inundations, and the rudely paved streets at times resemble mountain torrents, the water surging up to the very eaves of the houses. Managua, the present capital of the state, was till the middle of the century a mere hamlet standing on the site of an Indian city some 00 feet above the level of Lake Managua. In the neighbourhood are the little closed basins or tarns of Tiscapa, Nejapa, Asososca, and Apoyo, old craters which, after bursting, were flooded with a brackish water, differing in its saline properties according to the nature of the surrounding soil and lavas. The neighbouring plains, formerly under cotton, are now covered with coffee plantations. Beyond Tipitapa and the intermittent stream bearing its name, stretch the 3 o H t-t pa -=: O TOPOOBAPHY OF NICAEAGUA. 285 forests abounding in Brazil wood {ctvsalj>inia criqm). The black marshy lands on the east side of the lake take the name oijica rales from the Jicaro, or calabash- tree, which is here the prevailing species, and whose fruit supplies the natives with nearly all their domestic utensils. Granada, like Leon, is one of the oldest places in Nicaragua, having been founded in 1523 by Francisco de Cordoba, near the Indian city of Salfeba (Jalfcba), now one of its suburbs. The fame of its wealth and of the great fertility of the district more than once attracted the attention of the corsairs, who, in 1665, and again in 1670, ascended the San Juan and crossed Lake Nicaragua to sack and Fig. 123.— Dexsity or the Population op Hont)ukas ajtd Nicakagua. Scale 1 : 7,500,000. Inliabitanfs per square mile. n a Under 2. 2 to 10. 10 to 20. 20 to 30. 30 to 10. 121 Milea. 40 to 60. 60 and upwards. burn the city. Some fifteen years afterwards another band of English and French buccaneers attacked it from the Pacific side ; but before its capture most of the inhabitants had time to escape with their valuables to the archipelagoes of Lake Nicaragua. It again suffered during the expedition of the filibuster, William Walker, who set fire to it before abandoning it in 1856. Granada lies on the scarp of the plateau on the north-west side of Lake Nicaragua. Its buildings lay no claim to architectural beauty, and it owes its chief importance to its schools, its trade and industries. Several landing-places follow along the neighbouring shore ; but Charco Muerto is the only town possessing a 286 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. good haven. It lies far to the south, and is sheltered by Zapatcra Island from the trade winds. The department of Granada is by far the most densely peopled in the state, and here several important towns and communes are scattered over the fertile plains. The most flourishing place is Masaija, which has a population of some 15,000 mestizoes. It stands north-west of Granada on the plateau commanded on the west by the volcano of like name, not far from the lovely Nindiri, a true "garden of the Hesperides." The surrounding farmers and peasantry are a prosperous and industrious people, engaged in various crafts, such as weaving, pottery, leather dressing, saddlery, and producing a thousand objects of local consumption, Jinotepe, south-west of Masaya, stands at an elevation of 2,520 feet amid productive coffee plantations, while Nandaime, in a rich valley sloping towards the bay of Charco Muerto, is surrounded by thriving cacao farms ; in the neigh- bourhood is the famous Val Menier domain, the produce of which commands too high a price to serve for the preparation of ordinary chocolate. About five miles west of Nandaime are the ruins of Nandaime Viejo, supposed to have been des- troyed by an earthquake. " "■ Eiras, standing at the narrowest part of the isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific, might claim to be regarded as the " metropolis " of the republic. Here resided the Niquiran chief, Nicarao, who, according to most of the chroni- clers, gave his name to the state ; here began the work of conversion and of con- quest, and here Bobadilla baptized over 29,000 persons in the space of nine days. Yet no Spanish settlement has been made in this favoured district, and the Indian village of Nicarao-calli was not raised to the rank of a town till the year 1720, greatly to the disgust of its rival, Granada. It long bore the name of " Nicaragua," but since the beginning of the present centiuy that of Rivas has prevailed. The town is continued for miles through a highly-productive district by the scattered villages of Obrage, Potosi, Bueiiayrc, while eastwards it descends to its port of San Jorge on Lake Nicaragua. On the Pacific coast the hamlets of Brito and San Juan del Stir {Concordia) are names associated with the engineering projects for piercing the isthmus by a navigable canal, and sooner or later the opening of this interoceanic highway will confer on Brito the celebrity now enjoyed by Suez and Panama ; yet its harbour, scarcely 70 acres in extent, is so exposed that it will have to be sheltered by costly breakwaters. On the other hand the magnificent haven of Salinas Bay, common to Nicaragua and Costa Hica, has no settlements on its shores, and is entirely neglected except for the exploitation of the Bolanos salt-pans. The haven is an almost circular basin, over 20 square miles in extent, sheltered from the surf and ranging in depth from 40 to 80 feet. A cutting across an intervening sandy isthmus might connect it with the equally safe bay of Santa Elena. Compared with the western seaboard, the Atlantic coastlands might almost be called uninhabited, all the civilised populations being concentrated on the uplands near the waterparting between the lacustrine and Atlantic basins. Throughout TOPOGBAPnY OF NICAEAGUA. 287 its whole extent the great valley of the Rio Segovia has only one town, Ocotal, capital of the department of Segovia. The first Scgocia, founded in 1524, soon became a flourishing place as a centre of the gold washings in all the surrounding valleys, but it was destroyed in 1854 by Morgan, most famous of all the TTest Indian buc- caneers. Rebuilt in a more protected position, it was again attacked by the ilos- quitos corsairs, and had to be shifted a third and a fourth time to sites farther and farther removed from the coast. The present " Segovia," better known by the name of Ocotal, stands at an altitude of over 2,000 feet on the left bank of the "Wanks (Coco), in a mineral dis- trict abounding in gold, silver, copper, iron and tin. Further down, nothing is met except a few Indian camping-grounds, one of which, Koom, near the estuary at Cape Gracias-a-Dios, was formerly the residence of a Sambo " king." The upper valley is somewhat more settled than that of the TYanks. Mata- galpa, capital of the department of like name, has the advantage of easy access to Lake Nicaragua, although its waters drain to the Atlantic. It is a thriAing place, surrounded by rapidly-spreading coffee plantations. Jinotega, on the opposite side of an intervening ridge, is also a prosperous town, whose cultivated lands are steadily encroaching on the neighbouring pine forests. The uplands of this region are also rich in the precious metals, and near the Indian Tillage of Sehaco are seen numerous galleries, whence the natives drew large quantities of gold. The auriferous sands of Frincipolca have also attracted many immigrants from the Zamba territory. Acoyapa, or San Sebaiiian, capital of the department of Chontales, stands on the site of a formerly populous city, but is itself a mere village near the east shore of Lake Nicaragua, where it possesses the port of San TJhaUo. In the same dis- trict, but farther north at the foot of the Sierra Amerrique, stands the town of Juigalpa — in Aztec, the "Great City" — which appears to have been a large centre of population, to judge, at least, from the numerous ruins, the disinterred idols, and still undeciphered inscriptions covering the surrounding rocks. Liberiad, on the opposite or Atlantic side of the sierra, is the capital of a pro- ductive mining district, but the excessive moisture renders its cKmate highly insalubrious. Farther east the basin of the Blewfields is almost uninhabited as far as the great lagoon of Uke name. Here stands the village of Bleirfields, a former nest of pirates, and residence of the ilosqtutos chief, who takes the redun- dant Anglo-Spanish title of "Rey-King." This potentate, formerly protected by Great Britain, but now a pensioner of Nicaragua, administers all the villages of the ilosquitos Coast for a space of about 150 miles between the Hueso and Rama Rivers north and south. Blewfields is also the centre of the Protestant missions and English schools along the seaboard. It is surrounded by extensive banana and other plantations, and since 1883 it has developed a considerable trade in cocoanuts, pineapples, oranges, and other fruits with New Orleans. The shores of the Pearl Lagoon as well as the neighbouring Corn Islands have also become busy agricultural centres. Oysters abound along the coast lagoons. 288 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. although the vast kitchen-middens of the surrounding forests contain none of these bivalves. Potsherds and little human figures have been found in the refuse. San Carlos, on the left bank of the San Juan where it escapes from the lake, is a mere group of cabins, commanded by a ruined fort. But according to Belly, this is the site of the future Constantinople of the American Bosj^horus. CaHtillo, a little farther down, is the most important station between the lake and San Juan del Norte, often called Greijtoim since the time of its occupation by the English. This town, famous in the history of the wars between the Spaniards and bucca- Fig. 121.— San Juan del Noete before the Consteuction of the Piee. Scale 1 : 85,000. 'o 16 Feet. Depths. 1<>(0 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upw.xrds. . 3,300 Yards. neers, and long the scene of English and American rivalries, is the only seaport of Nicaragua on the Atlantic side. Its little white wooden houses, with their smiling garden plots, trailing plants, and shady palm-groves, are surrounded by swampy tracts, backwaters and channels, alternately flooded and filled with mud, which should make Greytown a hotbed of fever. Yet according to the testimony, not merely of engineering speculators, but of disinterested travellers, it is really one of the least insalubrious places along the whole seaboard. This is mainly due to the porous nature of the volcanic matter washed down by the river, so that the surface waters ECONOinC CONDITION OF NICAEAGUA. 289 rapidly disappear, carrying witli them all the impiirities of the soil, while the exhalations are continually dissipated by the prevailing north-east trade winds. The absence of a port at Greytown has obliged the promoters of the Xicara- guan interoceanic canal to construct an artificial harbour on the north-west side of the delta. A jetty projecting l,-440 yards seawards has enabled the stream to sweep away the sands and gradually scour the channel to a depth of seven or eight feet. A few structures on the beach mark the site of the future '' City of America," solemnly founded on January 1, 1S90. Xorth of this place, the best roadstead is at Monkey Point between the Blewfields and Rama rivers, and it was here that Bedford Pirn proposed to establish the Atlantic terminus of his transcontinental railway, crossing the waterparting at a height of 760 feet. The promoters of the canal are now connecting the Kama vallev with the harbour of San Juan. Thev will thus have the advantage of two seaports with an intervening territory suitable for European colonisation. ECOXOMIC COXDITIOX OF XlCARAGVA. Although sparsely peopled relatively to the vast spaces capable of settlement, Nicaragua, like the sister states, is steadily increasing in population, which advanced from nearly 13"2,000 in 1778 to 160,000 in 1813. Since then, despite ci^il strife and invasions, progress has been even more rapid, the returns for 1846 showing 257,000, while the total population was estimated in 1890 at 375,000, or nearly six to the square mile. The birth-rate is at present on an average double that of the mortality. The chief products of Nicaragua are agricultural, and these might be indefinitely increased by bringing the vacant lands under tillage. Coffee, which forms the staple of the export trade, comes almost exclusively from the province of Granada. Next in importance is caoutchouc, collected, not from cultivated plants, but from forest growths felled by the Caribs of the Atlantic coastlands. Bananas are yearly becoming more abundant, thanks to the increasing demand in the United States. The Xicaraguan planters also export cacao and sugar, but have almost ceased to cultivate indigo, driven from the markets by the new chemical dyes. A great resource of the republic are horned cattle, exported both to Costa Pica and Honduras, ilany million head might be raised on the grassy plateaux of Chontales, where the herds number at present scarcely more than 1,200,000. Nicaragua also possesses considerable mineral wealth, though mining operations are stiU mostly carried on in a primitive way. The best-worked mines are those of Chontales, which have long been owned by English proprietors. The gold washings of the streams flowing to the Atlantic are almost entirely in the hands of the Indians and Sambos of the coastlands. Mining, such as it is, is almost the only local industry, and all manufactured wares, except some coarse textiles and furni- ture, are imported from Europe or the States. The chief products of the native craftsmen are the earthenware of Somotillo, the hammocks of Subtiaba and Masaya, and the calabashes of Rivas embelKshed with designs in relief. Foreign trade is scarcely developed, amounting to scarcely more than £2 per VOL. XVII. XI 290 MEXICO, CENTE.VL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. head of the popuhitioii. The total exchanges amounted in 1890 to little over £800,000, most of the trafBc heing with the United States and Great Britain. The Nicaragua Canal. But trade and the industries will be powerfully stimulated by the completion of the interoceanic canal which has been so long projected. There can be no doubt that the isthmus of Nicaragua is by far the most suitable region for a canal with locks, the line to be followed being already indicated by the depression of Lake Nicaragua and its emissary. It has even been proposed to cut a navigable way free of locks, a scheme by Fig. 125. — Peojected Inteeoceahic Canals aceoss NiCAiLiGUA. Scale 1 : 5,200,000. West oF OreenwrcK Depfhs. 5 Fathoms ami upwards. Projected Canal. to5 Fathoma. Canalised Eiver. Railways opened and projected. — ^— ^— ^— ^^^^_ 124 Miles. which the great basin would be more than half emptied and many hundred thousand acres of arable land reclaimed in the very heart of the country. But a cutting over 220 miles long, under such a climate and without slave labour, would appear to be beyond the power of modern industrial resources. Projects of a more practical nature were spoken of so earlj' as the time of the conquest, and even under the Spanish rule the buccaneer, Edwards David, con- ceived the idea of a cutting between the lake and the Pacific. In 1780, the engineer, Martin de la Bastide, proposed such a canal, and the next j-ear the Madrid Government undertook a first survey of the ground with a view to its construction. THE NICARAGUA CANAL. 291 Immediately after the declaration of independence, the new republic decreed the accomplishment of this work, but failed to supply the means for its execution. After the discussion of various plans and counter- j)lans, a first scheme for a canal terminating at San Juan del Sur (Concordia), on the Pacific, was propounded by John Bailey in 1843. Since that time various other schemes have followed, but without obtaining the necessary capital. The failure, however, of the Panama undertaking has revived the hopes of speculatoi s, who propose to carry the interoceanic route through the Lake of Nicaragua. The works were, in fact, actually commenced at the end of the year 1889, though not, as the financial world expected, at the expense of the United States Government. The estimated cost is fixed at £15,000,000, and a period of six years assigned for the completion of the work, which will have a total 126. — Lower San Juan Canal. Scale 1 : iViri 000. '0- 55 ■mm^y;^"'!^^^. '^=- ^-^^ . lO" ■ '"■.■.*;'-•■ '• ..■--"■-'<^ Ajlmerica '^^^^rt^i^r^ <^pJ 55 ^^^^^\a5^^ / ; . * . ' ■ " \ h '/■=4''t''f '-Sif'*^'^^^ Y i — -■ '- i " . " " =\ ■^'- /■•^"^7,>-lii43^'-'- • J ■ y- — -^ — ■'.ft '•■.•s>'''\ -i^"^ ^A^ssiifl^if. 1,. <--'y/^ J iV=ii^ 10- pmm ^ ''■ fSi.SMco 1 M 10" -15 ..^> <' .As^^SSSn _\ ■/ ^S <^^ ' \r?^ V i Msirtsti ^^ ■'■.■■[ -rmif--: ■'■ J- / C>J\»; 'Jr^ \ 1-- \' .v • 1 >^^.- .;. ^ vs^'^-^- -^- ^" )/•..!■ West oF G^ee^w,c^l 8-4' 85°-^ DepUls. Oto 5 Fathoms. 6 Fathoms and upwards. 1-' Miles. length of 170 miles, of which 140 of open navigation through the lake, and not more than 30 through ship canals. We are assured that vessels of the heaviest draught will take only 30 hours to pass from ocean to ocean, and that the cutting will admit 32 such vessels per day, or 11,680, of about 12,000,000 tons, a year. The San Juan discharges a volume sufiiclent for hundreds of canals, but its course is too shifting, its current too irregular and too charged with alluvia to allow of its being canalised and adapted for the navigation of large vessels. Hence it will be necessary to keep the canal quite distinct from the river through- out its lower course, where it receives the great tributaries from Costa Rica. This cutting, joining the river in its tranquil upper course, will be supplied with three locks, each 550 feet long, by means of which the vessels will be brought to the level of the lake, which stands over 110 feet above the Atlantic at low water. It U2 292 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. will have a depth of 29 or 30 feet, and a miuimum breadth of 80 feet on its bed, with sidings at the narrowest parts. Above the upper lock, which will have to be separated by an embankment from the mouth of the San Carlos, the ships will pass into the lake and traverse it obliquely to a second canal, whence they will descend to the Pacific through an artificial lake and the Rio Grande. But Lake Nicaragua itself will have to be deepened in its south-eastern section, where its bed has been raised by the alluvial Fig. 127. — Political Divisions of Nicaeaofa. Scale 1 : 5,000,000. Chinandega. Cbontalea. Leon. Matagalpa. Oianada. Segovia. : 94 Miles. Mosquitia. matter washed down by the Eio Frio from the Costa Rica highlands. The Pacific Canal will be partly transformed by huge dykes to lakes at different levels terminating at the port of Brito. Such is the magnificent project first conceived by Thome de Gamoud in 1858, then adopted with modifications by other engineers, especially Menocal, and now in process of realisation. But will the estimated sum suffice for the construction COSTA BTCA. 293 of sucli prodigious ■works, gigantic locks, large harbours in stormy seas, channels maintained at a constant depth, despite the invasions of sedimentary matter brought down by impetuous moimtain streams ? On the other hand, the annual increase of the world's trade, and the necessity of opening a navigable highway by which thousands of vessels will be spared a voyage of over 9,000 miles round Cape Horn, render the execution of this gigantic work more and more probable. But its successful completion is full of dangers for the republic itself. "WTien the canal has become the great highway between Xew York and San Francisco, and the all-powerful company finds itself mistress of the route with a vast army of employes at its disposal, how can the feeble and sparsely-peopled state hope to maintain its independence against the " manifest destinies " of the Xorth American Anglo-Saxon nation ? o Admixistratiox. In her political institutions, Nicaragua difFers little from the other Central American states. By imiversal sufFrage are erected two chambers, a senate of 18 members for six years, and a lower house of 21 representatives for four years. The president is also nominated for the same period, and is assisted by a council of four ministers, or secretaries, for foreign affairs, finance, public works, and the interior. The standing army comprises a few hundred men, with 1,200 custom-house officers, and a reserve of over 15,000 liable to serve in case of civil or foreign war. The revenue, Hke that of the neighbouring states, is largely derived from tobacco, spirits, and gxmpowder monopolies, supplemented by the customs and some minor imposts. Most of the expenditure is absorbed by public works, instruction, postal and telegraph services. Nicaragua, unlike Honduras, has hitherto escaped the financial speculators, and the public debt amounted in 1890 to about £600,000, with a mortgage on the 93 mUes of railway, altogether little more than one year's income. In the Appendix are given the eight administrative divisions with their areas and populations. TI.— Costa PacA. Next to Salvador, Costa Eica is the smallest of the Central American states in extent, while its population is absolutely the smallest. It may be described as little more than a narrow strip of territory forming a terrace or plateau between the two oceans at a mean elevation of 3,500 feet, and intersected by a volcanic range double that height. But it is occupied by a somewhat homogeneous people, who present a certain originality amongst Hispano-Amcrican communities, and whose progress has been less interrupted than that of the sister states by foreign wars and civil strife. In some respects, Costa Rica is the model republic of Central America, as well as one of the most prosperous, not so much on account of its mineral wealth, as might be supposed fi-om its name, as of its agricultural resources. This term 294 MEXICO, CENTRAL AATEEICA, WEST INDIES. " Rich Coast," given formerly to the whole of the south-western shores of the Caribbean Sea, that is, to the Gulf of Columbus taken in its widest sense, was later restricted mainly to the district of Yeragua in Colombia, where gold had been discovered. But the present Costa Rica, at first known as Nueva Cartage, was found so little productive by its first white settlers, that, according to some writers, the name of " Rich Coast " was retained by a sort of antiphrasis. Like the other Central American republics, Costa Rica has scarcely ceased to Fig 12S.— Gulf of ColitiIbus. Scale 1 : 5,000,000. We=c oF Cr Depths. 0to50 Fathoms. 50 to 1.000 Fathoms. I, Olio to 1,500 Fathoms. 1.500 Fathoms and upwards. , 124 Miles. be troubled with frontier questions, which, especially with Nicaragua, have at times led to sanguinary conflicts. The Nicoya and Guanacaste districts, at present the most important region of the state on the Pacific side, formed at one time a part of the province of Nicaragua, the natural limit between the two countries being the Gulf of Nicoya. But during the first years of independence, political discussions waxed so furious in Nicaragua, that those more peacefully-disposed COSTA RICA. 295 districts petitioned the Central American Government to be annexed to Costa Rica until order could be restored. But tbe arrangement has been maintained, and is now officially confirmed by treaty between the conterminous states. But in the San Juan basin on the Atlantic side, the conflict became more serious ; here the ri\cr is a natural highway of trade between the two republics, so that any frontier excluding Costa Rica from this outlet for her produce would have deeply affected her interests. The treatj' of 1858, ratified in 1888 by the arbitration of the United States president, definitely settled this question, assign- ing to Costa Rica the right bank from the delta to within three miles of the Tig. 129. — One of the Theee Chatees of Poas. fortifications of Castillo ; then the line is deflected eight miles south and east of this place, beyond which it follows all the windings of the river and of Lake Nicaragua at a distance of two miles to the mouth of the Rio de la Flor, which enters the Pacific a little north of Salinas Bay. On the side of Colombia the southern frontier is clearly indicated by the long promontory of Punta Burica j^rojecting into the Pacific, while on the north or Atlantic coast, Costa Rica claims Chiriqui Bay and its islands, including the Escudo de Veragua off the coast. On the other hand, Colombia claims not only the whole of Chiriqui Bay, but even that of the Almirante as far as the Boca del Drago. The question has been submitted to the arbitration of Spain ; but in such matters diplomatic records are of less consequence than the wish of the jjeople. 296 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. Physical Features. Taken as a whole Costa Rica may be regarded as an elevated tableland domi- nating tbe flooded Nicaraguan depression. Immediately to the south of this vast basin, the hills rise from tier to tier to the crest of the igneous cordillera which is disposed north-west and south-east. Within some 20 miles to the south of the narrow zone between Salinas Bay and Lake Nicaragua, the Orosi volcano, which still emits a few jets of vapour from its verdure-clad crater, rises to a height of 8,700 feet. Beyond it follows the almost isolated four-crested Riucon de la Yieja, and still in the same south-easterly direction the Miravalles peak (4,720 feet), crowned with an extinct forest-clad crater. Miravalles and its neighbour, Tenorio, are continued south-eastwards by the Cerros de los Guatusos, which for about GO miles are destitute of a single igneous cone. But towards the centre of the isthmus the Poas volcano rises to a height of 8,700 feet, and terminates in three craters, one flooded with a lake which drains through the Rio Angel to the Sarapiqui, and another filled with hot water from which vajjours are still occasionally emitted to a great height. In 1834 it was the scene of a violent eruption ; but Barba, its eastern neighbour, has long been quiescent, its terminal crater (9,000 feet) being also flooded, like so many others in this region. Farther on stands Irazu, giant of the Costa Rican volcanoes, which rises to the north of Cartago, and from whose summit a wide prospect is commanded of both oceans, and of the whole of Costa Rica from the Orosi peak to Mount Rovalo. Yet it slopes so gently that the traveller may reach its culminating point, a little over 11,200 feet, mounted on a mule. The lower flanks are covered with maize, tobacco, and other plantations, diversified with pasturage and terminating with oak forests. The hamlet of Birris, highest inhabited sj)ot in the republic, stands at an altitude of 9,400 feet. Turialba (11,000 feet), last cone going eastwards, has greatly contributed by its explosions to modify the general relief of the land. Since the eruf)tion of 18G6 it has never ceased to eject copious vapours, accompanied now and then with some ashes. . Its name is said to be a corrupt form of the Latin film's (iJba, " White Tower," though Thiol and Pittier have shown that the word is of Indian origin. Tlie Costa Rican igneous chain does not run parallel with the Pacific, but trends in a slightly oblique direction to the general axis of this part of the penin- sula, even developing a gentle curve with its convex side facing southwards and its more lofty section disposed transversely towards the Atlantic. It appears from Pittier's observations that the older cones began their eruptions early in secondary times, when the range stood in the midst of the sea, running in the same way as the insular volcanoes of the Hawaii archipelago. The former existence of such an archipelago is shown hy the sedimentary matter now filling the intervals between the igneous crests. According to the same authority some of the Costa Rican cones have ejected PHYSICAL FEATURES OF COSTA EICA, 297 no lavas during the historic period, although both Turialba and Irazu Have dis- charged vast quantities of ashes, which, under the influence of the trade winds, have been deposited on their south-west slopes. The plateaux stretching south of the volcanic system, and eroded on both >-3 sides by running waters, formerly contained lakes in their cavities. The Alajuela, San Jose and Cartago depressions had also their lacustrine basins, which were gradually emptied by the erosion of the encircling walls. Earthquakes are very frequent, but are seldom violent, and the vibrations 298 MEXICO. CENTEAL AISIEBICA, WEST INDIES. are rarely felt at any great distance from the base of the volcanoes. But at the end of the year 1888 several severe shocks, coinciding with the discharges of mud and water from Peas and Irazu, damaged the buildings of the neighbouring towns and overthrew some villages. A comparative study of the local seismic phenomena and of the rainfall during seventeen consecutive years has led Pittier to the conclusion that the return of igneous activity and of underground dis- turbances is a direct consequence of the tropical rains penetrating to the caver- nous recesses under the volcanoes. South of the igneous system the Costa Rican uplands are interrupted by the valleys of the Rio Grande de Tarcoles flowing to the Pacific, and of the Eeven- Fig. 131. — Plateau &yD Volcanoes of Costa Rica. ScIp 1 : 1.200,000. K^^T^T^^^'^^F^^^JTFI ; \ K^** 18 if ^^^ ' J5'* ^ \i)^- r „ « • ) -^"■^-j^y ^K \, A? .._:>•' 84 iu u^-" * ' g" ,.sa r„jgc:JimPi„t.'f ■-,.,:. afe West oF breenw en 6^ , 18 Miles. tazon descending to the Caribbean Sea. The sources of these streams are inter- mingled about the Ochomogo Pass (1,100 feet), which, at a former geological epoch, was flooded by one of the marine channels connecting the two oceans. South of this depression stretches an almost unknown region of wooded uplands some 8,000 square miles in extent, but apparently without any igneous cones. According to the natives. Mount Herradura (Turubale.s), at the southern entrance to the Gulf of Nicoya, has occasionally emitted some light vapours ; rumbling sounds are even said to be heard at regular intervals in the interior of the moun- tain, but these statements are doubted by Pittier, who denies that Herradura is a volcano at all. It is connected by a lateral ridge with the Dota mountains, a section of the main range traversing the isthmus midway between the two PHYSICAL FEATURES OF COSTA RICA. 299 oceans. Above the ridge rise at intervals a number of lofty summits, such as the Cerro Chiripo, in the Cabecar district, Mount Ujum (9,700 feet), Nemur, Kamuk, or Pico Blanco (9,600), and lastly, Eovalo (7,000), close to the Colombian frontier. A striking resemblance in their general outline is presented by the two penin- sular masses of Nicoya and the Golfo Dulce on the Pacific seaboard. Both consist Fig. 132 —Gulf of Xicota. Scale 1 : 'W.CiXl. SS'io- ViestoF Ljreen^vicH 84°-to- Deptlis. toS Fathoms. 5 to 25 Fathoms. 25 to 50 Fathoms. SCO Fathoms and upwards. 12 Maes. of a mountain range disposed parallel with the mainland, with which they are connected by narrow strips of lowlands. The Punta Burica, at the Colombian frontier, belongs to the same line of promontories, which is continued south of the province of Panama by the island of Coiba, the large peninsula of Azuero and the Pearl Islands. These chains and detached insular or peninsular masses describe collectively a regular curve of about 550 miles, which is perfectly concentric with the curve 300 MEXICO, CENTEAL A-NIEETCA, WEST INDIES. presented by the mainland itself between Lake Nicaragua and the Gulf of Panama. The highest crest of this outer Costa Eican coast-range appears to culminate towards its southern extremity in a peak not more than '2,000 feet high. ElVERS. The strips of coastlands on both sides of the central uplands are too narrow for the development of any large fluvial basins. Even the most copious streams, the San Carlos and Sarapiqui, become merged in the San Juan before reaching the Caribbean Sea. The Colorado, which, on the contrary, now receives nearly the whole discharge of the San Juan, flows entirely in Costa Rican territory, where its waters are intermingled by lateral channels with those of the Sarapiqui. From the north-east slopes of the uplands, exposed to the moist trade winds, flows the Parismina, or Reventazon, which has a much larger volume than might be supposed from the length of its course. On the same side follow several other rios, such as the Sicsola, and the Tilorio, or Changuinola, which Peralta identifies with the old Rio de la EstreUa, famous in the local legends for its auriferous sands. The same name of Estrella has also been given to another less copious stream, which flows farther north near Cahuita Point, and where the alluvia are still washed for gold. On the drier Pacific slopes the watercourses are less copious in proportion to their length. Nevertheless three of them bear the name of Rio Grande : the Rio Grande de Terraba, which reaches the coast at the head of the Golfo Dulce ; the Rio Grande de Pirris, which flows south of the mountains terminating in the western headland of Herradura, and the Rio Grande de Tarcoles, which rises at the Ochomogo Pass, and which, after its junction with the Tiribi, the more copious of the two, enters the sea opposite the southern extremity of the Nicoya peninsula. Farther north the Tempisque flows to the head of the Gulf of Nicoya after travers- ing the low-lying isthmus which was formerly a marine channel between the Nicoya peninsula and the mainland. All these streams tend by their alluvia to raise the bed of the gulf ; but a more potent cause is the south-east marine current which sweeps into the basin all the organic refuse collected on the neighbouring coast. The Gulf of Nicoya, so named from a chief whom the Spaniards converted with 6,000 of his subjects, rivals the Bay of Naples, the Bosphorus, or the Strait of Simonosaki in the rhj^thmical contour of its shores and encircling hills. Its waters are studded with islands of all sizes, whose deep green forest vegetation contrasts with the azure hue of the distant mountains. San Lucas, one of these islands, resembling Capri in outline, is famous throughout Central America for the legendary reports of the vast treasures here deposited by shipwrecked corsairs. But nothing has ever been brought to light desjDite the numerous expeditions equipped to discover these treasures. The Golfo Dulce, that is, "Freshwater Gulf," is much deeper than Nicoya, and entirely destitute of islands. CLIMATE OF COSTA RICA. 801 CiJMATE, Flora, Fatxa. Like Mexico and Guatemala, Costa Eica offers a vertical succession of the three "hot," " temperate," and " cold" zones. But here the local climates and the distribution of the vegetable species are endlessly modified by the varying condi- tions of altitude, aspect, and general environment. In general the climate is essentially oceanic, and well regulated by the winds prevailing on both seaboards. At San Jose, the mean annual temperature exceeds 68" Fahr., rising gradually to 78° towards the low-lying coastlands, and falling considerably towards the Fig. 133.— Guu OF DcLCE. Scale 1 : 950,000. 63"40' Vi sst op Greenwich 83" 10' to25 Fathoms. Depths. 25 Fathoms and upwards. 12 Miles. crests of the mountains. At an altitude of 9,000 feet Pittier observed films of ice on the margin of the streams, and on the summit of Irazu he found the surface covered with hoar-frost. At the same elevation the temperature is lower on the Atlantic than on the Pacific slope, but it is more oppressive, the atmosphere being more charged with moisture from the prevailing trade winds. On the west side the seasons follow very regularly, the rains falling almost exclusively from May to Xovember, whereas 302 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. on the east side wet weather may be said to last throughout the year. The annual rainfall rises to at least 130 inches in the Reventazon and Colorado basins. Nevertheless the Costa Eican climate is one of the most salubrious in Central America, both for natives and foreign settlers. Consumption is very rare, though the uplands have at times been ravaged by cholera, smallpox, and other epidemics. Fevers also prevail in the low-lying coast districts, while on the plateau strangers are subject to rheumatism from the excessive moisture. In general the flora resembles that of the other Central American regions, though botanists have been struck by the contrasts often presented between the Xicaraguan depressions and the Costa Rica uplands. Thus of the 100 ferns collected by Levy in Nicaragua, only three or four are found in the 36 Costa Rican varieties in Polakowsky's collection. The cactuses, also, which in many parts of the Mexican plateau cover vast spaces, are scarcely represented at all on the San Jose uplands. In the forests occur numerous Colombian forms, especiall)- several false cinchonas, which might easily be replaced by the valuable medicinal species. Tree-ferns grow to an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet, and the banana to about 6,000. Notwithstanding the reckless destruction of timber in many districts, more than half of the Atlantic slopes are still covered with primeval forests, containing an amazing variety of forms. In a space of 100 square yards, more types are here met than in 100 square miles in north Canada. The streams flow beneath avenues of overhanging foliage bound together from bank to bank by wreaths of flowers and festoons of trailing plants. A characteristic form in the clumps of trees dotted over many of the savannas is a species of mimosa, from which the province of Guanacnde takes its name. The widespreading branches of this tree are a favourite resort of the monkey tribe. According to Pittier the Costa Rican flora comprises altogether at least 2,200 species. The fauna, also, is exceptionally rich compared with that of other tropical regions. In general Brazilian and other southern types prevail over those of the northern continent. But Costa Rica also possesses several indigenous species, such as a howling monkey distinct from that of Guiana, a tapir {elasmognatJuis), somewhat different from the Colombian species, besides several kinds of bats and vampires dangerous to cattle, whose blood they suck. One migrating species appears sud- denly on the plains of Pirris, south of Mount Herradura, and falls on the domestic animals, poultry, cats, dogs, as well as horses and oxen. Although often regarded as fables, the reports of vampires sucking the blood of human beings, lulling their victims with their long wings, are by no means questioned by travellers and naturalists who have visited Central America. "Whole villages have had to be abandoned to escape their attacks, and the engineer. Brooks, one of the surveyors of the Panama Canal, died from the bites of a vampire. But the Costa Rican fauna reveals its marvellous wealth especially in the feathered tribe. In 1885, the catalogue of the "U'ashington National Museum already enumerated 692 species, distributed in 394 genera, and two years later, six new species were discovered, altogether twice the number possessed by the whole FAUNA OF COSTA lUCA. 303 of Eui'ope. The parrot and gallinaceous families are both represented by an extraordinary number of different forms, as well asb}- the multitude of individuals comprised in many of the groups. In the reptile order, as manj' as 132 species have already been recorded, and great discoveries still remain to be made on the marshy seaboard and in the dense primeval woodlands. The surrounding marine waters also abound in animal life, and the manatee, which has disappeared from most of the West Indian coast- lands, still frequents the Costa Rican streams. Like Tehuantepec Bay, the Gulf of Nicoya has its purple-yielding mm-ex, and like the Gulf of California, its pearl and mother-of-pearl oysters. Inhabitants. In Costa Rica the aborigines have been almost entirely supplanted by a civi- lised population of Spanish culture. The first European settlement, which, however, was not permanent, was founded in 1-j24 by Hernandez de Cordova on the Gulf of Nicoya. Badajoz, founded in 1540, on the opposite coast at the mouth of the Sicsola, in the Talamanca territory, also disappeared, and in 1544 took place the first conflict between the Indians of the plateau and the Spaniards in the neigh- bourhood of the present Cartago. In 1563 began the systematic conquest of the country by Vasquez de Coronado, who secured a firm footing on the plateau, where nearly all the population of Spanish speech is at present concentrated. Vasquez penetrated to within a short distance of the Golfo Dulce, reducing the warlike Coto Indians, and afterwards exploring the Talamanca territory on the eastern slope, the district about Almi- rante Bay, the Guaymi country and the auriferous region of the Eio de la Estrella. At that time the aborigines must have numbered at least 60,000, the Talamancas alone being estimated at 25,000, and the Indians of Coto at from 12,000 to 15,000. In 1675, over 100 years after the conquest, there were stiU scarcely more than 500 Spanish settlers in the country, nearly all grouped round the two towns of Cartago and Esparza on the 2:)lateau. The Indians employed on their plantations were gradually reduced to a few hundreds, and the colony itself made so little progress that even so late as 1718, there was not a single place of business on the plateau, and all the traffic was in the hands of packmen. During the seventeenth centurj' the seaboard was frequently attacked by the corsairs, but the country was too poor to attract them to the plateau. Despite its strategic importance Costa Eica, towards the end of the colonial regime, when it formed a province of the Guatemalan viceroyalty, had only a population of 47,000, mainly Mestizoes. The people are usually siDoken of as full-blood Spaniards, mostly from Galicia ; but they are really Ladinos, assimilated to the white race in speech, usages, and national sentiment. The negro element is very slight, there having been onlj' 200 blacks in the province at the time of the official abolition of slavery in 1824. The hravos, or " wild " Indians, variouslj- estimated at from 3,500 to 6,000, 804 MEXICO, CENTRAL A^^EI{TCA, WEST INDIES. were quite recently still living entirely aloof from the civilised populations. In the forests of the northern slopes draining to Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan, and especially in the Eio Frio basin, dwell the Guatusos, who at present visit the market of San Jos^, and bring offerings to the Catholic priests, " brothers of the sun." They were formerly said to have fair hair and blue eyes, which Gabb attributed to contact with the English buccaneers. Others pretended that the Tig. 134. — Gtiatuso Indian. 1 m w , A^ fugitives from the town of Esparza, sacked by the corsairs, hud merged in a single nation with the Indians. But all the Guatusos seen at San Carlos of Nicaragua, or at the markets of the Costa Rican plateau, have black hair, a dark complexion, and prominent cheek- bones, like the Nicaraguan Chontals, to whom the}' are probably related. They are excellent husbandmen, cultivating their banana, cacao and other plantations with great care. Nor are the Guatusos ferocious savages, as formerlj' asserted ; on the contrary, most of them have been exterminated by the Nicaraguan and Costa Ricau Latlinos engaged in collectiug rubber in the northern forests. According IXHABITANTS OF COSTA RICA. SOS to Tliiel hundreds are still kept in a state of servitude in Nicaragua, where the price of a Guatuso was receuth' fifty dollars. The natives of the southern districts are generally grouped under the collective name of Talamancas, although each tribe has its special designation. Such are Fi?. ISS ToiryG Talajuncas Tn-bians. r.—r -.-?,'> ^^- 1 V. v:, :/t1 I ','//' y/'r—r"/^ •■/;, ■.•}lf, »'■•' ./'/ ';;'7:'^;,';!.'ti the Chirripos, the Cabecars, Viceitas, Bribri and Tiribies, who still decorate them- selves with plumes, strings of teeth or pearl necklaces, and dwell in pakiiqiiis with thatched roof reaching to the ground. On the Pacific coast live other tribes, the Borucas or Bnmcas, the Terrebas and others, who have given their names to the neighbouring villages. The Chirripos and Cabecars near the Cartago district have already been baptised. The other VOL. XVII. X 306 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, VTEST INDIES. Talaraancas of the seaboard between Puerto Liraon and Almirante Bay appear to have also been formerly converted, for many of their ceremonies are of Spanish origin. But they still worship the sun and stars, the rocks and winds, the running waters and the sea. The Blancos, a people of Cabecar or Bribri origin, expose the bodies of their dead on palm-stands one or two yards above the ground, and bury thera after three years, when they are perfectly dry. Some food and precious objects are at the same time placed in the grave. In these graves have been found some remarkable little gold figures, which attest the ancient civilisation of the natives, and their lamentable degradation under their white rulers. Many of these artistic objects have unfortimately been melted down and coined at the Costa Rican mint. The jadeites and other green stones known by the Mexican name of chalchiltnifes come chiefly from Guanacaste and the Nicoya peninsula. Objects of pre-Columbian culture, formerly supposed to be rare in the northern provinces, are now found in thousands, especially about the environs of Cartage, where stood the ancient city of Purapura. Topography. Since the middle of the present century the population of the formerly almost uninhabited Guanacaste region has increased fourfold. Its vast savannas, where millions of cattle might be raised ; its forests, abounding in valuable timber and cabinet woods ; its gulf and harbours ; lastly, its convenient position between the Nicaraguan peninsula and the Costa Rican plateau — give promise of a great future for this hitherto neglected province. Its capital, Liberia, formerly Guanacaste, lies at the south foot of the Orosi volcanoes towards the middle of the fertile depression at the neck of the Nicoya peninsula. In the interior of the peninsula are situated the populous towns of Santa Cruz and Nicoija, the latter the larger of the two and formerly residence of the friendly chief who welcomed the Spanish conquerors, and was baptised with all his people. On the shores of the gulf are obtained both pearl and edible oysters, said to be the best on the whole west coast of America. Puntarenas [Punta Arenas, or "Sandy Point") stands on a tongue of sand at the mouth of the little River Barranca, which has deposited vast quantities of eruptive matter in the Gulf of Nicoya. The inlet is too shallow for large vessels, which have to ride at anchor in the roadstead. Yet Puntarenas has since 1814 been the outlet for all the foreign trade of Costa Rica on the Pacific side. Before that year the Pacific seaport of the province stood some six miles farther soiith, near the thermal springs of La Caldera, between the Barranca and Jesus-Maria estuaries. Before the opening of the railway, which hasits terminus at Puntarenas, it was proposed to establish the port south of the Rio Grande, in the picturesque bay of Tarcoles, at the foot of Mount Herradura. But the project was never realised owing t^ the dangers of the bar and unhealthy climate of Tarcoles. In the neighbourhood are some extremely thick beds of anthracite. From Puntarenas the railway ascends the scarp of the plateau to Esparza |||||||||j!i!iiiit''''":fn!!ffl!iiiiii::iiiiE!iKg a z <: o M o TOPOOEAPHT OF COSTA EICA. 307 (725 feet), so named in 1578 bj- its Navarrese founder from his native village near Pampeluna, but no-w oiEcially changed to Esparto. Another station higher up (2,400 feet) has similarly taken the name of Afenas {Athens), and three miles farther on stands La Garifa, on the edge of the plateau, whence a view is com- manded of the plains watered by the Rio Grande. Here have been opened the most productive gold and silver mines of the republic, which are said to have yielded an annual output of £40,000 since the year 1821. The gold is coined at the San Jose mint. Alajuela, the " Jewel " (3,000 feet), dates from the end of the last century, but has already outstripped some of its older rivals, thanks to the fertility of its volcanic soil. It is the capital of a province which ranks next to that of San Jose for population. Here are also the thriving towns of Grecia and San Ramon. Heredia, east of Alajuela, lies at the foot of the Barba volcano, near the Desengaho Pass (6,000 feet), leading by a difficult route down to the San Juan valley. It is the Cubujuqui of the Indians, one of the oldest places in the state. San Jose, the present capital, was a mere hamlet known by the name of La Villita at the middle of the last century. But it enjoyed the advantage of a more central position than Cartago, being admirably situated in the middle of the plateau, 3,750 feet above sea-level. On the cessation of Spanish rule it was chosen as the seat of government, and here have been founded the chief learned and literary institutions of the countiy — university, normal school, museum, meteorological observatory. Electricity was introduced in 1887, and Sun Jose is now connected by rail with the Atlantic seaboard. Cartago, formerly the capital, was founded in 1564 by Vasquez de Coronado, and is the oldest of still- existing settlements in the country. It was several times attacked by the buccaneers, partly ruined by the eruption of Irazu in 1723, and levelled to the ground by the earthquake of 1841. One of the stations on the railway connecting Cartago with the port of Limon on the Atlantic takes the name of Angostura from the " narrows " of the Rio Reventazon. This place is known in Europe In connection with the disastrous failure of a German agricul- tural colonj' founded in the district. Limon, last of the chain of settlements which follow across the Costa Rican isthmus, is of recent foundation. Despite the advantages of its harbour, the best on the Atlantic side of the republic, no seaport could be established here until access was given to the plateau by practicable routes. Thanks to the railway, Limon has suddenly developed a foreign trade equal to that of Puntarenas. It not only exports the coffee raised on the plateau, but also forwards to the United States vast quantities of bananas from the new plantations In the neighbouring district. The construction of the railway has necessitated the addition of several other important works, such as viaducts and embankments across the swamps and channels on the coast. Such works were needed, especially near Moiii, where a contraband trade was formerly carried on In English sroods. South of Limon, the only civilised Costa Rican settlement on the Atlantic slope is San Bernardo, in the territory of the Talamancas, near the Puerto Viejo. But, x2 308 MEXICO. CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. like the station of Chirripo, it failed to prosper owing to its isolation. The so-called "city" of Santiago de Talamanca, founded on the banks of tte Sicsola, was burnt in 1610 by the revolted Indians. The constant reports of rich gold-fields in the vaUey of the Estrella (Chan- guinola) rest on a mistake made by Alcedo in his famous JDiccionario Geograjico- Hinforico de !as Iiidias Occidenfales. Alcedo had given to these mines of the Estrella the name of Tisingal (Tinsigal, Tisiugal), which happens to be an abbre- viated form of Tegucigalpa, as shown by the corsair Ravenau de Lussan's excursion to the Eio Segovia in Nica- ragua. This "gold coast," where no tra- dition survives of a pretended town of Estrella, attracted scarcely any settlers. It was, in fact, rather avoided, owing to its reefs and inhospitable shores. Fig. 136. — PUEETO LiMON. Scale 1 : 50,000. iJepths. fZZ3 Sandg exposed at ebb. 0tol6 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards. 1,100 Yards. Economic Condition of Costa Eic.\. Although not so rapid as that of other Spanish-American communities, the material progress of Costa Rica has at least been steady and regular. The population advanced from 80,000 in 1844 to 120,500 in 1864, and to over 182,000 in 1883, and was estimated at 220,000 in 1890. The number of immigrants is still very small, and of the 4,672 returned in 1883, nearly 2,000 were from the conterminous states of Nicaragua and Colombia. In the trade of the world Costa Rica derives its importance almost exelusivelj' from its coffee, which, in prosperous years, has been exported to the extent of 15,000 tons, chiefly to Great Britain. Costa Rica also exports sugar, rubber, cacao, hides, and timber ; but in recent years all these wares are exceeded in value by the bananas forwarded to the United States, which in 1889 amounted to 40,000 tons, worth over £80,000. The so-called quiqukque, that is, the taro of Polynesia (edible colocasia), is also cultivated, in some districts even by Indians. The planters on the uplands, directing their attention almost exclusively to coffee-growing, do not produce sufficient supplies for the local demand, and are consequently obliged to import farinaceous products from Chile. Even the live- stock is insufficient for the wants of the people, despite the vast extent of their grazing-grounds. Of sheep and goats there were scarcely more than 2,000, and of horsef and horned cattle, 353,000 in 1888, when all the live-stock was valued at not more than £80,000. ECONOMIC CONDITION OF COSTA RICA. 309 But Costa Rica enjoys the advantage over Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Mexico that about one-half of the agricultural population are everywhere landowners, except in the province of Guanacaste. The territory which, even under the Spanish rule, was almost exclusively cultivated by free labour, is, for the most part, divided into small holdings, which give to the peasantry a direct interest in its improvement. In 1886 there were enumerated altogether 57,639 such holdings {fincas), with a total value of £7,760,000, but mortgaged to the extent of £1,600,000. Not more than one-twentieth part of the whole land has yet been brought under cultivation. Since the middle of the century trade increased fourfold, from about £400,000 to from £1,400,000 to £1,600,000, or in the proportion of from £6 to £8 per Fig. 137. — Mlll foe HusKrua Coffee. head of the population. Great Britain, the United States, France, and Germany, in the order hei'e given, are the chief customers of Costa Rica. The great high- way of the traffic is the railway h\ which the capital has been completely connected with the seaport of Limonon the Atlantic side since the year 1890. The railway company, besides government advances, has received a grant of many hundred thousand acres of land on the condition of selling or renting it within a period of twenty years. A portion of this vast domain has already been ceded to settlers, either for tillage or stock-breeding. Other railways are also projected, to connect Costa Rica with Nicaragua and its future canal, and plans and estimates have been prepared for regulating the discharge of the Rivers Frio, Sau Carlos, Sarapiqui, and Sucio, with a view to 310 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. making tliem accessible to steamers. An embankment, forming part of the Nicaragua Canal scheme, -would have the effect of raising the level of the Rio San Carlos about 50 feet, thus rendering it na\'igable by vessels of heavy draught to the foot of the mountain. On the other hand, the interoceanic route between the ports of Chiriqui and the Golfo Dulce, for which a concession was granted so far back as 1849, has not even been begun, although the company received a guarantee of 244 square leagues "with streams, rivers, mountains, and mines." Fig. 138.— HioHWATS OF CoMinmiCATiON IN Costa Rica. Scale 1 : 4,500,000. Navigable Rivers. Apart from a few minor details, the political institutions of the republic are modelled on those of the other Hispano- American states. The legislative power is exercised by a congress, whose members are elected for four years, one-half retiring every two years. A president, also nominated for four years, and not re- eligible, is charged with the executive functions. He chooses his own secretaries of state, and appoints the provincial governors, the military commanders, and the political chiefs of the cantons. The municipalities are elected by popular suffrage, which is not universal, but restricted to all who are able to live " respectably." The laws are administered by justices of the peace, cantonal alcaldes, provincial tribunes and a court of appeal. Criminal cases are tried before juries, and capital punishment is abolished as well as all degrading penalties. Freedom of worship. ECONOMIC CONDITION OF COSTA ERA. 311 decreed in 1870, already existed dc facto, and tithes liad already beea abolished soon after the declaration of independence. Convents and religious orders are interdicted throughout the republic. Public instruction had formerly been much neglected, and even in 1883 not more than 12 per cent, of the population could read and WTite. But primary instruction for both sexes is now obligatory and gratuitous, aud in 1886 as many as 20,000 scholars were already attending the 260 public schools. Under the Spanish rule, and dovm to 1830, Costa Eica had not a single printing-press ; there are now over ten, and the number of letters forwarded through the post increased from 600 in 1811 to nearly 3,000,000 in 1890. Costa Rica was free of liabilities till 1871-2, when loans of £3,100,000 Fig. 139. — AjDHEfUTEiTivE Dmsioss OF CosiA Rica. Scale 1 : 5,(»i.O>"0. t*.--i;^.>3 Guaaacaste. VH kn ^rt Alijuela. Heredia. San Jose. t$$^ ilf liii Oomarca of Limon. Cartflgo . Comarca of Pnntarenas. 134 Miles. were raised on the security of the customs and railway debentui-es. In 1888 the public debt was converted into a total amount of £2,000,000 at 5 per cent., and taken over by the Costa Rica Railway Company. The yearly budget is generally balanced with an income and expenditure of from £600,000 to £800,000. Most of the revenue is derived from the customs and spirits and tobacco monopolies. The army comprises a standing corps of 1,000 men. Costa Rica is divided into five administrative provinces and two comarcas, with areas and populations, tabulated in the Appendix. CHAPTER V PANAMA. [LTHOUGH politicall}' forming an integral part of Colombia, tte pro^ance of Panama belongs geographically to Central America, of whicb it is even a typical section in its serpentine isthmian contours. The political frontier towards Costa Rica has not yet been definitely settled ; but in estimating the extent of the pro- vince, the nearly straight line may be provisionally accepted which is traced on the Colombian maps from the extremity of Burica Point in the Pacific to the western headland of the Boca del Drago (" Dragon's Mouth "), at the entrance of Almirante Bay, in the Caribbean Sea. The greater part of " ducal " Yeragua granted to Luiz Colon is thus included in Colombia, while " roj-al " Veragua, stretching thence northwards, is assigned to Costa Rica. The administrative limit s of the province towards South America pass far to the north of the natural boundary, which is here so clearly indicated, between the isthmian region and the southern continent. Within these somewhat conventional frontiers the province of Panama comprises an area of about 32,000 square miles, with a population estimated at 300,000. Physical Fe.\tures. The main Costa Rican range is continued through Panama by mountains of great elevation. Picacho, near the frontier, over 7,000 feet, is greatly exceeded by its eastern neighbour, the extinct Chiriqui volcano, a perfect cone, nearly 11,400 feet high. At its eastern base the range is crossed by a pass which falls to 3,600 feet, and still farther east by another about 4,000 feet, mentioned by the traveller Morel. The crest rising between these two depressions to a height of nearly 7,000 feet .takes the name of Cerro de Horqueta, that Is, "Mountain of the Pass." Wheelwright and other explorers speak of even still less elevated saddle- backs, falling even to less than 200 feet ; but their statements are not supported by accurate surveys. Farther on the cordillera maintains a normal altitude of over 8,000 feet, and here runs much nearer to the northern or Atlantic than to the Pacific coast, where space is left for the vast plain of David. To this corresponds on the opposite side the extensive inlet of the Chiriqui " lagoon," which gives its name K PHYSICAL FEATUEES OF PANAMA. 313 to this section of the cordillcra. Farther on it takes the name of the Vcragiia range, which begins on the west side with the superb Mount Santiago (6,300 feet), followed by several others over 4,000 feet high. In this region, the whole of the isthmus, from ocean to ocean, is filled with mountains or hills, with spurs projecting northwards to the Atlantic coast, and penetrating southwards through the massive peninsula of Las Palmas, west of Montijo Bay, far into the Pacific. But the quadrangular peninsula of Azuero, which limits the Gulf of Panama on the south-west, is physically distinct from the Veragua range, from which it is separated by depressions and grassy rising grounds about 509 feet high, culminating south-westwards in a headland exceeding 3,000 feet. The Azuero peninsula, in fact, forms part of an almost completely submerged chain, which is disposed parallel with the winding isthmian Cordilleras, and which embraces the Nicoya peninsula, with those of the Golfo Dulce and Burica, besides Coiba Island and the Pearl Archipelago in Panama Bay. North-west of the Veragua range the orographic system becomes very irregular in direction and altitude, being broken into several fragments, whose original trend it is now difficult to determine. Capira, the culminating mass (5,000 feet), lies beyond the line of the main axis, its escarpments plunging southwards into Panama Bay, and even projecting seawards in the little Ccrro Chame. The main axis itself appears to be continued in the Ahoga-Yeguas hills, which are crossed by a pass only 380 feet high, and which nowhere exceed 700 feet. Farther on is opened the still lower Culebra Pass (290 feet), which is distant about 34 miles in a straight line from both oceans. The geological constitution of the isthmian heights shows that their various sections belong to no single homogeneous system. The Veragua range consists mainly of granites and sj-enites, gneiss and schists, whereas the Panama hills are chiefly weathered dolerites and trachites, " which may be cut with a spade like cheese." But these igneous heights nowhere present the aspect of erupted cones. Hence the eruptions must have taken place at a time when the waters of the two oceans communicated through channels. The limestone banks occurring in cer- tain parts of the isthmus are also filled wilh fossils, dating, probablj', from eurly tertiary times, and mostly resembling the forms still living in the neighbouring waters. The channel, in fact, is scarcely completely closed, though the attempts of engineers to reopen it have hitherto failed. The depression, however, is traversed by an interoceanic road and railway. Beyond the Culobrasill the mountains again gradually rise eastwards, the Maria Enriquez (1,340 feet) being followed by those of Pacora, which are nearly 1,700 feet high. Then in the neighbourhood of San Bias Bay is developed a coast- range disposed west and east along the Atlantic, and in one of its crests just east of Puerto Belo attaining an elevation of over 3,000 feet. The system is continued by a steep ridge from 500 to 2,700 feet, which here forms the waterpartiug between the two oceans at the very narrowest part of the isthmus. The distance between San Bias Bay and the head of the Pacific tidal wave in the Rio Bayano scarcely exceeds 17 miles. But the crest where the Bavauo has its source is over 1,000 814 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMEfilOA, WEST INDIES. feet hiwh, so that for au interoceanic canal it \vould have to be pierced by a tunnel at least seven miles long and high enough to admit the taUest vessels. The San Bias (Chepo) cordillera, consisting of gneiss and metamorphic schists, is continued under various names as the Atlantic coast-range as far as the entrance to Uraba Bay, where the isthmus takes the name of Darien. The hilly mass of Gandi (3,000 feet) and Turganti farther on mark the point vs^here the system bends round to the south along the west side of the Eio Atrato. At the Tihule Pass it falls as low as 420 feet, and this site has also been proposed for an interoceanic canal, which would replace an ancient marine strait along the valleys of the Eio Atrato in the east and Rio Tuj^ra in the west. Farther on the cordillera is connected by lateral ridges with the Baudo range, which runs close to the Pacific coast in the direction from north to south for a Fig. no. — COUESE OF THE RiVEE CbAGBES. From a Spanisli Map of the fii-it half of the Eighteenth Centnry. distance of about 124 miles. The sierra culminates in the Baudo peak (6,000 feet), but it is interrupted by broad depressions, one of which, the Cupica Pass, is only 1,000 feet high. The last rising grounds of the plateau die out north of the San Juan estuary. Rivers, B.\ys, Islands. Apart from the Atrato, only a few lateral affluents of which are comprised in the province of Panama, the isthmus has no large rivers, or, at least, none that send down a large volume except after heavj^ rains. Many have a considerable course owing to the disposition of their valleys, which rim parallel with, and not transversely to, the seaboard. But their basins are too narrow to collect any great quantity of sui-face waters. Even the Chagres, a term which, according to Pinart, means " Great River " in the Muoi language, is in ordinary times an insignificant tributary of the Carib- bean Sea. It rises about the centre of the isthmus of Panama, and flows first in '^^^ ^:c'^-'f^^pmsxsmM r. JiMIJii iniNi:iii I ii'T' ■„' l.l.ll:wil|:i:,i'ill 111 1 1' lilt ijiiiijij li' nil, i injii:;!,:. EIVEES OF PANAMA. 315 the direction of the south-west parallel with the shores of both oceans. At Cruces, where it has already collected all its headstreams, it is accessible to small river craft. At iTatachin, a little farther down, where at low water it is only 46 feet above the level of the Atlantic, it is joined by the Obispo, which descends from the Culebra heights. Judging from the direction of its valley, the Obispo is the main branch, for below the confluence the united waters flow transversely to the coast-ranges to thfs Caribbean Sea, where they are obstructed bj- a bar with a Fig. 141. — GuiF OF Sax Miguel. SM'e 1 : 500.000. Beach exposed at low water- DeptliB. Otol6 Feet. 16 Feet and upwards. ■ 6 Allies mean depth of little over 10 feet. The river itself varies from about 14 to 40 feet with the seasons, but unusually heavy rains will sometimes cause a sudden rise of 40 feet. Eapid changes of level of 20 feet are frequent, and the railway bridges have been flooded to depths of 14 or even 20 feet. The discharge varies enormously, from 350 to as much as 70,000 cubic feet per second ; but the normal difference is not more than 700 cubic feet in the dry season and 2,600 during the floods. Compared with that of European rivers, the mean discharge is very high. 816 MEXICO, CENTKAL AMERICA, AVEST INr>l"F.l=! the catchment b;isiii not being more than about 1,000 square miles in extent and 75 miles long. The Chagres is exceeded both in length and the extent of its basin by the Rio Bayano, which, however, has a smaller volume because it belongs to the drier Pacific slope. It enters the sea through a broad estuarj% which is closed by a bar witb scarcely two feet at low water. In the GuK of Panama itself no anchorage is afforded to large vessels for a long distance from the shore. The five-fathom line lies nearly six miles from the mouth of the Bayano, and this is itself one of the greatest objections to an interoceanic canal across the San Bias isthmus. Of all the isthmian rivers the Tuj'ra, flowing also to the Pacific, has the largest basin and longest course. It flows for nearly 100 miles parallel with the cordillera of Darien, and after escaping from the densely-wooded uplands, it is joined by the Chucunaque from the north-west, the vmited stream being 1,000 feet wide and over 30 feet deep, with a mean discharge of 1,100 cubic feet per second. Farther on the river merges gradually in its estuary, and its estuary in the mag- nificent Darien Harbour, which communicates with San Miguel Bay through the two channels of Boca Grande and Boca Chica. The encircling heights are clothed with a glorious forest vegetation, where the tall white stems, 100 feet high, support a continuous canopy of dark verdure. On the Atlantic side the largest inlet is that formed by the two bays or lagoon.s of the Almirante and Chiriqui, which communicate with the open sea through the three deep passages of the Boca del Drago, Boca del Toro, and Boca del Tigre, all accessible to the largest vessels. The i^lmiraute Bay is so named from " Admiral " Columbus, who visited these waters in 1503 ; from him also the wooded island between the Drago and Toro passages has been named Colon, while another islet in the bay takes his Christian name, Cristobal (Christojjher). Almirante is a vast aggregate of creeks and havens, like the ncighbouriiig Chiriqui, which has an area of no less than 320 square miles. The chain of islets at the entrance is so disposed as to continue the continental coast-line as if they represented a former shore eroded by the waves. East of Chiriqui Bay the coast is continued several miles seawards by a marine bank scarcely 25 fathoms deep and strewn with shoals, reefs, and islets. One of these is the famous Escudo de Veragua, often referred to in diplomatic documents as a debatable land between Costa Rica and Colombia. San Bias Bay, which lies at the narrowest part of the isthmus, presents, like Chiriqui, somewhat tbe appearance of an indentation made by raarine erosion in an old rectilinear strip of coastlands. The San Bias peninsula, enclosing the bay on the north side, is a fragment of the primitive shore, and is continued eastwards by hundreds of reefs and islets forming the Muletas or Mulatas archipelago. None of these cays have any hills or cliffs, being merely sandy stretches resting on a coralline base and rising a few feet or perhaps yards above the surface. The intervening channels are deep enough to admit large vessels, to which they afford safe anchorage in smooth water. All are covered v.ith forests or cocoanut groves, Ill I lllll'lt ill ll|iiiiil|iiii''» W I* siiiiffi llLj.luilHhl.MI'llP '1^ I ,, I Jul mllil 1 lU,l,lllll„li M ■< ►4 pa a: o Q 5^ D3 H O r. g i» H H Z s GUT.F OF DAEIEN. 317 aud several, with springs of goud water, have been occupied by a few Tiulian communities. Beyond the iluletas the cays are scattered in disorder along the coast, forming an outer barrier reef as far as the Puerto Escoces. Farther on the sea becomes quite free of these obstructions in the direction of the Gulf of Darien (Uraba), where, however, begins a fresh formation, that of the alluvial matter deposited by the mouths of the Atrato. Here the sands and shore-line are continually shifting with the current, so that the marine charts should be revised every year. In the Gulf of Darien the same process of silting, but on a much larger scale, is going on as in that of Smyrna in Asia Minor. The potent current of the Atrato is continually impelling the alluvial banks in the direction of the South Kg. Hi. — Gtjlf of San Blas. Sle 1 : 010,000. ^' . ; j^ Fret an! U Miles. American side, so that the southern part of the bay cannot fail, sooner or later, to be cut off from the open sea. The contrast between the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards is primarily due to the tides, which vary far more on one side than the otber. At the mouth of the Chagres river and in Colon Bay there is a mean rise of 15 inches, and of one foot in Chiriqui Bay, but this difference between ebb and flow is not constant, being greatly modified according to the force and direction of the winds. At times the surface remains at the same level for days together ; but as a rule the two diurnal tides neutralise each other so far as to produce only a single rise aud a single fall in the twenty-four hours. On the Pacific coast, on the contrary, ebb and flow follow the normal course. 318 MEXICO, CENTRAX, AMEETCA, WEST INDIES. In Panama Bny the lowest rise in May and June is about eight feet, whereas it amounts, in November and December, to 23 feet, the yearly average being about 13 feet. Owing to these discrepancies the level of the Pacific is sometimes higher, sometimes lower than that of the Atlantic, the greatest possible difference between the two being 10 or 11 feet. Hence in an open canal across the isthmus of Panama, there would be an alternating current, shifting with the respective levels and giving to the canal a constantly varying inflow and outflow. Nor would the movement balance itself, or produce equilibrium, for the average of the oscillations gives to the Pacific a level a few inches higher than that of the Fig. 143.— Caledonia Bat. Scale 1 : 400.000. 9 \^^ .',/ Y'^'Wl^ We . or L een ch 77'5i Uep.ljs. 6 Miles. Atlantic in Colon and Caledonia Ba3^s. Moreover, the rise and fall takes place at ■different hours in the two oceans, the station in the port of Colon being nine hours behind that of the Pacific. Another result of these tidal discrepancies is the different aspects presented by the opposite seaboards. While the Atlantic coastlands are narrow, those of the Pacific develop in some places broad stretches of beach, and are also less rich in coral reefs than the Caribbean Sea, high tides being fatal to most species of polyps. Coiba, Cebaco, and the smaller islands on the Pacific side between Burica Point and the Azuero peninsula, all belong geographically to the mainland. CLIMATE OF PANAMA. 319 Those in the vast semicircular Gulf of Panama also rest, like the isthmus itself, on a marine bed less than 2-5 fathoms deep. Here the larger islands form with over 100 islets the so-called Pearl Archipelago, although their pearl fisheries have long been exhausted. Climate. The cHmate of the province of Panama presents some slight transitions between those of the north-western isthmuses and the neighbouring South American continent. The mean annual temperature of 78^ to 80° Fahr. is some- what higher on the Atlantic side, which is due to the warmer marine currents of Fig. 144. — Gttlf op Panasu. Scale 1 : 3,500.000. West o? G--;envv;ch 80 OtolO Fathoms. 10fo60 Fathoms. Deptha. 50 to see Fathoms. 500 Fathoms and upwards. 60 Miles. the Caribbean Sea. But throughout the year the extreme range of temperature never exceeds 30°, the limits being 65° and 95° Fahr. Under the influence of the neighbouring continent the prevailing trade winds set regularly rather from the north than the north-east. They daily increase in force with the heat of the sun, then gradually fall, and often leave the nights perfectly calm. Between May and November these northern currents are replaced by the ccndamles, or south-eastern monsoons. The Atlantic seaboard is exposed to the sudden squalls which are so dangerous to shipping in the Gulf of Mexico. The isthmian region is also occasionally visited by cyclones, such as that of October, 1865, which swept over Colon, the 320 5IEX1C0, CENTliAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. isthmus of Panama and Mosquito Coast ; in 1885 eighteen sailing-vessels were wrecked by a norte in the port of Colon. As in so many other respects, the opposite seaboards present a contrast in the distribution of the rainfall, the northern slopes exposed to the moist trade wiods rccei^■ing at least twice as much as the Pacific coast facing the southern monsoon ; the former is estimated at over 120, the latter at about 60 inches during the j'ear. At the Gamboa observatory, standing 100 feet above sea-level, the average in the rainv season is 38, in the so-called "dry" season 35 inches. Being almost constantly saturated with vapour and charged with exhalations from the marshy tracts, the hot atmosphere of the isthmus is necessarily danger- ous to Europeans. The first Spanish settlers in Panama gave it the name of Scjnilturade Vivos, or " Living Grave." Immigrants from Europe and the United States connected with the railway and canal works have specially to dread affec- tions of the skia, of the liver and kidneys, and yeUow fever, during the eight first months of their residence ; after that period of probation they enjoy as much immunity from this scourge as the natives, who suffer most from consumption. Four- fifths of the hands employed on the international works have been half- castes either from Colombia or Jamaica, and when all allowances are made, these works have cost far more lives than similar operations in temperate lands. The mortality during a period of two years and three months in the Panama works amounted to 98 per 1,000. Flora axd Fauna. In the province of Panama, and especially in the isthmus of Danen, the Central American flora reaches its highest development. Here the South Mexican and Colombian types are intermingled and associated with a local flora which, according to Scherzer, represents over one-fiith of the whole. This diversified vegetation covers the surface with such a tangle of stems, branches, foliage, creepers, parasites that the traveller finds his progress blocked in every direction. The headlands along the seaboard nowhere present the aspect of rocky bluffs, being so completely clothed with verdure that they often look like a single gigantic plant with its roots in the deep and its superb pyramidal crest towering to a height of 600 or 700 feet. In the interior the brooks and rivers flow beneath sombre avenues of m itted foliage, the water disappearing in one place under a mass of drifting snags, in ■ another carpeted with confervals and other aquatic plants. The cfiamwdorca pnciii/a, a species of palm, grows to an altitude of 7,000 feet in association with the oak and alder. Owing to the less copious rainfall the vegetation is somewhat less exuberant on the Pacific than on the Atlantic side. A remarkable contrast between both coasts is presented by the oceanic fauna, although in the early tertiary epoch the two basins were connected by marine channels. But although the numerous echinidaj, for instance, differ specifically, nearly all belong to the same genera on both seaboards. It is evident that the divergence is comparatively recent, and must have taken place since the channels were closed. INHABITANTS OF PANAMA. 821 Of the 1,500 and 1,340 species of molluscs belonging respectively to the Caribbean Sea and Panama waters, less than 50 are common to both groups. Even the land animals diifer in the same way. The chnjsothrix, a species of monkey peculiar to the Chiriqui district, will not even live on the opposite coast. Inhabitants. Most of the inhabitants of Panama, like their Central American neighbours, are a mixed people, the various elements being the Spanish, Indian, and Negro. Since the abolition of slavery Jamaica has never ceased to send blacks and mulattos to the isthmus, wliere many have settled as petty dealers and farmers. In several villages on the Atlantic side they are in a majority, and to them is due the sjDread of the Anglo-Spanish jargon now current along the seaboard. Some of the aborigines have preserved their physical type, customs, and speech. Thus the Guaymi, that is " Men," keep somewhat aloof, mostly in the upper Miranda valley, in the western part of the province. These Indians, whose chief tribe bears tlic name of Yalientes, belong to the same family as the Costa Rican Talamancas, and were certainly at one time more civilised than at present. They are probably the direct descendants of those natives who before the conquest carved symbolic figures on the face of the rocks, and deposited gold ornaments in their guacas or graves. One of their chiefs pretends to descend from Montezuma, a name which they have evidently learned from the whites, and to which they now attach^a certain national sentiment. The religion of the Guaymi is a pure system of terrorism. Every sudden noise startles him, and is attributed to some wicked demon, who has to be conjured by the wizard and propitiated by offerings. When the sick seem to be past recovery they are taken to the forest and abandoned with a calabash of water and a few bananas. After death the bod)^ is exposed on a platform for a year, when the remains are cleansed and deposited in a bundle in the " family vault." According to Pinart the Guaymi still number about 4,000, although in 1883 the Muoi tribe had been reduced to three persons. On tlie southern slope of the chain lived the Dorasques, a distinct tribe with a different language, but now all but extinct. The Seguas, called Mexicans or Chichimecs by the early Spanish writers, were, in fact, more or less barbarous Nahuas met by Vasquez de Coronado on an affluent of the Chiriqui lagoon ; but the locality can no longer be identified. East of the Chiriqui range, and thence to the San Bias isthmus, all the abori- gines have disapjDcared, either extirpated or absorbed in the surrounding Mestizo populations. But native tribes still survive in the eastern districts, on the shores and islands of San Bias Bay, and in the Bayano, Tuyra and Atrato basins. But these Indians have not preserved the tribal traditions, and they no longer remember the sway of the ancient Paparos or Darienes, whose name survives in the eastern part of the isthmus, and who were probably related to the Quevas or Cuevas mentioned by Obido y Valdes and other early writers. Apart from the southern Chocos, whose affinities are with the Colombian populations, the various Indian peojoles of Darien, despite differences of speech, VOL. xvii. Y 822 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMKliiCA, WEST INDIES. belong to a single stock, that of the Cunas (Cuna-Cuna), called also Ti, or "River People," from their aquatic dwellings along the banks of the streams. In the same way the Chocos of the Atrato basin are called Do, a word of precisely the same meaning. The Cimas, who call themselves Tule, or " Men," are supposed to be of Carib Fig. 14J.— Isthmus of Chieiqtji. Scale 1 : 1,500,000. 62 "40 West or Greenwich Deptta. ntoio Fathoms. 10 to 100 100 Fathoms Fathoms. and upwards IS Miles. stock. Thi-y arc in general a small-sized, thickset people, with a great tendeuc}' to corpulence. Albinos are by no means rare, while the fair complexion and red hair occurring here and there would seem to suggest long contact with the bucca- neers. They formerly practised tattooing, but now smear the body with the blackish TOPOGBAPHY OF PANAMA. 323 sap of tho jagua {gornpn niihriniiia), which keeps the skin cool. Their hmguagc is a sort of singsong, in which each sentence is followed by a long pause. The numerical system is vigesimal, as in Aztec, and may possibly be due to Xahua influences. Topography. The " citj' " of Castillo de Austria, founded on the Rio Chiriqui-mula (Crica- maula), or Eio de Guaymi, during the first years of the conquest, soon disappeared without leaving a trace of its former existence. The district continued to -be inhabited exclusively by Indians till the beginning of the present century, when some negroes from the Vieja Providencia and San Andres islands settled on the Chiriqui coast and neighbouring islands and graduallj' spread round the whole islet. Boca del Turo, their largest station, had in 18S3 a thriving pojiulation of about 500, almost exclusivelj' coloured. It lies in Colon Island over against the Isla Bastimentos, the Provision Is/and of tho English, where passing vessels call for bananas, yams, and other supplies. On the mainland the chief trading-place is Gohrante, at the head of the navi- gation of the Chiriqui-mula, whence a difficult track leads through the Jliranda valley over the cordillera down to the plains of David. An easier route runs farther west from French Bay through a pass near the Cerro Horqueta. David, capital of the Chiriqui department, stands within 12 miles of the Pacific on a grassy plain flanked on the north by the superb cone of Chiriqui. Some twelve miles farther west the hamlet of Alaiije is all that remains of the ancient capital of the country, a famous market-place on the trade route between Guatemala and Panama. Farther on Bai/idiita, near the village of Btigaha, is noted for the discover}' of numerous guacus, old graves full of gold ornaments, which in 1860 gave the Chi- liqui district a temporary renown as a new Eldorado scarcely inferior to that of California. But it was soon found that of every twenty or twenty -five graves not more than one contained gold or copper objects, chieflj^ figures of animals, especi- ally frogs, evidently amulets worn by the natives. Treasures to the value of about £40,000 were unearthed by some 1,500 searchers, who, after exhausting the supply, quitted the district. Kaia, or Santiago de las Cabalkros, is one of the oldest settlements in America, dating from the year 1512, some time before the very name of Mexico was known in Europe. It lies on the Eio Chico near its mouth in Parlta Bay, at the western extremity of the Gulf of Panama. The famous city of Panama, which gives its name to this gulf, to the isthmus and the whole province, was not originally founded on its present site. In 1518, when Pedrarias de Avila transferred the cajoital from the Atlantic to the Pacific side, he selected a spot at the mouth of the little Bio Algarrobo, which enters the bay or inner basin at the point where the gulf develops its extreme convex curve towards the north. For 150 years this first Panama, founded on the site of an Indian village of that name, enjoyed a monopoly of the trade of the \2 324 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WTIST JNBIES isthmus. Here the Spauish flotillas landed the merchandise and all the gold of Peru, and over 2,000 mules were employed in transporting the precious metal from Panama to Puerto Belo, where they were shipped for Sjsain. But these treasures could not escape the attacks of the buccaneers. In 1670 Morgan, at the head of 1,100 men, crossed the isthmus and captured Panama, which was sacked aiid burnt. Fearing renewed attacks, the Spaniards never rebuilt it, and nothing remains to mark its site excejjt the shapeless ruins of two churches overgrown with brush- wood. The present city stands some six miles facther west, at the foot of Ancon Hill (560 feet), and near the mouth of a rivulet called "Rio Grande." Solid walls 10 feet thick still enclose San Felipe, the city proper, and form tc *vards the sea the Fig. 14G. — Panama. Scale 1 : 57,000. 7?'3r£0- West oF Greenwich 79"3i '■' Depths Sanrls exposed at iow water. Oto7 Feet. 7 to 16 Feet. i,200 Yards magniucent promenade of Las Bovedas. Beyond the ramparts the suburbs are continued along the beach and neighbouring slopes. Conspicuous amongst its monuments is the cathedral, whose two towers serve as beacons and lighthouses. Although chosen as the seat of a Spanish American Congress in 1824, and raised to the rank of a capital when Colombia formed a confederacy of states, now reduced to the position of provinces, Panama is a place of slight importance as a centre of population and local trade. The so-called " Panama " hats, at one time so fashionable in Europe, are not made in the town whose name they bear. In fact, this place owes all its celebrity .to its vital position at the narrowest part of the isthmus, and its chequered historj- presents a remarkable alternation of rapid progress and decline according to the routes followed by international trade. Hence it flourished when it commanded the traffic of Peru and Chile ; TOPOGRAPHY OF PANAMA. 825 and was almost abandoued when it lost that monopoly. It again became a busy place during the rush of miners to the Californian goldfields, until the stream of trade and travellers was deflected by the opening of the American railways from ocean to ocean. Its prosperity was again revived when nearly 20,000 hands were engaged on the interoceanic canal, and now it has entered on a third period of decline. It must always, however, retain some importance, thanks to the rail- way here crossing the isthmus, and to the lines of steamers converging in its gulf, from Polynesia, North and South America. 326 MEXICO, CEXTUAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Unfortunately, the roadstead offers bad anchorage during the prevalence of the north winds, when large vessels prefer the more sheltered waters under Taboga Island 11 miles farther south. According to the general plan, the interoceanic canal was to be continued between embankments or sea-walls as far as the little group of islets where begins the five-fathom line, is already connected bv a deep channel with the mainland. This anchorage Fig. 148.— Colon. Pm'c 1 : 46.(XiO. Deptlis. Reefs exposed at low water. Otoie Feet. 16 to .S2 Feet. 1,100 Yards. During the Spanish regime the only line of communication between the two oceans was a simple mule-track crossing the isthmus northwards to Puerto Belo on the Atlantic side. This old seaport, whose fortifications are now overgrown with a forest vegetation, has sunk to the position of an obscure hamlet occupied by a few hundred negroes who do a little trade with Colon, Colombia and Jamaica. The harbour is commodious, deep and well sheltered, but the district is extremely unhealthy owing to the want of circulation caused by the surrounding heights. TOPOGEAriiY OF PAX.UL\. 327 Here Drake died suddeul}' in 159-3, wlieu about to sack the town after ravaging the mainland. Puerto Belo was succeeded by Chagres, on the right side of the Chagres estuarv, as the Atlantic terminus of the isthmian route from Panama. The river from this point was navigable for boats to Matachin, within 1-i miles of the Pacific as the crow flies. But Chagres, like Puerto Belo, is a hotbed of ague, the marsh fevers raging on this coast being commonly known as " Chagres fevers." Hence the population rapidlj' disappeared as soon as another station was chosen at the little coralline island of Manzauillo, north-east of Limon Bay, between Chagres and Puerto Belo. Here was founded the new port, which was named Colon, in honour of Colum- bus, who discovered the bay in 1-502. It also took the name of Aspininill from one of the chief promoters of the isthmian railway, and both names are still in current use. Colon is a town of wood and iron, with colonnades and verandahs brought ready-made from the States, docks and depots relieved by a few clumps of cocoa- nut palms round about the railway-station, and adorned by a statue of Columbus facing seawards, executed by Carrier-Belleuse. Colon, having been recently burnt, has been rebuilt on a larger plan and on better-drained ground. Some of the building materials have been supi:)lied from the porj)hyry quariies at the neighbouring village of Boliio Soldado. It is almost exclusively a place of transit for goods and passengers, nearlj- all brought by regular lines of Atlantic steamers communicating by the isthmian railway with corresponding lines in the Pacific. Some bananas are also exported to the States from the plantations on the Rio Chagres. Although sheltered by a recently-con- structed embankment, the shipping is still insufficiently sheltered at the mouth of the canal, and sailing-vessels have occasionally to take refuge in the harbour of Puerto Belo. So early as 1835 the American, Biddle, was already exploring the isthmus of Panama ■«-ith a view to the construction of an iuteroceanic railway. But the work was not begun till the year 1850, when the fame of the Californian Eldorado was attracting thousands of goldseekers from all parts. The line, which was opened in 1855, was carried across swamjis and forests, rivers and mountain passes, under a dangerous climate, at the cost of many lives, while the outlay, nearh- £40,000 per m^ile, was five times more than the average expenditure in the States. But this line, nearly 100 miles long, was from the first of great commercial importance in forwarding goods and passengers between the two oceans. Its historic importance is also incalculable. Thanks to this route the west coast of America was suddenly brought some thousands of miles nearer to Europe. Thus its far-reaching consequences extended to the trade of the world and the whole sj'stem of international communications. l^evertheless a railway, however useful, especially before the opening of the United States and Canadian transcontinental lines, could be regarded only as a sort of " stop-gap " pending the reopening of the marine communication between the two oceans, the existence of which, though closed since tertiary times, was still 323 MEXICO, CENTB.1L AMKEICA, WEST INDIES. suspected long after the exploration of the Caribbean Sea. Columbus himself, even after coasting the seaboard from north to south, died in the belief that such a passage would still be found through the region visited by him. So deep-rooted was the conviction that the strait must exist that it was figured on all maps down to the year 1540. The illusion spread even to the extreme east, Fiu'. U9. — The "Hysteey of the Strait" at the Beginndjo of the Sixteenth Centtjet. J, tilus incv^nziufTL f. Sctff G~ucii and was embodied in a Chinese map of 1820, which represents the two American continents as separated by no less than three interoceanic channels. The "mystery of the strait," which Charles V. recommended Cortes to solve in 1534, shows that he also believed in this navigable highwaj'. But as it could not be found, men's thoughts turned to the idea of opening it by sheer force, and schemes of canalisation were proposed before the region itself had THE PAXA^EA CANAL. 329 been even roughly explored. Philii) II., ho^vever, forbade the presentation of any new plans, since " the will of God had clearly manifested itself by the creation of a continuous isthmus." But^-hen Latin America was finally emancipated from Spanish leading-strings, the undertaking began again to attract attention. So early as 1825 Bolivar took steps to have the isthmus of Panama surveyed with a Fig. 1 jO. — Docks .•nt) Couese of the Panama Canal. Scale 1 : 541.000. \^Ta en a /9 55 Dp Gr 79 3a 12 Miles. view to tbe construction of an interoccanic canal. Scientific exploration had thus alrcadv begun. Amongst the projects based upon local research, the most important in the history of Panama were those of Garella in 1843, and of Lull in 1875. But both of these engineers admitted the possibility onh* of a canal with locks to ascend the slopes on one side and descend on the other. But in 1879, a more detailed study of the ground enabled MM. "Wyse and A. Reclus to present a plan with estimates for a cutting at sea-level, and these propositions were accepted by a congress of engineers, men of science, and capitalists assembled in Paris. The prodigious success of the Suez Canal and the yearly growth of navigation betweeu Europe and 880 MEXICO. CENTRAT, AMEEICA, WEST mDIES. the west coast of America, tended to overrule objections and dispose the public in favour of the magnificent undertaking. The movement between the two oceans was estimated at from 3 to 5 per cent, of the world's trade, or altogether nearly 5,000,000 tons. According to the original plan the cutting was to be 44 miles long, following Fig. 151. — Sill of tile Lock Canal. Scale 1 : X30.000. ^ •^^;^y^^ .;j..,>.^j>- •.X -St *■ ^>,Atr--''^, ■-' \£.rj^'^=,f'lcr'^ / '^ , ' t ■ 79 4o 73 ST vVest or breenwicii ; Miles. the valleys of the Chagres on the Atlantic and of tlie Rio Grande on the Pacific side. The crest of the range was to be crossed at Mount Culebra, either by a tunnel 1-30 feet high or by a tremendous open cutting. Reservoirs were to be constructed by means of dams to control the flood waters of the Chagres and its affluents, the displacement of matter being estimated at first at 1,645 millions of cubic feet, and afterwards at 2,520 million!?, to allow for a tunnel nearly four miles long. But the o ►J < H < W H O < Ph THE PANAMA CANAL. 381 outlay, including interest till the opening of the canal in 1 888, was fixed und(>r either alternative at £26,000,000. This scheme, entrusted to the person whose name was so happily associated with the Suez work, has ended in financial disaster. So far from being completed, the works along the greater part of the line are still at the initial stage of projects and counter-projects. The part actually finished is variously estimated at from one- third to one-fifth of the whole; officially it is put at one-third, the Colombian Government having surrendered to the company the 375,000 acres of land agreed to on completion of so much. Small steamers can ply on the canal for a distance of 10 miles, and rowing-boats nearly four miles farther. About 1,050 million cubic feet of matter have been removed, while what remains represents at least a total of 5,250 millions, for the original plan has had to be modified to lengthen the curves and give the banks a more gentle slope than had been provided for in the first estimates. The outlay already incurred amounts to £60,000,000, of which, however, not more than £18,000,000 have been exj^ended on the actual works. But experts now estimate at £120,000,000 the sum still needed, including £18,000,000 for the purchase of the works already finished, quays, piers, sections of the canal, various cuttings, embankments and buildings. The main cutting itself represents an exi:)enditure of probably £52,000,000. Ten years have passed from the date of the concession to that of the catastrophe, and it is calculated that the completion of the work would take at least another twenty years of continuous labour. The date fixed bj' the Colombian Government for the opening of the canal was January 31, 1893, while the company promised to have everything finished by the year 1887. Such an enterprise would, no doubt, be a mere trifle for a comity of nations working in harmony for the common good. But under the actual conditions, where the civilised nations of the earth incur a yearly expenditure for military purposes of twice the sum needed for this enterprise, international rivalries naturally prevent the interested Powers from making a collective outlay which might benefit one more than another. Hence the latest and relatively less ambitious projects contemplate a navigable way in successive stages, each stage being regulated by a system of locks. But a tremendous difficulty still remains, that of the excessive flood waters, which wash down vast quantities of alluvial matter equally dangerous to any canal, whether at sea-level or with locks. According to a plan proposed iby the first engineers and since diversely modified, it will be necessary to store the overflow by vast dams capable of retaining as much as ten or eleven billion cubic feet. These embank- ments will transform to a chain of lakes the whole middle course of the Chagres as far as a point above Cruces. To protect the canal from the floods, it has even been projjosed to deflect the course of the river itself, and send it through some tunnel not yet planned to the Gulf of Panama. Thus, even for a simple canal with locks, enormous works have still to be executed. And when all is done, the economic value of the undertaking 332 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. will be seriously affected by the competition of the future Nicaraguan canal carried at a height of not more than 110 feet above sea-level. But despite of every thing, the work will sooner or later be resumed, unless the cutting a>f the navigable way is rendered useless by some fresh discovery. One would fain hope that so many lives, so much energy and devotion may not have been sacrificed in vain. The prodigious quantity of machinery accumulated at this vital point of the globe must be utilised ; the astounding cuttings which the traveller contemplates with amazement will one day give free passage to the mingled waters of two oceans ; the ever-growing power of himian industry and the yearlj' progress of international trade surging round the portals of this isthmian barrier, will all Fig. 152. -Peoxecied Aetificiai. Laxes on the PiNAitA Divide. Ccile 1 : 240,000. lasa^'^,' a ■ West oF C- 'i^^Ji^^^'- .-i*_= .;--i4^ Wli..-1 79-45- 79°^- . 3MUfs. combine to open a navigable highway between the neighbouring marine basins. But its completion must necessarily be delayed for years. East of Puerto Belo, on the Atlantic side, the Indians largely predominate in all the settlements. JVombre de Bios, founded by Nicuesa in 1510, has left no vestige of its existence, and its very site can no longer be determined. The spacious and deep basin of San Bias Bay, where 10,000 vessels might easily ride at anchor, is occupied only by a few scattered hamlets of the Cuna Indians. But schemes have also been proposed for piercing the isthmus at this its narrowest part. The country was surveyed first by MacDougal in 1864, and since then by Selfridge, Wyse, and A. Reclus, and from their reports it appears that here the cutting would be only 32 miles long, of which 6 would follow the deep bed of the Rio Bayano. But the cordillera at this point is over 1,000 feet high at the lowest passes, so that the canal would have to be cut through a tunnel variously estimated at from G to 9 miles m length. CALEDONIA BAY. 333 Caledonia Bay, about 120 miles south-east of San Bias Buy, and not far from Piitiicanti, largest village of the Cuna Indians, revives the memory of earlier attempts at colonisation. An inlet in the ba}- bears the name of Puerto Escoces, " Scotch Port," so named, like the bay itself, from a group of Scottish immigrants who settled in this district under the financier, Patterson, in 1698. For Patterson this was the " key of the world," and Puerto Escoces might well have become one of the world's portals had the British Government come to his aid against the Fig. 153. — PBOTEcrivD CunrxGS aceoss the Isthmuses of Paxama axd Darien. ScJe 1 : 3,S00,0CO. VVest oF UreenwicVi Depths. to 100 FathoiM. 100 Fathoms and upwards. Spaniards and Indians, and constructed a road across the isthmus at this point. But the climate and homesickness soon decimated the Scotch settlers, and the survivors were dispersed in 1700 by a Spanish squadron ; in 1827 the ruins of Patterson's fort were stiU visible. The neighbouring port, Carrcto, had in 1513 witnessed the departure of more illustrious pioneers, Xufiez de Balboa and his followers, who in that 3-ear started to discover the South Sea, which they happily reached in twenty-three days. At 834 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. that time the Spauish station ou this coast was Smifa Maria, founded as a future "metropolis" on the Gulf of Darien (Uraba), just north of the Atrato delta. But in 1526 the settlement was removed to Panama, and Santa Maria, gradually invaded by the forest, received the epithet of Antii/ua. Darien was in those early days known by the name of " Castillo d'Or," and auriferous deposits had already been worked at Canci towards the sources of the Tuyra in the Choco territory'. TiU the end of the seventeenth century a certain quantity of gold continued to be extracted from this " Eldorado ; " but the buccaneers had found the way to the mines, and to get rid of these troublesome visitors the government could think of nothing better than closing the works. Its policy was based on the principle of ruining its subjects to divert foreign rivals. Fig. 1.54. — PfiOJECTED Cajtal between Ueaba and San 'Miguel Bays. Scale 1 : l.WO.MOO. 78°20' West op ureer.vicli /6'50 . 30 Miles. The Atlantic slope of Darien, with its abrupt decKvities facing the sea, scarcely affords much facility for canalisation. Nevertheless, numerous surveys have been made by prospectors, and some of the early travellers reported the existence of very low depressions where real mountains raised their wooded slopes high above sea-level. In 1854 the American, Lieutenant Strain, landing at Caledonia Bay, with a party of twenty-eight men, made his way across the isthmus down to the Pacific in sixty-three days ; but several of his followers had perished of hunger and hardships. MM. Wyse, A. Reclus and Soso also studied a projected scheme of canalisation for this region, having a total length of 78 miles, including a tunnel over 10 miles long. The Atlantic terminus would have been at the port of Acanti, the first place north of the muddy mouths of the Atrato where vessels can anchor in clear water. At the other side of the tunnel the cutting was to descend throuo-h the valley of the Tupi.sa down to the Tuyra estuary, which penetrates far inland, DAEIEN nAEBOUE. 335 and communicates i^ith the ocean by the Darien Harbour, one of the largest and safest in the world. This commodious inlet is continued seawards bv the spacious Gulf of San Miguel. Along the banks of the streams and estuary are a number of viUages— I'rtn^ff, Pinogana, Chepigana—\n.t\ an aggregate population of about •2,000. In the neighbouring forests grows the p/it/fe/ap/ias palm, which yields the vegetable ivory of commerce. Another interoceanic cutting, proposed by MM. de Gogorza and Lacharme, who fancied they had here found a pass not more than 180 feet high, would also have utilised Darien Harbour; but it took a much more southerly course along the Kg. 155.— CupiCA Bay. Scale 1 ; iSii ■■,noo. Depths. to 100 Fathoms. 100 to 1,250 Fathoms. 1,250 to 2,500 Fathoms. 2,500 Fathoms and upwards. 60 Miles. of the Cayman ridge is developed the " Bartlett Pit," a much larger basin extend- ing from the Bay Islands near the Honduras coast for about 950 miles to the Windward Channel between Cuba and Haiti. Here occurs the greatest depth yet recorded in the American Mediterranean, a chasm of 3,430 fathoms, 21 miles south of Gieat Cayman, terminal crest of a vast submarine mountain. No other example is found in the whole world of such an enormous difference of level within such a narrow space. The submerged range of the Caymans is skirted on its south side by a depression with a mean depth of 3,000 fathoms. South of this depression the Caribbean Sea between Jamaica and Cape Gracias- a-Dios on tlio mainland is again half-closed by a submarine ridge rising to the surface at the Pedi-o, Kosalind, and Mosquitos banks. About 1 24 miles south-west THE ■U'ESr DTDIAX WATERS. 341 of Jamaica the section thus closed has an extreme depth of over 600 fathoms. Beyond the Serranilla, Bajo Xuevo, Combey, and a few other cays, the vast expanse of the Caribbean waters gradually deepens eastwards to abysses of 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, and 2,500 fathoms ; north of the Dutch Islands on the Venezuelan coast it falls even to 2,600 fathoms, but again shoals in the direction of the Bird or Aves islets. The islands which form the outer rumpart of the Caribbean Sea rise like the ruined piers of a bridge, between which flow the currents and counter-currents of the Atlantic waters, ilost of the Antilles are connected by submerged sills, none Fig. 159.— The Pueeto Eico Abyss. Scale 1 : 600,000. n to 2,000 Fatboma. Depths. 2,000 to 2,500 Fathoms. 2 500 to .%000 Fathoms. 3,000 to 3 500 Fathoms. 3,500-0 4,000 Fathoms. 4.000 fathoms and npwaiils. 12 Sliles. of which exceed 500 fathoms except the passage between the Virgin Islands and Sombrero, and the two channels north and south of Martinique. But the sub- marine bank on which the islands rest falls rapidly towards the Atlantic, where the 2,000-fathom line is scarcely anywhere more than 20 miles from the insular groups. The deepest cavity yet revealed in the whole of the Atlantic occurs at a point due north of Puerto Rico, where the soundings have recorded a depth of 4,560 fathoms. Catchmest Basixs. Of the two great inland basins, the Gulf is about one-sixth smaller and very much shallower than the Caribbean Sea. "W"ere its level to be suddenly lowered 312 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. about 100 fathoms, a space of some 200,000 square miles, or more than oue-third of the whole area, would form continuous land with the surrounding shores. But if account be taken of their respective areas of drainage, the relations wiU be reversed, greatly to the advantage of the Gulf. Thus while this inland sea has an extent of only 615,000 square miles, compared with the 750,000 of the Caribbean Sea, the catchment basin of the former is about six times more extensive Fig. 160. — Slopes deainino to the Ameeican Mediteeraneas. Scale 1 : 60,000,000. Depths. Fluvial b:l^in of the American Mediterrauean. to 2,000 Fathoms. 2,000 to 4,000 Fathoms. 4,000 Fathoms and upwards. , 1,250 Miles. than that of the latter — 2,250,000 and 360,000 square miles respectively. Owing to the peculiar conformation of the North American continent, with its two outer escarpments and great central depression, most of its surface waters are discharged along the line of the meridian, north to the Arctic Ocean and Iludson Bay, south to the Gulf of Mexico, which receives the Mississippi, most copious of all North American rivers. Thanks to this single affluent, the area of the Gulf catchment M.VKINE CUEREXTS. 343 basin is at once more than doubled. This basin also comprises all the streams of the southern states from "West Florida to Texas, besides the Eio Grande del Xorte and the rivers of East Mexico and of South Yucatan as far as the Terminos lagoon. On the other hand the Caribbean Sea receives no contributions except from the eastern slopes of the comparatively narrow isthmian region, and from the north- west corner of the South American continent, whence come the Atrato, the ilaffdalena and the Zulia. Marine Currents. In the American Mediterranean the tidal currents are profoundlymodificd by the insular barriers developed round a great part of its periphery. As in the Mediterranean of the eastern hemisphere, the difference between high and low water is verv slight, the highest tides in the Gulf near Apalachicola, in Florida, averaging rather less than 4 feet, and at the harbour of Eoatan Island, in the Caribbean Sea, a little over 5 feet. But the phenomenon presents great irregu- larities according to the shifting character of the marine and atmospheric currents. In some places the two semi-diurnal tidal waves are merged in one, and such discrepancies often occur in bays or inlets lying close together. Thus on the west coast of Florida the flow lasts six hours, and twelve in Apalachicola Bay on the opposite side of the peninsula, while it resumes its normal period on the Texan seaboard. Both the Gulf and the Caribbean Sea are sufficiently open to admit the regular flow of the great oceanic streams ; but numerous coimter- currents and eddies are caused by the irregular coast- lines. The vast volume of the equatorial stream, which sets steadily westwards at a mean velocity of from 2i to 3 miles an hour, and which impinges on the coasts of Brazil, Guiana and the TTest Indies, is not entirelv deflected northwards, for a considerable portion is still able to continue its westerly course between the islands. The current penetrating into the Gulf of Paria, between Trinidad and Venezuela, is strong enough to neutralise the ebb and give the flow a velocity of nearly 6 miles an hour. Thus are pro- duced formidable bores, while the conflicting currents churn up the sands and mud of the bay, giving the water a ruddy tinge for vast spaces. The name of Boca del Drago, " Dragon's Mouth," given by Columbus to the strait between the north-west extremity of Trinidad and the Paria peninsula, is confirmed by all mariners navigating that dangerous passage. Xorth of Trinidad the equatorial stream flows through the strait of Tobago at a less rapid rate, averaging H mUe an hour, but sometimes attaining double or treble that speed. Farther north access is given to the great ocean stream through other passages, and especially through the channel, over 500 fathoms deep, between St. Lucia and Martinique. These various branches of the equatorial current, converging in the Caribbean Sea, lose in velocity what they gain in expansion. Their united waters broaden out to such an extent northwards that a portion returns to the Atlantic through Mona Passage between Puerto Rico and St. Domingo. The normal westerly movement through the Caribbean Sea is estimated at from 10 to '20 cubic miles 844 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. per day. But the whole basin is not filled by this vast body, which in some places gives rise to lateral counter-currents and backwaters, as between Colon and Carta- gena, where the reflux has a velocity of 1 mile an hour. After passing at an accelerated speed through the Banks Strait, between Jamaica and the Jlosquitos reefs, the main stream is joined by an affluent setting from the Atlantic through the Windward Channel. Hence an enormous liquid mass passes at a velocity of from 2 to 3 miles through the Strait of Yucatan into the Gulf of Mexico, where it takes the name of the " Gulf Stream." At first it ramifies into two branches, one of which, following the north coast of Cuba, sets towards Florida Strait, while the other broadens out in the spacious basin of the Gulf and develops an intricate system of counter-currents. Towards Fig. 161.— Mai.v Cuerexts of the Aileeican Mediteekaxean. Scale 1 : 40.000,000. 30' Chief submarine banks. . 620 Mfles. the centre of this nearly circular sea the waters .seem to be in a state of equili- brium, while at the periphery they move parallel with, but at some distance from, the surrounding coasts. South of the Mississippi delta the turbid fluid of the great river is impelled in a straight line eastwards by the blue waters of the Gulf Stream. Thus a junction is effected of the two branches about the southern entrance of Florida Strait, through which the whole mass disembogues like a mighty river in the broad Atlantic. At the narrowest part, between Jupiter Inlet on the Florida side and Memory Rock in the Bahamas, the stream is con- tracted to a width of 56 miles, with an extreme depth of 450 fathoms. In this (;outractcd channel the velocitj' varies from 2 to 6 miles, the average being about ;], and the discharge, according to Bartlett, 175 billions of cubic feet per second, or 15,v60 trillions per day. fM^' n^ ^ ,1 1 f! 1 ir. ^ ' i 4 «l " = 3 ? .5 c A- - JSfe_ -h-ri — Wrvt I ■- ! It j y '< 1 i y* ^* . j. ^I^*,"^' 1 -I' 3 1 ■« Ul m m m o o o o o J? o o o o? S i Si o p r-n eJ ^0 rh 3 3 o o o o o .^ O O O O o in o o p o -I -I o ** sal' 05 00 ? =. o n X o T= 1- fe 0) CO 9 1 1 •J5 o 3 3 ? -tatios of Pcceapples.- which gives its name to the " Pinos " Island, where it is found intermingled with palms and mahogany. The catalogue of 1876 enumerates altogether 3,350 indige- nous flowering plants, besides those introduced by Europeans. But many of the native forms have already disappeared, and the forests are now largely replaced by plants of low growth, such as the dwarf fan-palm (chamwrops), scrub, plantations of pineapples, and other prickly plants. Before the discovery the only mammals in Cuba were bats and a few species of rodents, such as the guaquinaji, which was probably a racoon {procyon lotor). The manatee, still seen in the JardiniUos cays, was very common on the coast, as shown by the names of numerous gulfs, bays and beaches. The guaquinaji 866 MEXICO, C'EXTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. and two or three otlier indigenous forms have disappeared, while the domestic pig and dog, introduced from Europe with the roebuck, have reverted to the wild state. In Cuba the canine species rapidly develops new varieties, from the little " Havana " lap-dog to the huge bloodhound, till recently employed in captur- ing runaway slaves. Most of the Cuban birds belong to the North xVmerican fauna, and only one species of humming-bird is peculiar to the island. The reptiles also have immi- grated from the neighbouring mainland, though it is remarkable that none of the local snakes are poisonous. The natives are not a little proud of the fact, and even assert that venomous species when introduced gradually lose their poison. The bite of the scorpion also is said to cause only a slight irritation. Land tortoises abound, and, as elsewhere in the Antilles, the molluscs, of which there are several hundred species, are for the most part distinct from those of the continent. One of the curiosities of the Cuban fauna is a "vegetating bee," a species of polistes, which grows a fungus of the clavaria genus. The pheno- menon is analogous to that presented by the New Zealand caterpillar, sp/iceria Robertsi. The fossil animals, such as the megalonyx, elephants and hijipopotami, found in the mioceue rocks of the United States, have also been discovered in the Cuban formations of the same epoch. Hence the inference that at that time the island was connected with the neighbouring mainland, and that the Gulf Stream must have set in a different direction from its present course. Inhabitants. Cuba has certainly been inhabited from a very remote epoch. Diorite and serpentine hatchets of the polished stone age have been found, especially in the neighbourhood of Bayamo in the eastei'n province. Archaeologists have also explored several of the caneijes, or heaps of human remains, occurring in various districts. In 1849 Rodriguez-Ferrer jjicked up on a cay south of Puerto Principe a human jawbone in a fossil state ; later he found in a burial-place near Cape Muisi some native skulls with artificiallj^-depressed foreheads. This was a feature common to the human types represented on the Palencpie monuments, and both may possibly have belonged to the same race. With the exception of the savage Guanataveis (Guanahatabibes) occupying the western peninsula near Cape San Antonio, the native pojjulations found in the island by Columbus certainlj' spoke the same language as the Yucayos of the Bahamas and the people of Haiti and Jamaica. But the local names occurring in Espanola (San Domingo) -were partly of Arowak origin ; hence it was con- cluded that the inhabitants of the Great Antilles were mostly Arowak immigrants from South America, where they still occupy the Essequibo and Surinam valleys as well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa ilarta uplands. On the other hand, when Grijalva first coasted Yucatan hu was accompanied by Cuban interpreters who conversed freely with the natives, so that, if not of the INHABITANTS OF CUBA. 867 same race, they must have had frequent relations with them. The Mayas them- selves, Avho claim to have sprung from the sea, regarded the islanders as kinsmen, and Orozco y Berra has suggested that the Mayas may have passed from Florida through the Bahamas and Cuha to Yucatan. But in any case the Mayas greatly resembled the Cibuneyes of Cuba as described by the historians of the conquest. Both were stoutly built, -u-ith broad face and chest, brown complexion and artificially-depressed forehead ; both were also of equally peaceful disposition and ardent lovers of freedom. Nevertheless, the Cibimeyes were vastly inferior to the Mayas in general culture. Nowhere in Cuba have monuments been found comparable to those of Palenquc, Uxmal or Chichen-Itza. A few cairns, graves, and rude carvings on the rocks are all the remains that can be attributed to the primitive inhabitants. Amongst these carvings noteworthy are the crude representations of manatees in every respect resembling those found in the moimds of Ohio, and strongly suggesting a common origin. The dwellings, which varied with the different tribes and the rank of the owners, were usually the so-called harahacs, vast structures of branches, foliage and reeds large enough to shelter hundreds of persons. They had also broad- beamed craft, in which they ventured far seawards. They tilled the land and were skilful fishers, and were even said to have acquired the art of capturing turtles by means of the pegador fish {cc/ieneis naucrates). In three years, 1512-15, the interior of the island had been explored, and in many districts the aborigines had already disappeared." They offered no resis- tance, but simply perished. The cacique Hatuei alone, who had reached the eastern part of the island from Haiti, attempted to fight. It was he that, even under torture, refused to be baptised in order to avoid entering the same heaven as the "good" Spaniards. In 1521 the Cuban Indians had already been reduced by two-thirds ; some yielded to their sufferings, others hastened their end by swallowing earth and gravel, or eating the bitter manioc before being deprived of its jjoisonous sap. According to an official report scarcely 4,000 natives had survived till 15o2, so that in twenty-one years nearly the whole race had completely disappeared ; yet the names of the various tribes and the territories occupied by them have all been care- fully preserved. In 1554, 60 families of aborigines still wandering over the western part of the island were confined in a sort of lazaretto at Guanabacoa, near Havana, but a few fragments of tribes stiU survived in the uplands of the eastern districts. Even so late as the 3'ear 1847 Rodriguez-Ferrer visited a family of full-blood Indians which occupied a valley of the Sierra Maestra near Tiguabo, and which comprised over a hundred members with children, grandchildren, and great-grand- children. Several other families in the same district are supposed to be of Indian origin, though the racial characteristics have been modified b}' alliances with blacks and whites. Miscegenation has been even more general than is usually supposed. Nearly all the women were taken by the Spaniards, and their offspring were regarded as belonging to the dominant race. 868 MEXICO, CEXTUAL .'UIEniCA, "U'EST INDIES. The negroes imported to replace the exterminated natives increased very slowly, so that the losses on the plantations had to be incessantly repaired by fresh consignments. Even in the middle of the present century, despite the con- ventions signed with Great Britain, despite the laws interdicting the purchase of blacks under the severest penalties, from 30 to 50 shiploads of bozales, or " raw negroes," continued to be yearly smuggled into the island. The total number thus introduced since the official abolition of the traffic in 1820 is estimated at about 500,000. This was actually more than the number openly imported during the 300 previous years (1521—1821), which was estimated by Humboldt at 413,500 and by Zaragoza at no more than 372,000. The black population did not begin to increase spontaneously till about the close of the last century. Its growth, however, was then so rapid that in 1817 Fig. 174. --Political Division'3 of Cuba befoee the Spanish Cosqttest. Scale 1 : 12,000,000. U_6^ iV'est o F Greenwich 1. GuaD.ihicab.bc3. 6. Macorijea. 2. Guanifi^uauico. 3. Alarien. 4. Habana. 5. Sabana 7. Cubanacan. 8. Hanamana. 9. Jagua. 10. Guamuhaya. 11. Magon. 12. OiTxofai. 13. Camag'uei. 14. Guaimarcs. 1^. Cayaguayo. IG. Boyuca. 17. Cueib I. 13. ilaniabon. 19. Bani. 20. Guacanayaba. .^^^— 245 Miles. 21. Bayarao. 22. Ma'ye- 23. Maguanes. 24.Guai-MHya. 2o. Barajagua. 26. Sagua. 27. Macaca. 2S. Bayaquitiri. 29. Maisi. 30. Baracoa. tte coloured already oiitiuimbcrcd the white population. But the definite sup- pression of the slave trade, followed by the war of secession and the abolition of slavery iu the United States, led ultimately to a similar measure in Cuba. During the insurrection in the eastern districts the revolted planters themselves emancipated and armed their slaves against the Spanish troops, and the gradual extinction of slavery was officially decreed in 1S80. Absolute emancipation was proclaimed seven years later, when not more than 25,000 slaves remained to be enfranchised. But the change was more apparent than real ; the blacks continued in a state of virtual servitude, in which wages were merely substituted for board and lod"*- ing. In any case slavery in Cuba had always been of a milder form than in the colonies of other nations. The slaves had bjcn guaranteed the *'four ri'^-hts" ECONOMIC CONDITION OF CUBA. 869 of free marriage, of seeking a new master at tlacir option, of piu'claasing fheir freedom by labour, and of acquiring projjerty. With emancipation came the necessity of procuring labour from other sources. "While the English and French planters had recourse mainly to Indian coolies, those of Cuba applied to Macao and Canton for Chinese hands, " engaged " for a term of compulsory labour. But the Asiatics at jiresent in the island are far inferior to the class introduced about the middle of the century. Yerj' few women ever accompanied them, and nearly all were condemned to perish without posterity. The census of 1877 returned 43,800 Chinese in Cuba ; 120,000 had been intro- duced altogether, and over 16,000, or nearlj' 12 per cent., had died on the passage. Thousands of Mayas have also been procured from Yucatan. Cuba and Puerto Rico may be referred to as tropical lands where the white race has been permanently acclimatised. Cuba alone contains ten times more whites of Sjjanish stock than all the British West Indies contain whites of EngHsh stock. Nearly half of the labourers on the sugar plantations and in the sugar refineries are of Spanish descent — Andalusians, Castilians, Basques, Galicians, Catalonians and Islcnos, that is, Canary Islanders — and all these settlers con- stitute the class of peasantry called bhvicos de la tierra or goajiros. The Basques and Catalonians, settled chiefly in the towns, are the most active, energetic and indus- trious ; Jto them is largely due the material progress of the island. Recent Political Events. Despite the Monroe doctrine, " America for the Americans," Cuba still belongs to the descendants of the Spanish conquerors, although all the Spanish possessions on the mainland have become independent. Yet the island was often threatened by the English and French buccaneers. Twice Havana was occupied by British troops, and since the beginning of the present century a rebellious sj)irit has been manifested by the natives themselves against the mother-countrj'. As in Mexico, the Sj)aniards by birth held the Creoles in contempt, and allowed them no share in the administration. The Creoles on their jDart avenged themselves by squibs and lampoons, calling the S^xmiards " Godos," or Goths, meaning barbarians still enslaved by the superstitions of former times. Class hatred spread even to the women, and while the Godas wore their hair long, the Cuban dames cut theirs short, whence the name oi pclonas, or "croppies," given them by the Spaniards. Despite the i^revailing discontent no insurrection broke out at that time, and the two classes even became suddenly reconciled in 1812 on hearing that the negroes of the eastern district, near Holguin and Bayamo, had revolted. The jjlanters of Puerto Principe organised battues against the rebels, who were hounded down and massacred in the forests, their leader, Aponte, being hanged, with eight of his associates. Later, after losing all her possessions on the mainland, Spain granted the Cubans the right of representation in the Cortes, and afterwards deprived them VOL. XVII, B B 370 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA., WEST INDIES. of the privilege. The island was virtually under martial law, and the captain general was permanently invested with the powers of a commander of a besieged citadel. But this dictator himself was a mere tool in the hands of a secret power, the " Casino espanol," that is, a combination of the great slave-owners. Thanks to its wealth, this association easilj' controlled the legislature, bribed venal governors and crushed those opposed to its policy, which aimed at the maintenance of the slave trade and of slavery. Hence the object of the first insurrection about the middle of the century was not to abolish slavery, but on the contrary to annex Cuba, the " Lone Star," to the other American " stars," and add half a million of slaves and the powerful body of the Cuban planters to the political empire of the Soiithern States. The "Washington Government, at that time in the hands of the slave party, winked at or even encouraged the expeditions fitted out in its ports. Nevertheless, they all failed, and Lopez and his filibusters were uuable to hold out for two days at Cardenas, where they had landed in ISoI. A second attempt was equally unsuccessful, and Lopez was put to the sword, with fifty of his followers. Still the country remained in a chronic state of revolution, and after Sj)aLn's indignant refusal to sell the island to the States for £40,000,000, the great insurrection of 1868 broke out at Yara, in the same eastern district where so many risings had already taken place. The movement, which this time aimed at the abolition of slavery, spread from the Sierra JLaestra over nearly half the island, and the mambi, as the rebels were called, kept the field for ten years. Its sup- pression cost Spain altogether nearly 100,000 men, and an expenditure of about the very sum offered by President Buchanan for the purchase of Cuba. A main object of the revolt was also effected, and in 1880, two years after the capitulation of the last republican leaders, the Government found itself compelled to pass a law decreeing the gradual extinction of slavery, while safeguarding the interests of the great landowners. Cuba is henceforth an integral part of the monarchy and at present Spain seems less threatened with the loss of her " pearly" than she was fifty years ago. Topography. The present capital, Habana or Emcuia, that is, according to Bernal Diaz, the " Savanna," was not the first Spanish settlement, nor does it even occupy the site where it was originally founded. Coming from Espanola the conquerors naturally began by securing a footing in the eastern district, where they made choice of Baracoa, near Cape Maisi. Then moving westwards they reached the far more convenient port of Santiago de Cuba, which was afterwards replaced as the capital by the inland town of Bayamo. The first Havana, lying in the western district on *Broa Bay, cast of the present town of Batabano, was the fourth capital, but it was of difficult access and stood on marshy soil. Hence in 1519, seven years after the foundation of Baracoa, the centre of administration was removed to the north coast, wbere the first buildings were erected at the mouth of the Choireni, or " Ravine," called also Almendares, where o "A a; . ", ;Clunp^?delaCaban '3' CA5A BUNCA r^rSENADA BE MERTMELENA Depot Gzwo Crtt^ 82°20- ff 0'2 f^ upnarcie. /niiaiF:iaii.Lii b O ►J TOPOGEAPHr OF CUBA. 873 of tbe capital, lies about midway between that place and the little port of Baiabano on the south coast over against the Isle of Pines. This island itself remained uninhabited till the last j-cars of the eighteenth century ; here a military station was founded in 182S to guard the approaches to Havana from the south side. Mafaiizas, the second city and seaport of Cuba, occupies a position analogous to that of the capital, on a deep inlet of the north coast. Its present name, meaning the "Putchcries," replaces its official title of San Carlos Alcazar, OinA recalls a massacre of the aborigines during the early days of the conquest. But the town itself dates only from the year 1G93, when it was founded at the Yucayo headland at the extremity of the bay between the Eios Yumuri and San Juan. But the city has spread far beyond that headland, and the loft bank of the Yumuri is occu- Fig. 176. — Cuban Seapokts "West of Havana. Scale 1 : 640,000. Pue'rtade la Guira WesloF Greenwich e9"4o' 0to5 Fathoms. Uerths 5 to -250 Fathoms. 250 Fathoms and upwards. . 12 Miles. pied by the pleasant suburb of Versa Iks (Versailles), while the industrial quarters of Puchlo Nuero extend eastwards beyond the San Juan. The region stretching south and east of Matanzas towards Cardenas is the most fertile in Cuba, and here are situated all the most important sugar mills and refineries. Hence JIatanzas, the natural outlet for the produce of this district, has developed a large export trade, esi^ecially with the United States. Unfoi'tu- nately the harbour has become so obstructed by siltings and sediment from the rivers that vessels of heavy draught have to ride at anchor in the roadstead. The caverns at the foot of the neighbouring limestone cliffs have been converted into delightful bathing-places, jjrotected by gratings from the sharks. Cardenas, founded in 1828 on the coast east of Matanzas, has also become a thriving seaport, doing a large export trade in sugar and molasses. It lies on a spacious bay sheltered from the north-west winds by the long promontory of Punta Icacos. Like Matanzas, Cardenas is connected with the Cuban railway 374 MEXICO, CEXTE.VI. AMERICA, "WEST INDIES. sj'stem, and by regular steamers with all the coast towns. In the interior the chief centre of the sugar industry is Colon, formerly called Niicra Smiirja. Beyond these districts life and industry are shifted from the northern to the southern seaboard, although the region had remained almost deserted for 300 years. Cicnfiiegos, so named in honour of a Cuban governor, is a modern place situated on a magnificent harbour, which had already been visited by Columbus and thoroughly surveyed by Ocampo in 1508. Herrera speaks of this haven as " unrivalled in the world," yet the town dates only from 1819, when it was founded by the Louisiana planter, Louis Clouet, with some forty families from Beam, Gascony, the Basque country and refugees from San Domingo. The harbour, 20 square miles in extent, though not the largest, is considered Fig. 177. — Matanzas. Scale 1 ; 150,000. West oF Gr l'34' Depths. Oto5 Fathoms. 6 to 50 Fathoms. 100 Fathoms and upwards. . 3 Miles. the best in Cuba. The trade has increased rapidly, and it is now the chief outlet for the produce of the district of Ciuco Villas (" Five Towns "), which have become " six " since the foundation of Cienfuegos. It is now the second sea- port in the island, having far outstripped Trinidad, which has no less than three harbours and an excellent roadstead farther east on the same coast. The Mani- caragua plain between the two towns grows an exquisite tobacco scarcely inferior to the finest brands in the Vuelta de Abajo. Trinidad, one of the oldest of the original " Five Cities," dates from the first years of the conquest, when were also founded Santo Sjnritu {Sancti Spiritu) in the interior, and 8aii Juan do los Remedios, called also Cayos because the first TOFOGEAPHY OF CUBA. 375 settlements had been made on a cay on the nortli coast. But the incursions of the French and English buccaneers drove the inhabitants to take refuge farfKfer iuhind, where they founded Sdiifa Chra {Villa Clara) in 1G90. Lastly, a fifth city, Saijua la Grande, on the river of like name some \'2 miles from the sea, gradually replaced a group of huts at the head of the fluWal navigation. In this district of the Cinco Villas are found the auriferous sands worked by the first settlers ; thov are now ncarlv exhausted. Fig. 178. — Trinidad and its Haeboues. Scale 1 : 250,000. 79° 58 West op breenwtcH Rppfs exposed at low water. Berths. Oto 16 Feet. 16 Feat and upwards. ; Miles. The provinces of Santa Clara and Puerto Principe are separated by the Moron depression, where the two sections of the island are, so to say, soldered together. Camagueij, capital of Puerto Principe, and the chief place in the central region of Cuba, claims to be the most creole (" criolisima ") of Cuban towns. The Cama- gueyanos, as the natives are fond of calling themselves, are certainly the finest, the most valiant, and independent people in the island. Puerto Priticipe, the official name of Camaguey, is the largest city of the interior, for, despite its name, it lies, not on the sea, but on an extensive plain about midway between the 876 MEXICO, CENTRAL AlIEEICA, WEST INDIES. north and south coasts. Its outlet is the vast basin of Nuevitas on the north side, which was visited by Columbus in 1492, and to which he gave the name of Puerto Principe, afterwards transferred to the inland city. Fig. 179. — Central Isthmus of Cuba. Scale 1 : 1,600,000. S.iiid8 exposed at low water. Depths tob Fathoms. 6 Fathoms and upwards. 18 Miles. The harbour of Nuevitas is perfectly sheltered by the promontories of the mainland and by the Sabinai Cay ; it is no less than 60 square miles in extent, but studtled with reefs and of difficult access, its narrow winding seaward channel being exposed to the full fury of the trade winds. n & Q o ►J pi3 Z TOPOGRAPHY OF CUBA. 877 In the basin of the Cauto the chief place is Baijamo, which was founded on a southern affluent of the main stream during the first years of the conquest. It was at Tara, a little south-west of this place, that the great republican rising took place in 1868. Jfext year, when the Spanish troops made their appearance, the inhabitants themselves set fii-e to their houses. Uolguiii, Las Tunas (" the Xopals"), Guaimaro, and all the other towns of this region, were taken and re- taken during the war, and it was at Guaimaro that the federal republic and the emancipation of the slaves were proclaimed in 1869. Most of the plantations were ruined, and the whole country was wasted and depopulated, so that the western and eastern sections of the island became separated by an intervening maiiigua, or wilderness. But many of the towns have already been rebiiilt, and much of the land has again been cleared. The port of Manzanillo, south of the Cauto delta, is the natural outlet of the whol region ; since the restoration of peace it continues to do an increasing trade in to acco, sugar, wax, honey, and other agricultural prbduce. Sanliago de Cuba, or simply Cula, is the capital of the eastern department, as well as its largest city and most flourishing seaport. It stands on one of these admirable havens on the Cuban seaboard which communicate with the sea through narrow passages in the fringing reefs. At its narrowest part the Santiago passage is only 180 yards wide, but it gives access to a magnificent basin, disposed in secondary creeks and inlets large enough to accommodate all the shipping of the island. The city, which is defended by strong fortifications, lies in a circular cove at the north-east extremity of the basin, where its houses rise in tiers on the slopes j)f the encircling hills. Its many-coloured structures, its promenades, gardens, and superb prospects over the neighbouring uplands, make Santiago one of the most marvellous cities in the Antilles. But the oppressive heat and insalubrity of the stagnant atmosphere, pent up between the surrounding moun- tains, have diverted much of its trafiic, and Santiago now ranks only as the third seaport of Cuba. Moreover, the steep cliffs of the Sierra Maestra, separating the city from the rest of the island, greatly impede communication with the interior. Hence, Santiago has not yet been connected with the general railway system, and has only a few local lines, amongst others, one running from the little port of Julian, on the opposite side of the harbour, to the town of Cobre, a noted place of pilgrimage and centre of the copper-mines in the Sierra Maestra. In this monotonous region is also situated the ancient Indian village of Caney, or the " Grave," round which the wealthy merchants have built their country seats. The neighbouring iron-mines of Juragua are actively worked by their owners, a community of miners from Pennsylvania. The most productive, which employ 1,200 hands, lie 16 miles east of Santiago, with which they are connected by rail. Santiago is a telegraphic centre, whence radiate the submarine cables for the western department and Mexico, for Jamaica, South America, Haiti, Puerto Eico, »nd the Lesser Antilles. 378 MEXICO. CKXTEAL AlSrePJCA, WEST INDIES. Midway between Santiago and Cape l^Ini.i, the south-east coast is indented by the still larger basin of Guantanamo, which, however, is almost useless for trading purposes. It has been gradually obstructed by the alluvial matter of several Fig. ISO.— Saxtiaoo be Cuba. Scale 1 : 70.000. ''P-, ./v ■"!;.■' °»'- '.;■ ',"■ ' ' ;■ ••(>■ -o ( = 75-55 West op breenwich 75*50' Depths. 0to5 Fathoms. 5 to 50 Fathoms. 60 Fathoms and upwards. 2 Miles. Streams, one of which is navigable for small craft as far as the towns of Scdladero and Santa Catalina. Banu-oa, near the eastern extremity, was the first Spanish settlement in Cuba, and here are still seen the ruins of Diego Velasquez' house. It was the PKerto Santo visited by Columbus, but it never prospered, owing to its remoteness from ECONOMIC CONT^TTTON OF CTTBA. 379 the central districts, its damp imheaUh)- climate, and tlio exposed position of the channel giving access to its harbour. At present some trade is done in bananas, cocoanuts, and other tropical fruits with the United States. One of the most romantic roads in Cuba connects Baracoa with Santiago across the rugged crests of the Cuchillas range. Economic Condition of Cvba. Despite revolutions, wars, and epidemics, the population of Cuba has increased Fig. ISI. — Poet of GrA>TAN-.vMo. SpiIp 1 : 32.1,01X1. 75'I5' West oF Greenwich 75- 5- 1..,- 0to5 Fathoms. 5 Fathoms and upwards. ^_ 6 MiJes. at least sixfold since the beginning of the last century. Enforced imnn'gration of whites, negroes, Chinese, and Mayas has ceased, and free immigration is now encouraged by grants of land. But independently of this movement, there is a considerable natural increase by the excess of births over deaths. In time of peace, the annual increase may be estimated at from 15,000 to 20,000, a rate 880 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, VTEST rNT)IES. according to which the whole population might be doubled in fifty years. It rose from 600,000 in 1811 and 1,000,000 in 1841 to 1,521,000 in 1887 (last census), and may now (1891) be estimated at 1,600,000. Under the old regime of absolute monopolies Cuba remained stationary, and the first impulse to her subsequent prosperity was given by the British occupation of the island in 1805. In ten months the hitherto-deserted port of Havana was A-isited by over a thousand vessels, and trade and agriculture advanced by leaps and bounds. After the restoration the old system was revived, but in 1818 free trade was definitely established, and the island, instead of being a burden to the mother country, contributed as much as £0,000,000 a year to her exhausted treasury. Eather more than a fourth of the land is either under tillage or pastures, and the total value of the agricultural produce is estimated at about £"200,000,000. The staple produce is sugar, of which Cuba yields about one-fourth of the world's crop, valued at £10,000,000 yearly, exclusive of rum and molasses. Some 2,600 square miles altogether are under sugar, and the plantations, mainly held by a few great landowners, are supplied with the very finest machinery from the European and American workshops. In the very first year of the discovery the envoys of Columbus reported the practice of tobacco-smoking among the natives of Cuba. Since then the practice has spread over the whole world, while the Cuban leaf has maintained its pre- eminence. But in its annual production Cuba is surpassed not only by the United States and the Eastern Archipelago, but even by France and Manila. CofEee, at one time the first, now ranks as the third colonial product in import- ance. The island also grows cotton, cereals, manioc, and fruits, but in relatively smaller quantities; hence rice, wheat, bacon and other provisions have to be imported. The domestic animals introduced during the first years of the settlement have here found a favourable environment ; but while multiph-ing they have become more or less modified. The horse, of Audalusian stock, has lost in size, but gained in staying jjower and vitality. Before the insurrection of 1868 this animal was so numerous, especially in the central and eastern districts, that nobody travelled on foot ; all the insurgents were mounted, and it was owing to this fact that they were able to hold out so long. Excellent mules are also bred and employed as pack animals in all the hilly districts. But the camel, introduced from the Canaries, failed, chiefly owing to the jigger (piikx jx'nefmns), which attacked its feet. In certain parts of the island, especially in the Baracoa district, the ox is used both as a pack and saddle animal, as in South Africa. The goat and sheep have prospered less than the pig and horned cattle, the former losing all its vivacity, the latter exchanging its fleece for hair. The land being raainl}^ held by a few large planters, Cuba has developed scarcely any local industries, so that most manufactured wares are imported. Hence foreign trade has flourished, and the total annual exchanges are now estima'od at about £16,000,000 or £10 per head of the population. Besides this foreign trafiic, which is carried on chiefly with the United States and Spain, thou- sands of small craft of less than 50 tons burden are engaged in the coasting trade. ADMIXISTRATIOX' OF CUBA. S81 Eailway operations began as early as the year 1837, but were at first restricted to a few sbort lines connecting Ilavana with the surrounding plantations. Even still a regular system of lines is confined to the western districts, the eastern parts cf the island possessing only the first links of future projects. The " Central Eailway," which is ultimately to traverse the whole of Cuba from Cape San Antonio to Gape Maisi, still exists only on paper. On the other hand the telegraph system already covers the whole island, and is connected by submarine cables with the rest of the world. Administration. The central authority is represented in Cuba bj' a governor- general, residing at Havana, and controlling the land and sea forces. Under his orders is a ci'sil governor for each of the six provinces. According to the electoral law, voters who Kg. 182.— RiiLWATS OF Cuba. Scale t : la.OOO.OOn. V/est oF Gr-een.vich Otofiou Fathoms. Depths. 500 to 1.000 F&thoms. 1,000 to 2.000 Fathoms. — ^ ISO Miles. 2.000 Fathoms and opwards. have been ten years free and pay an annual tax of £5, send to the metropolitan senate 16 members, 3 for Havana, 2 for each of the provinces of Matanzas, Pinar del Rio, Puerto Principe, Santa Clara, and Santiago, one for the university and special schools, and one jointly with Puerto Rico for the various " economic societies." The members of the Cortes are returned in the proportion of one for 40,000 inha- bitants. Each province has also its local assembly, while the municipalities are administered by councillors varying in number with the population of the commune. Instruction is obligatory for all between six and nine years of age. The army, including one battalion of blacks, consists of 19,000 men on a peace footing, paid by the local revenue. About half of the public income is derived from the customs, 25 per cent, being levied on all imported goods. One fifth of the expenditure is absorbed by the interest of the debt, which amounts (1891) to £38,000,000. Cuba is dinded for administrative purposes into six provinces, tabulated in the Appendix. CHAPTER VIII. Jamaica. liLTHOUGH classed with the Great Antilles, Jamaica is far exceeded iu size both by Cuba and San Domingo. But in respect of popu- lation the difference is less, the relative density being higher in the smaller island. Jamaica alone represents nearly one-third of the collective area of all the British West Indies, and nearly one half of their population. It has a superficial area of 4,200 square miles, or one- tenth of Cuba, with a population (1890) of 635,000, or considerably more than a third of that of Cuba. The name of Jamaica might, at first sight, appear to be of European origin, as if connected with that of Jaime, or " James." But there can be no doubt that it is a native word, its true form being Xaymaca, that is " Island of Fountains," or " of torrents," in the language of the extinct "borigines. When Columbus dis- covered it in 1494, during his second voyage, he called it Santiago, a term that was soon forgotten. The Spaniards settled in the island in the year 1 509, when they founded a few stations, round which the natives grouped their dwellings. These natives had been reduced without bloodshed under the mild administration of the first governor, Esquivel. But this beneficent ruler was succeeded by ruthless conquerors, whose historic role was almost exclusively limited to the work of extermination. A century and a half after the occupation, the whole population had been reduced to 8,000, free and slaves, of whom one-half were Spaniards. Most of these took refuge in Cuba in the year 1655, when a fleet despatched by Cromwell against San Domingo, having been repulsed from that island, indemnified itself by seizing Jamaica. The laud thus conquered by the English was colonised the next year by settlers of all kinds drawn from the West Indies, and from the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. The population rapidly increased, thanks to the i^rivileges granted to the colonists ; and amongst the immigrants came a large number of Jewish traders. During the next few decades Jamaica became a busy centre of bucca- ueering and of the slave trade. It was at Port Royal that the famous corsair, Morgan, prepared his expeditions, and the same town was the great mart whence the slaves imported from Africa were distributed throughout the West Indies and on the mainland. JAMAICA. 883 PllYSTCAT. FeaTUKES. Taken as a -whole Jamaica is an elevated region whh a mean altitude far greater than that of Cuba. It has scarcely any of those marshy coastlauds fringed with mangroves, or of those outer shore-lines formed by fringing reefs, such as abound in Cuba. The shore is almost everywhere rockbound, and cliffs occupy considerable stretches in a total coast-line of about -500 miles. As in Cuba the highest uplands occur in the eastern part of the island, where they take the name of the Blue Mountains. To mariners coasting along these shores the range running about midway between the north and south coasts appears in the distance nearly always wrapped in a blue haze, not dense enough, however, Fig. 183. — HitLT Region in West Jamaica. Scale 1 : 520,000. 16 .t^-.'^^v^^^i^^;;:;; Santa-Cruz V/est o^ Greer^v.icK 77-40 . I-.' ilike. to veil the crests and valleys, with their vai-ying tints produced by the cultivated tracts and zones of vegetation. The Cold Ridge, loftiest summit of the rugged chain, attains an altitude of 7,-123 feet according to the careful measurements of Maxwell Hall.* West of Catherine Hill (4,4G0 feet) the main range is broken by a depression, and the irregular uplands, which farther on rise in ridges, masses or ravined plateaux, scarcely anywhere exceed 3,300 feet. Collectively they form an intri- cate labyrinth due to the action of running water, which has excavated deep channels and levelled the valleys in broad basins or narrow glens. Some of the amphitheatres thus formed in the region beyond the hills are locally known as " cockpits." * J'txc. of the S. Geo. Society, September, 18b7. 334 MEXICO, CENTilAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. The Boutliern extremity of the islaud terniiuates in the Portland Ridge pro moutory, a crest of slight elevation now connected by a depression with the main- land, but at one time forming a distinct island. The western extremity of Jamaica also terminates in a bold promontory 3,500 feet high, which has been named the " DolTjhin's Head," from a fancied resemblance to that cetacean. The whole mass of which it forms the extreme point is almost completely separated from the rest of the island by the depression through which flows the Great River. Althou"-h, like the other large West Indian islands, Jamaica has no active volcanoes, old eruptive matter occurs near Spanish Town on the south side, and earthquakes are by no means rare. Towards the end of August, 1883, prolonged rumblings, like the sound of distant thunder, were heard in the Cayman Islands. It has been suggested that these sounds, which caused great alarm amongst the natives, were an echo of the terrific eruption of Krakatau, propagated across the globe from the Sunda Archipelago to the i\jitilles. For a distance of about 60 miles east of the Great River the northern slopes of the hiUs are formed of calcareous rocks analogous to coralline reefs and pierced by countless caverns and cavities through which the running waters escape. In many places the surface of the rocks remains dry at all seasons, however copious be the rains. This part of Jamaica is like Yucatan, but the resemblance is still greater to Carniola, owing to the rugged character of the land. There are few regions of the globe more rich in imderground reservoirs and streams which again well up to the surface all round the verge of the limestone district. Here and there the subterranean rivers and their branches may be traced by the springs and fountaius in the caves occurring at intervals along their course. The slope of the hidden watershed is often different from that of the surface. Lakes also are formed either on the surface or in underground cavities above the rocky sills. Rivers. The Black River, which reaches the sea on the south-west coast, comprises in its basin a large number of underground feeders. It is also the only river in the island that is navigable for 30 miles by flat-bottomed craft. None of the others arc navigable at all, not even the Dry (Minho), or the Cobre, which are the two largest. Both water the southern slof)e of the island, which is the most extensive, but which receives the least quantity of rain, not being exposed to the moist trade winds. During the floods the Cobre has occasionally a dischai^^ of 80,000 cubic feet per second, but its normal volume is only about 360, and at low water not more than 100 cubic feet. Like the north-western streams, the Cobre has its underground system of drainage. Climate, Flora, Fauna. The climate of Jamaica resembles that of Cuba, presenting the same contrasts between the northern and southern seaboard, between mountains and plains, between the leeward and windward quarters. Although somewhat sheltered from the moist rains by Cuba and San Domingo, it lies fully in the track both of FLOKA AXD FAUNA OF JAMAICA. 385 the tropical rains and of the hurricanes. On the north-east slopes of the Blue Jlountains the rainfall has occasionally exceeded 100 inches, while the plains of Spanish Town have at times suffered from long droughts.* In its indigenous flora and fauna Jamaica resembles its two neighbours, Cuba and San Domingo. A certain number of vegetable species has been introduced from Africa by the slavers, amongst others the horse bean (canava/ia emi/onnis), which, being poisonous and used for incantations, was probably brought by the negro medicine-men. It is still regarded as a charm against thieves, and the blacks give it the name of ocerlooJc, in the sense of " watch " or " guard," and entrust to it the safe keeping of their cabins and gardens. Another plant, the " trumpet-tree," supplies the porous branches from which the negroes make their koromanti flutes, a kind of hautboy with soft and shrill tones. Amongst the local animals the writers of the sixteenth century mention the aleo, or " dumb dog " of Cuba, which was probably not a dog, but the procyon htor, or North American raccoon. They also speak of several species of small monkeys inhabiting the woodlands. But the animal in which the early settlers were most interested was the land crab (cancer ruricola), which is found also in the other Antilles, but which appears to be everywhere threatened with speedy extinction. It has the curious habit of living in the mountains, but migrating to the seashore to deposit its eggs. Towards the end of April or beginning of May these little crustaceans emerge in myriads from the fissures of the rocks, and march straight for the coast, preceded by battalions of males to explore or clear the way. The eggs are laid at the very edge of the surf and buried in the sand ; as soon as hatched the young crabs set out in countless multitudes for the mountains, which they reach in interminable processions, although preyed upon along the Hne of march by birds, reptiles, ants, and other enemies. But the greatest scourge of the plantations is the rat, which has increased in prodigious numbers, despite the constant efforts to exterminate it by poison, traps, dogs, and even the Guiana toad imported from ilartinique. A voracious ant {formica oitmitora) was also introduced from Cuba to war against these rodents, against which was afterwards let loose the East Indian mungoos {/terpestes f/rketii). This species of ichneumon in its turn peopled the island in myriads, preying not only on rats but also on birds and snakes. It even infests the farm- yard, devouring the poultry and sucking their eggs. Thus from being an ally the mungoos has ecome a foe to the peasantry. IXHABITAXTS. Jamaica presents almost as great a contrast as Haiti to the Spanish island of Cuba, in the African origin of the vast majority of its present inhabitants. In fact, scarcely any whites are seen except in the towns. When they took possession • Meteorological conditions of Kingston (nineteen years' observations) :— Mean temperature, H" Fahr. ; highest, 92= Fahr. ; lowest, 66' Fahr. Mean rainfaU, U inches ; north-east district, 88 inches ; the whole island, 66 inches. VOL. XVII. C C 386 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. of the island the English expelled the old Spanish landowners, but they kept the slaves that had not escaped from the plantations, and took active steps to increase their numbers. In Jamaica the Bristol and Liverpool traders henceforth possessed a depot where they could consign their human freight while awaiting purchasers from the rest of the Antilles. Bryan Edwards estimates at 2,130,000 the total number of blacks imported by the English slavers into the New "World, and at 610,000 those landed in Jamaica alone between the years 1G80 and 1786. But the traffic had already begun in 1628, so that from the lime of the English conquest down to the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, Jamaica must have received altogether nearly a million of blacks, about half of whom may perhaps have been destined for the plantations of the island itself. Yet -when the abolition of slavery was proclaimed in 1833, only 309,000 remained to be emancipated. This was due to the fact that most of those imported died out without leaving any posterity, and the stock had to be con- stant!}^ renew'ed by fresh supplies from Africa. A great bar to the formation of family groups was the practice of polj'gamy, which still continued to prevail even under the slave system. Down to the beginning of the present century the black "commanders" had the right to take from two to four wives according to their rank in the slave world, so that the number of bachelors was all the greater amongst " the common herd." Other African customs were also long preserved. The magicians offered sacrifices to Tuniu, the evil spirit who sent storms, and thanked Naskiu, the good deity who took the blacks after death back to their African homes. When a serious charge was brought against anyone his lips were rubbed with a little earth from a fresh-dug pit, and this was supposed to act like the poisoned cup amongst the Congo tribes. The slaves were subjected to very harsh treatment by the Jamaica planters, and the laws passed against them were more severe than in the other West Indian islands. Many of the owners had their initials branded with redhot iron on the bodies of their human chattel. A negro convicted of having twice beaten a white was quartered, or burnt over a slow fire, beginning with his feet. Civil rights were withheld from freedmen tiU the third generation, or tiU they had seven-eighths of white blood. In criminal cases their evidence was not accepted against whites, and their rights of property or inheritance were strictly limited. But the neighbourhood of the wooded uplands, with their labyrinthine valle3's and " cockpits," offered a refuge to the runaways, who found a sufficient support by clearing the forests, planting yams, and hunting the wild boar. From the time of their arrival in the island the English had failed to recover all the fugi- tives from the Spanish jjlantations ; a few little re^iubHcs had even been set up in the forests, and these gradually expanded, especially by the escape of the Kru or Koromanti, the most indomitable of all the blacks. Their language, mixed with English elements, even became the current speech amongst the Maroons,* as the * That is, " wild," " savage," a contraction of the Spanish cimanvii, from cima —a mountain-top. INHABITANTS OF JAMAICA. 887 runaways were called. A few words, especially terms of endearment, still survive of this idiom. Thanks to their knowledge of the locality, and to the " drum language," by which news was rapidly spread from hill to hill, as amongst their Dwalla kindred of the Camel oons on the West Coast of Africa, frequent communications were kept up from one end of the island to the other ; munitions and other supplies were also obtained through their secret intercourse with the plantation negroes. Their bauds, contiued chiefly to the upper valley of the Dry River, towards the centre of the island, coustautly harassed the planters, who had to barricade their dwell- ings and kceiJ continually on the watch. Exposed places had to be guarded by soldiers, and the governor occasionally applied to the mainland for help. Thus were formed those friendly relations between Great Britain and the Mosquitos Indians of 2sicai-agua which were afterwards used as a plea for assuming a protec- torate over the inhabitants of the seaboard between Yucatan and the Rio San Juan. At one time the Jamaica planters were even fain to sue for peace, and in 1759 the little Maroon republics were formally constituted, with their towns, respective limits, and recognised rights. But iu their excessive confidence they also under- took to construct roads in order to open up the count r^^. In the terms of the treaty of peace the ilaroons were also required, in return for the concession of territory and political independence, to respect the laws published by the whites, and to surrender, " alive or dead," all runaway blacks seeking to escape from the servitude of the planters. This was a fatal mistake, for the " republicans" thereby forfeited all hope of aid from the plantation negroes, when the final struggle came. The stipu- lation was faithfully carried out by the Maroons of the free villages, who sent back all fugitives to their masters, while the planters, gradually enlarging their domains, narrowed to a corresponding extent the cordon of guarded lines encircling the African republics. At last, in 1795, came the inevitable conflict. Two Maroons of Trelawney Town, convicted of having stolen a pig, were sentenced to be publicly whipped by the hangman. Great was the indignation of their comrades. " You might have beheaded the thieves," they exclaimed, " and we should not have raised a protest ; but you have inflicted a punishment on them reserved for slaves, which is contrary to the treaty." They complained at the same time that some of their laud had been appropriated, and chiefs imposed on them whom they had not elected. Martial law was at once proclaimed throughout the island, and British troops, aided by a band of allied Maroons, invaded the reserved territory of Trelawney Town. But the expedition, having been repulsed, was changed to a blockade. Had the pL.ntation negroes at that juncture revolted, the whites must have met the same fate as those of Haiti. But the slaves, accustomed to regard the Maroons as for- midable enemies and accomplices of their rnqsters, never stirred, while the whites, assisted by 200 bloodhounds they had obtained from Cuba, were still able easily to maintain the blockade of the revolted territory, and thus reduce the Maroons to helplessness. c c2 3m MEXICO, CENTRAX AMERICA, WEST INDIES. After seven months of hopeless resistance thej^ at last capitulated, to the num- ber of 1,400 on the condition of being spared their lives and lands. But the governor hastened to violate the convention, and the unfortunate captives were removed to Nova Scotia, where thousands of their posterity still survive. From Nova Scotia large numbers were also later transported to Sierra Leone, whence many of their ancestors had originally been imported. After the suppression of a general insurrection of the slaves, the abolition of slavery was decreed in 1833, and this step was followed in 1838 by further economic changes, which assumed the character of a social revolution. Trading relations were abruptly diminished with Great Britain and the rest of the world, and at the same time the number of whites was considerably reduced. This sudden crisis is easily explained by the prevailing sj-stem of land tenure. The Jamaica planters, grown powerful by their accumulated wealth, had for the most part returned to England, leaving their estates to be managed by agents. But their lavish expenditure in the metropolis soon exceeded their income, and their lands were so deeply mortgaged that they could not be cleared even by the £5,855,000 of public money received in compensation for the enfranchisement of the slaves. Ruined bj' their extravagances, they did not fail to attribute their misfortunes to the abolitionist policy, thus transferring to others the consequences of their own errors. Meantime the plantations remained in the hands of agents, who were no longer provided with the fuuds necessary to keep them in order. The houses crumbled to ruins, and the cultivated tracts were speedily invaded by a rank vegetation of weeds, brushwood and even forest growths. Most of the old white families who had remained after the emancipation now also emigrated in the wake of the ruined planters. In 1852 a memorial addressed to the Governor of Jamaica by eleven residents certified that they were in charge of 123 plantations, partly as owners, partly as agents. The Whites of Jamaica. Since the abolition of slavery, the white population has diminished by one-fourth, while the number of blacks has been nearly doubled. This result has been mainly attributed to the climate, which is injurious to the white race and especially to those of North Europe, and favourable to the development of the African people. Certainly there is some truth in this assertion, and although numerous cases may be cited of Englishmen enjoying perfect health in Jamaica during a long life passed in hard work, the island is, on the whole, unsuitable for British settlers. Nevertheless the decrease of the white population is chiefly due to the emigra- tion, especially of the women. The majority of young girls are sent for education to England, and many of these never return. The white element has altogether been reduced far more by the economic conditions than by the climate. The most unhealthy part is the southern peninsula in the basin of the Dry River, and yellow fever, which confines its ravages almost exclusively to the whites, prevails INHABITANTS OF JAMAICA. 889 only on the low-lying coastliinds. As in the Mexican etato of Vera Cruz, the scourge rarely ascends to an elevation of over 1,300 or 1,400 feel, and never reaches altitudes of 2,500 feet. The so-called " dry colic," a disorder at one time greatly dreaded, has almost entirely disappeared. Consumption also carries off fewer victims than in Eng- land itself ; it is even successfully treated in the health resorts of the uplands, especially in the cinchona forests of Hope Gardens, and on the hills in the New- castle district, where the garrison troops are encamped at an altitude of 3,8^0 390 ]\rEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST INDIES. feet. The climate of Mandeville, in the centre of the island, also enjoys a good reputation. The decrease of the white and expansion of the hlack race have coincided with a radical change in the cultivation of the laud. The great sugar plantations, which numbered 859 in 1805, were reduced to 300 in 1865, and in the same period the annual export of sugar had fallen from 1-37,000 to 23,750 hogsheads, while the coffee crop was reduced in like proportion from 10,000 to 1,350 tons. Economic Condition of Jamaica. But if the great planters have disappeared, their former slaves have in their turn become landowners, occupying small holdings on the redistributed plantations where their fathers had worked under the lash. Few of these blacks will now consent to toil for the whites, even when offered high wages. Most of them have abandoned the workshops, and content themselves with tilling a bit of ground near their cabins. During the eight years that followed the emancipation they had acquired the absolute ownership of over 100,000 acres, and had founded two hun- dred villages. As if to efface the painful memories of the plantation days, they have changed their very name?, selecting others from the almanack, from history and mythology. The revolution is complete under the new order of things, and on the vast domains that still remain the planters now employ coolies imported from India, with a few hundred Chinese and Mayas from Yucatan. But since 1880 the importation of xVsiatics has ceased. The land was formerly cultivated chiefly to enable a few families to live in affluence ; at present the soil is tilled mainly to supply the local wants, and in this resjiect the people have succeeded perfectly. The chief crops are maize, j'ams, bananas, and other fruits, especially oranges. A small export trade is supported bj' the cultivation of tobacco, ginger, and coffee. Bee-farming is also carried on in some places, and cinchona was introduced in 1868 in the Blue Mountains, where the rising forests are tended by the blacks ; the tea shrub thrives in the same district. The negroes have even begun to grow sugar on their own account, and some of the old plantations are now parcelled out in as many as thirty little holdings each with its own wooden mill. Other more enterpi-ising growers have combined to purchase more costly machinery, and thus increase the yield or improve its (piality. In general the people enjoy a fair degree of comfort, and the native population increases on an average at the rate of 8,000 a year ; in 1888 it rose to 10,000. Hence the case of Jamaica has been badly chosen by those political economists who regard the falling off of foreign trade as a proof of internal deca3^ The island has, on the contrary, become a centre of culture, especially for the Central American coastlands from Yucatan to the isthmus of Darien, where the development of trade and the industries is mainly due to the immigrants from Jamaica. In this respect the island has had far greater influence in pro- moting the general progress of the American populations than anj' other member of the Aulilles. ECONOMIC COXDTTION OF JAMAICA. 891 But althoufli emancipated from forced labour, the negroes of Jamaica have acquired neither iiolitical independence nor social equality, as shown by the san- guinary conflict that occurred in I8G0 between the two races near Morant Bay in the eastern district. On that occasion eighteen whites were killed and thirty-one Fig. ISa.— DisTEiCT of Moeaxt, Jailuca. Scale 1 : 330,000. ^ 9 Miles. wounded; but the massacre was avenged with extreme severity, and a subsequent official inquirv reported that 438 people of colour had been kHled, over 600 sen- tenced to theiash or the bastinado, and a thousand houses delivered to the flames. According to the commission, the revolt itself, so ruthlessly suppressed, might cer- tainlv have been avoided had the peasantry of the district received the lands to 392 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, ^^EST INDIES. which they were entitled, and been treated with common justice by the local tribu- nals. Although reduced to an insignificant minority, the white planters still claim absolute political control over the black populations whom they formerly held in bondage. T0P0GR.\PHY. Kingston, capital of Jamaica, lies on the south coast where it is indented by a large inlet separated from the sea by a long spit of sand. Its low houses, dusty streets, and dead walls are relieved by extensive gardens which occupy a con- siderable space at the extremity of a plain commanded on the north by Long Fi?. 186. — Kingston and Poet Rot^u,. Scale 1 : 22'2,000. West or breenwich 76'50- 76-45' Reefs exposed at low water. Depths. «to5 Fathoms. • Lij^hthouse. 5 Fathoms and upwards. . 3 Miles. Mountain and the Liganee (Liguanea) Hills, whence the city derives its supply of water. Kingston became the chief harbour of the island in the year 1693, after an earthquake had destroyed the city of Port Roi/al, which stood at the extremity of the "Palisades," that is, the sandy spit which develops an irregular crescent south of the bay. The disaster was one of the most terrible recorded in the historj' of under- ground disturbances. The shock raised the waves mountains high, and hurled the shipping against the city, which was flooded to the roofs of the houses. Most of those that escaped were saved by clinging to the wreckage, whence they were taken on board a frigate that had been lauded bj' a wave on the ruined houses. Much damage was also done in the interior, where the Cobre river was dammed up by great landslips, and all the lower course long remained dry. The earthquake TOPOGRAPHY OF JAMAICA. 898 was followed by malignant fevers, by which the island was ravaged, and whole districts depopulated. In 1772 Port Royal was again destroyed, this time by a cyclone, and it also suffered much from fierce conflagrations. At present it is merely the outer port of Kingston, the military and naval quarter, while trade and the industries are centred in the capital. The channel giving access to Kingston Harbour, at the western extremity of the Palisades, is defended by recently-constructed fortifica- tions ; it has a depth of 26 feet, and a width at its narrowest part of not more than 55 yards. In the harbour, anchorage is afforded to large vessels in depths of over 30 feet. Several lines of steamers connect Kingston with the rest of the Antilles, and all the trade of Jamaica with Great Britain, Canada, the United States, and other countries is carried on through this seaport. From Kingston also radiate some submarine cables, and it is connected with Spanish Town by a railway, which, beyond that point, ramifies to the north and west of the island. Spanish Toini, which retained the official title of capital down to the year 1869, is the ancient Santiago de la Vega, founded by Diego Colomb in 1525. Its port, lying to the south-west on an island-s^added bay, which is sheltered on the south side by Portland Ridge, is known by the name of Old Harbour, but is at present little frequented. The waters of the Cobre river are distributed over the surrounding plain by irrigation canals with a total length of over 30 miles. The plains encircling Kingston and Spanish Town are dreary and monotonous in the disafforested parts ; but the neighbouring hills and mountain slopes on the north are covered with magnificent plantations, parks, and public pleasure-grounds ; here are also the botanic gardens and forests of acclimatisation whence, in the last century, more than a hundred useful plants, amongst others the bread-fruit tree, were distributed over the island and throughout the Antilles. The heights of Neiccadle, which command a view of Kingston plain and harbour, with the long verdant crescent of the Palisades, are also covered with recent plantations. Bevond Old Harbour the south coast presents no havens or any accommodation for shipping except a few dangerous roadsteads, such as those of Black Btver Village and Savana-la-JIar. Xor are there any inlets on the west side except the little creeks of Negril ; but on the north-west coast are the safe harbours of Lucea and Mosquito Bay, followed by Mordcgo, which, though less sheltered, is more frequented by vessels engaged in the coasting trade. In the last century ilontego was the seaport of the little republic of Trelatrney Toicn, called also Maroon Toicn. Falmouth, lying farther east at the mouth of the Martha Brea river, also does a brisk trade, although vessels drawing over 12 or 13 feet are unable to cross the bar. Secilla, about the middle of the north coast, over half a mile from the present little seaport of Santa Ana, formerly Santa Gloria, was the first settlement made by the Spaniards in Jamaica. Its site is still marked by the ruins of a church. Beyond it follow Port Maria and Annotta, on the north-east coast, and, farther east. Port Antonio, the chief mart for bananas in the island. The negroes of this 894 Ml^XICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. district Lave for some time been engaged in a lucrative export trade in fruits with the United States. Moranf Toini, on the south-east side, near the extreme eastern headland of Morant Point, also carries on a considerable trade in oranges and other fruits. The oranges of Jamaica are the most highly appreciated in the American market. The term Morant, applied to the village, cape, bay, and har- bour, is of Spanish origin ; it has reference to the long " delay " to which vessels coming from the southern part of the island are frequently subject while endea- vouring to double the extreme headland in the teeth of the regular east winds. Administration, For more than 1-50 years Jamaica enjoyed almost absolute political autonomy; that is to say, the planters, masters of their slaves, were also masters of the Fig- IST.^^Chtef Towxs of Jasiaica. Scale 1 : 2,700,000. to 100 Fathoms. Depths. 100 to 500 Fathoms. 600 Fathoms and upwai'ds. 60 Miles. Other inhabitants of the island, " little whites " and emancipated people of colour. The administration was, in fact, entirely in their hands. But after the abolition of slavery, the blacks, legally free, but de facto still enslaved, subjected to a thousand vexations on the part of their former owners, and deprived of all help from the planters, vainly attempted to take a modest share in the social and political life of the community. The pretended colonial autonomy of Jamaica was, in reality, nothing more than the absolute control of the white aristocracy over the coloured population, and the British Government was at last compelled, under pressure of public opinion, to put an end to the scandal. But instead of granting a few rights to the people of colour, it proceeded to ADMIXISTEATIOX OF JAMAICA. 895 deprive blacks and whites alike of all participation in the administration of their own affairs. The goyernor, members of council, and other functionaries were nominated by the Sovereign, and Jamaica became a Crown Colony. Since 1884 this political system has been slightly modified. Five members only of the legislative council are chosen by the central authority, nine being elected by the people. In each of the fourteen parishes also the white and coloured electors, who numbered about 27,000 in 1887, elect the councillors charged with the administration of the local affairs. Fig-. 1S8.— Chats or the CiTsciS- Ist.an-ds. Scale 1 ; 2,2CO,CiXi. Depths. to 1.000 Fathoms. 1.000 to 2.00O Fathoms, 2,0fO to 3,000 Fathoms. 3.000 Fathoms and upwards. . 60 Miles, The church is separated from the state, and the blacks, in opposition to their old Anglican masters, mostly Episcopalians, have all become Baptists, Methodists or Presbyterians. Instruction has become general, and in 1890 about one-ninth of the whole population were attending the primary schools. The army com- prises a force of over l,'2(iO men, besides about 1,000 constabulary. The banks and islets of the Jamaican waters, such as the Morant Cays on the south-east and the Pedro Cays on the south, are natural dependencies of the island, visited chiefly by collectors of turtles' eggs and birds. Political and administrative dependencies of Jamaica are also the two islets of Cayman Brae and Little Cayman, together with Grand Cayman, which form a seaward continua- tion of Cape Cruz and consequently belong geographically to Cuba. They have a fishing population of about 4,000, and arc remarkably salubrious. CHAPTER IX. SAN DOMINGO (HAITI AND THE DOMINICAN REPrBLIC). I. — General Sura'ey. 'AN DOMINGO,* if this term be applied to the whole island, is the second of the Antilles in size and population, but the first in altitude, diversitj' of outline, picturesque prospects and the natural fertility of its valleys. It is also the only island in the American Mediterranean which does not depend politically on some European power. Whether united in a single state, or, as has more frequently been the case, constituting two distinct republics, both sections of Domingo have hitherto succeeded in preserving their autonomy. Had this autonomy been vindicated by a white Creole population it would have ranked in modern history as an event of secondary importance, analogous to that of the colonies on the mainland, which, according as they felt strong enough, have successivel}^ asserted their independence of the mother countries. But in this instance the rebels who compelled their former masters to recognise an accomplished fact were blacks, slaves, and the descendants of slaves, people formerly regarded by the whites as scarcel}^ belonging to their common humanity. The independence of Haiti, accomplished in the "West Indian world in the midst of the islands where slavery was still upheld with all its accompanying horrors, appeared to the planters in the light of an unnatural event. The general feeling inspired by it amongst the slave-owners, whether French, English, Spaniards, Dutch, Danes, or Americans, was one of horror. The very name of Haiti was proscribed on the plantations, as belonging to an accursed land. Yet there can be no doubt that this example of a black community enjo}-ing political freedom and self-government, living as freemen after a suc- cessful revolution, tended indirectly to hasten the day of emancipation in the surrounding insular groups. The fear of a disaster similar to that which over- whelmed the San Domingo planters could not fail to bear fruits elsewhere. It may be admitted that neither of the two republics, frequently exposed to foreign wars, torn by civil strife, or a prey to personal ambition, has yet succeeded in • Properly Santo Domingo ; in correct Spanish usage the full form Santo is reserved exclusively for St Dominic, founder of the Order of Preachers. PHYSICAL FEATUEE3 OF SAX DOMIXGO. 397 acquiring a prominent position amongst civilised nations ; but in the midst of so many perils and difficulties, it is something to have survived at aU. The very term Haiti (Hayti), often extended to the -whole island, is aa indication of the changes that have taken place since the plantation days. This appellation, which is said to mean " Highlands," ia the language of the aborigines, had fallen into abeyance, like Quisqueya, " Great Land " or " Mother of Lands," which, according to CTiarlevois, had also served to designate this member of the Great Antilles. Columbus, who discovered the island in 1492, called it Espaiiola, or "Little Spain ; " but this name was gradually replaced by that of the capital, Santo Domingo, which is now applied in a special sense to the eastern section of the island. The revival of the old Arawak word, Haiti, by the blacks of the western section was due to the natural feeling of reaction against the memory of the hateful days of slavery.* Physical Features. Considered in its relations to the other Antilles, San Domingo evidently forms part of a well-defined geographical region. Continuing the axis of Puerto Eico the island gradually broadens westwards ; in this direction it ramifies into two branches, which are themselves again prolonged in the same direction, one bv the island of Cuba, the other by Jamaica. The soundings taken in the intervening waters show that Puerto Eico is, so to say, the root, and San Domingo the stem, throwing off two western branches or peninsulas towards Cuba and Jamaica. Submarine beds and even reefs and islets rising above the surface serve to indicate the physical connection of all the islands across the channels bv which they are now separated. Thus between Puerto Eico and San Domingo the Mona Strait is nowhere 500 fathoms deep. The Windward Channel between Haiti and Cuba is no doubt deeper ; nevertheless, the flooded siU presents the form of a rampart between two trenches. In the Jamaica passage an analogous structure is observed between Cape Tiburon and Morant Point. As regards its general relief, San Domingo forms several distinct orographic regions. It may be described as composed of longitudinal islands connected bv intermediate plains, so that a subsidence of the land would resolve the whole into four islands disposed from east to west, but slightly diverging, like the ribs of a half-open fan. The northern fragment is clearly separated by the great plain stretching from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay. A second and much larger orographic section is formed by the zone of hilly lands which runs diagonally across the island from Cape Engano to St. Xicholas' Head ; the third upland mass is limited northwards by the Eiver Artibonite, eastwards by the Xeyba or Taqui • The disuse of Espafiola. Latinised SispanioJa, as the exclusive general term for the whole island is to be regretted. In the absence of such a general term both San Domingo and Haiti are now commonly used in this sense : but as these words are also the official designations of the eastern and western states respectively, much confusion often arises from their twofold meaning. It is as if the term Britain, or Great Britain, were to become obsolete, and both England and Scotland were to be used in a general sense for the whole island, while retaining their special meanings as the proper names of the southern and northern divisions. — Esitoe. 398 MEXICO. CENTK.A_L AMERICA, "WEST INDIES. Chico, and on the south by a chain of lakes ; lastly, the fourth segment is formed bj^ the south-western peninsula and the mountains in which it is rooted. The northern chain itself consists of two distinct groups very unequal in size. The Samana peninsula at its eastern extremity, even within quite recent times, formed a separate island, and at the beginning of the present century a branch of the Yuna known as the Gran Estero ("Great Inlet") still communicated east of the peninsula with Escocesa Bay. The bed of the sound, although now completely silted up, might easily be restored and transformed to a navigable canal. Nevertheless, the northern range of San Domingo begins in the Samana penin- sula in the abrupt Pilon de Azucar (" Sugarloaf "), about 2,000 feet high, and the Fig 183. — Monte-Ceisti Range and Vega Plain. Scale 1 : 1,250,0.X). ^^^nr^^xS^^. ^ < '^^IW;, -y >"^ £.^u^^ s ^ ^1) Beujuelas Basccs. Scale 1 : l,e0Ofi(». £ l; -/^ 4.T >3j^^^^^^|HH^^kMHH^^^^^^^^H^b|H|^^^H^^^H^B ^^^K^^^^^^^^^HiBS^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B '^^^^^^I^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^E^^^S 1 ^'; '>!9PBI^^^H^Pi^HH^H^^HBHp^^^ ^^^TntgSfB^^^^^^^^^i' ••" - •■^^^^^PHsg -' ;.--\ ^- ^- '- >'- ' ?" ■■-^--- ^' -■ - -■' ' . ^ ",.■---■ . .'■ri'-rS^t'^^^^H^-^^-'^ •^*"l''-^''^'.** i=- IS- lo';.' ••"!•"*' "V'^/^"" ■''■.'rp^'0''^fy''''^' '-W/F'-^X'Tii; i5 ^^:z ' fy^' '^f 1 ■*5' ■-. 'TX '■* «^.. ''••^\' . * S.Antonio de Suepra • ^^ f / Loe Llanos I* ' ■ ' '- o-l'» Sabaruj 6rande^»^-77t^^;^_-^ "_ • • : ' 1/ ^ - ^s>»s^e>^ • • • mS:^~'^ .. >/ a • ■ A* - • 1 Iff 30 ■ • ■■ ■ V^^Sif •^'"■'-°'*"" o- Hato Vlejo L^fJ ^ JC . SAWTO OOMIWSOP^ali^^^J :,''.. =•_ ;,\ , •RGero>i;m«„^^^3^^^^^53Sj£i,' . °" Ai>d»^\°' • • '' -'^^^ •- ' • ''^ = ^^^^^^teig * • i * " ^*^/r^^^ * ' -^ T *iip*^3*^ %• -^^^^ - ■" '^*^ii"^"' -!^ij^mg»i^^^^s=v'^J;^j^^S— 3 6g"50lV.'est oP G'ren«.:ch e='-0' | Depths. to 100 Fathoms. 100 Fathoms and upvaids. SO Miles. On the east slope the largest basin is that of the Yuna, which flows to Samana Bay. The plain traversed by this river belongs to the same depression as that of the Great Yaqui, the uncertain waterparting between the two basins being scarcely 680 feet high. This is the magnificent region to which Columbus gave the name of Vega Real. Amongst the secondary rivers one of the most copious is the Ozama, which VOL. SVII. D D 402 MEXICO, CENTRAL .\:MEEICA, WEST INDIES coUects aU its headstreams a short distance above San Domiugo, capital of the Spanish republic. Its tributary, the Eio Brujuclas (" Witch Eiver "), appears to be one of the few underground streams in the island. After flowing on the surface to within 12 miles of the coast, it suddenly plunges into a chasm, its course being here arrested by a long cliff skirting the limestone shore. The tarns scattered over the plain are formed by the rainwater which collects in these little closed basins. The whole region stretching east of the capital to the extremity of the island appears to have been formerly under water. But elsewhere the only lacustrine basins stiU surviving are those of the depression which extends north of the Selle and Baburuco chains, between Port-au-Prince and Neyba Bays. So level is this plain, which was formerly a Fi"-. 192. — IsTHiroS OF THE LAKES, Sa>' DoiONGO. Scale 1 : 550,000. 12 ^ililes. marine channel, that no fluvial basin has yet been developed in it, so that the surface waters find no outlet seawards. The largest of the flooded depressions stands about the middle of the isthmus at a height of some 300 feet. Its old Indian name was Xaragua ; but the Spaniards usually call it Enriquillo ("Little Henry "), from a chief who long held out against the conquerors. He had taken refuge at last in an islet of the lake, which is now inhabited by wild goats, and hence called Cabritos. The French negroes call the lake Etang Sal^, from its saline water. This closed basin, formerly a marine inlet, but now cut off by a bar from the ocean, is still inhabited by sharks and porpoises, and even by caymans, although these sauriaiis generally avoid saline waters. The lake is verj' deep and has an area of 170 square miles. After heavy rains it occasional!}' forms a continuous sheet of water with another basin, the Laguna de Fundo, or Etang Saumache, which forms its north-western extension CLDIATE OF SAN DOmNGO. 403 towards Port-au-Prince Baj-. The imited reservoir has then a total length of about 60 miles, ^th an average breadth of 9 or 10 miles, and is consequently larger than the Lake of Geneva. According to Tippenhauer the Etang Saumache, that is, "Brackish Lagoon," scarcely deserves its name, for its water is quite potable with a very slight saline taste. It becomes really brackish, however, during the temporary inundations of the Etang Sale. Farther south, in the same depression, but at a somewhat higher elevation, stands the freshwater lake, Icotea de Limon, which is fed by torrents from the Baburuco hills, and probably sends its overflow through underground channels to Lake Enriquillo. There is still another link in the lacustrine chain, the Eincon, which communicates with the Yaqui Chico delta, while the depression is con- tinued to the sea by the so-called " raques," that is, muddy and partly-flooded morasses. The San Domingo seaboard is in many places fringed with reefs, but on the whole it is far more accessible than that of Cuba. The coralline structures are developed chiefly in the interior of the bays, and Samana Bay is thus more than half filled with reefs, ilanzanillo Bay is similarly obstructed, while the ilonte Cristi range is continued far seawards by a vast "garden" of reefs, banks and islets. The western gulf terminating in Port-au-Prince Bay, has also been invaded by the coral-builders, and Gonave Island is connected on both sides with the shore by causeways of reefs pierced by a few open passages. The coast facing the Ile-a-Yache is also bordered by a labyrinth of corals, and at the eastern extremity of San Domingo, Saona or Adamanay Island, as well as Cape Engano, are surrounded by fringing barriers. Climate, Flora, Fauxa. . EesembUng that of the neighbouring islands in its main features, the local climate is distinguished chiefly by the contrasts between uplands and lowlands, seaboard and interior, windward and leeward aspects. More oceanic in its position than Cuba and Jamaica, San Domingo is more exposed to the regular north-east trades, but on the Azua plateau, and in other districts sheltered by the mountain ranges, the rainfall is very slight, and vegetation is supported chiefly by the copious morning dews. At Port-au-Prince the mean annual rainfall is 62 inches, while the temperature ranges from 58" to 97^ Fahr. Hurricanes are rarer than in the Lesser Antilles, and although slight vibra- tions of the ground are frequent, violent shocks occur only at long intervals. In 1564 Conception de la Vega was destroyed ; in 1751 the rising city of Port- au-Prince was converted into a heap of ruins, and the same fate overtook Cap- Haitien in 1842. Thanks to its more abundant rainfall and greater diversity of aspect, San Domingo is richer in vegetable forms even than Cuba itself. The interior has not yet been cleared, and the forests covering the slopes of the mountains for thousands of square miles contain in abundance such valuable timbers as rose- D D 2 404 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. wood, ironwood, mahogany, satinwood, pines, and oaks. All the tropical fruit trees have been introduced on the plantations, and the jambosa, imported from Jamaica in 1791, has almost become a nuisance, growing wild in dense thickets. Like Cuba, Haiti possesses no venomous snakes ; but the cacata, a species of spider, is much dreaded by the natives. The rivers and lakes are peopled by two species of saurians, and clouds of aquatic birds hover over Altavela, Beata, Gronave, and the other coast islands, all rich in guano and phosphate of lime. Inhabitants. At the arrival of the Spaniards the population was probably as dense as at present. Columbus estimated it at nearly a million ; but Las Casas calculated that as many as three millions had fallen victims to the greedy and ferocious conquerors. The island had long been occupied by peoples of various origin ; it had its historic and prehistoric times, its myths and legends referring to an epoch of vast antiquity. To those remote ages belonged the greenish stone hatchets which are picked up here and there, and which the black medicine-men use in their magic rites. The aborigines claimed to have sprung from the soil, and celebrated the origin of the world in certain caves, several of which are still shown, especially in the western districts. According to the negroes of the north-west the first man appeared quite suddenly, accompanied by the sun and moon, at the entrance of a cave near Dondon, and here the natives formerly came to offer sacrifices to the divinities of heaven and earth. The figures of turtles, frogs, scorpions, crocodiles, and other animals carved by the primitive artists on the surface of the rocks in this cave have already become encrusted with calcareous concretions. Rudely-carved stones have also been discovered in the mountains of the Cibao range and in other places. Nearly all the aborigines, the western Cebuneys akin to the Cubans and the Arawaks of the centre and east, spoke dialects of a common language, and resembled each other in their usages. They probably belonged to the same stock, and occasionally combined to resist their common Carib enemies, who frequently landed on the east coast, killing and eating the men, and keeping the women as wives or slaves. Most of the Haitians were of small stature, and their skin was scarcely darker than that of the Spaniards themselves. They were a peaceful race, and war seldom broke out between the five kingdoms, the names and limits of which have been preserved by the chroniclers. Columbus speaks of these communities in terms which have been seldom applied to other men. " They love their neighbours as themselves ; their speech, always kindly and soft, was accompanied by smiles." Yet the very person who gave them this high praise began their enslavement by stratagem and violence. His associates and successors surpassed him in cruelty, amusing themselves by setting their bloodhounds loose against the unhappy natives, who were often torn to pieces by these ferocious beasts. In vain they revolted, for the war led only INHABITANTS OF SAN DOmNGO. 405 to more -wholesale massacres. In order to hasten the end of their wretched existence the Haitians themselves are said to have sworn to allow no more births, thus condemning the -whole race to extinction. In half a century the people whom the Spaniards were burning to "convert to the true faith " had ceased to exist, or the few survivors had become merged in other ethnical groups, white or black. About midway between San Domingo and Samana Bay lies the village of Boya ia a wooded upland valley, whither the last Haitians retired after the almost total extermination of the whole race. They were left in peace ; their chief even obtained the title of doii, and called himself, " Cacique of the Island Haiti." But they did not long retain their racial purity, and at present it is difficult to recognise the half-caste descendants of the primitive Haitians. "What distinguishes them best is their long, lank and very black hair. But many words of their language were borrowed by the Spaniards, and thus passed into the other European tongues. Such are potato (patafa), cassava, maize, tobacco, iguana, canoe, cacique, and perhaps hammock {hamac). During the first years of the conquest the Spaniards had been accompanied by some negroes, and in 1-505, African slaves were sold by the Spanish traders to the San Domingo miners. The traffic was officially recognised in 1517, when a royal edict authorised the yearly importation of 4,000 blacks from the coast of Africa to the island of Haiti. The trade was made a monopoly in favour of a chamberlain of Charles Y., who sold it to some Genoan merchants. But the negroes were far too few to compensate for the extirpated Indians. Hence many Spanish settlers, having no slaves to work the mines or cultivate the plantations, hastened in search of fresh adventures, and the marvellous reports from Mexico and Peru caused the emigration to become general. San Domingo would have been completely depopulated had not the governor forcibly retained all the officials still in the island. The occasion was favom-able for the English and French buccaneers, who raided the unoccupied parts of the island, sweeping away the cattle, horses, and swine that had multiplied on the savannas. They became strong enough to drive the Spaniards towards the capital, but as yet they had no fixed stations beyond the trysting-places where they kept hides and other plunder for sale to passing vessels. One of these places was a haven in Tortuga (Turtle) Island, on the strait which separated this long mountain mass from the mainland. Thinking themselves strong enough to found a permanent settlement here, they erected some houses and depots with the aid of the French residents in St. Christopher, and began to clear the ground for plantations. Driven out by the Spaniards in 1638 and again in 1654, they took refuge at Petit-Goave on the north side of the south-west penin- sula, and this place became a chief centre of the trade in tobacco and hides. Tortuga was retaken by the French in 1659, but the land being nearly exhausted, most of the settlers withdrew to the mainland, where the fortress of Port-au-Prince had already been erected. The French colony was thus definitely established in the western part of the 406 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. island, where the plantations began gradually to spread. The chief point now was the introduction of a better class of negroes in the agricultural districts. In most of the other Antilles the gangs of slaves had to be continually recruited by fresh purchases, owing to the lack of women. But such was not the case in Haiti, where the buccaneers, more eager for booty than agricultural work, had from the first introduced the negresses captured in other islands or on board the slave vessels. At the census of 1687 the coloured population, about half of the whole, comprised more women than men, while the community increased normally by the excess of births over deaths. Although more males were afterwards imported than women, still the disproportion between the sexes was never so great as in the other West Fig. 193. — Chief Slave-Teade Routes. Scale 1 ; 150,000,000. 'LJ^^ 50' Merrdian oF Greenwich 0' . 3,100 Miles. Indian islands ; and the flourishing state of the indigo and sugar trades during the eighteenth century enabled the planters to procure the very best " raw material " in the slave market. But probably to this very circumstance was due the defeat and massacre of the white proprietors. The blacks imported as slaves gradually merged in a vigorous race ripe for independence. The Haitian negroes are still noted for their size, strength, and muscular development. At the dawn of the revolution those of the French colony numbered half a million, owned by rather more than 30,000 whites, while the intermediate class of mulattos, nearly all freedmen, scarcely exceeded 27,000. In the Spanish part of the island the whole population was much less, and the two elements far more evenly balanced. Here the plantations numbered only about 5,500, not half as many as in the French part, which supplied Europe with more than half of its annual con- sumption of cotton and sugar. INHABITANTS OF SAN DOJIINGO. 407 Tlie revolution, which, at this distance of time, seems Like a sudden event, really took place very gradually, and but for foreign intervention might have pursued a peaceful course. After 1789, and the shout of freedom echoed beyond the seas, fifteen years passed before the Haitians proclaimed their independence. At first they thought only of seizing the land which they tilled, and making them- selves the political equals of the French planters. Political and social equalitj' were claimed only by the " petits blancs," that is, the despised European bour- geoisie, and by the still more despised midatto element. But these two classes were themselves hostile to each other, and conflicts had even broken out between them. On the other hand the National Assembly, afraid to offend the great planters, hesitated to act, and in response to the philanthropists clamouring for the aboli- tion of slavery, limited its action to the electoral law of 1790, in which the right of the people of colour to vote was not even explicitly recognised. But the mulattos claimed the right, though their champion, Vincent Oge, had to take refuge in Spanish territory, whence he was " extradited " and broken on the wheel. The fury of the planters rose to a white heat when, in 1791, the Constituant Assembly conferred on the half-breeds born of free parents the right of election to the Colonial assemblies. It was then that the dominant party proclaimed in most of the parishes their independence of the mother-countrj'. The planters appealed to England, and their envoj's, dressed in British imiforms, were de- spatched to Jamaica for assistance against France. But the negroes had already been drawn into the revolutionary movement, and the war of races was precipitated by the action of the clergy, under whose influence the slaves, like the peasantry of La Yendee, at first took arms as Royalists (" Gens du Eoi"). Then the fate of the distant monarchy was soon effaced by the smell of blood, and on both sides the war rapidly assumed a character of extreme ferocity. Unassailable in their upland fastnesses, the blacks slaughtered the whites of the plains, but only to be slaughtered in their turn whenever, intoxicated by success, they ventured to approach the fortified towns. Scarcely any prisoners were made, and the captives were often tortured to death. The hostile camps were surrounded by bodies dangling from the branches of the trees, or by human heads stuck on every post. But, in the language of Toussaint-Louverture, the whites were as two or three light grains lost in a vessel full of black maize, and the massacres told in favour of the African element. Moreover, the emigration of the whites to Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Spanish Florida, and the United States became a veritable exodus. On the invitation of the whites and a section of the people of colour, the English, accompanied by French emigres, came to take possession of the magnifi- cent colony offered to them. St. Nicholas, the chief arsenal, and Port-au-Prince, the capital, fell into their hands. On the other side the Spaniards, representing the Bourbon monarchy, had taken into their service the " Gens du Roi," and had advanced into French territory. Of the old colony only two or three points were still held on the north and south coasts, that is, precisely where the bucca- neers had begun their work of conquest. 408 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMEEICA, WEST ESTDIES. It was then that the commissioner Sonthonax, realising the desperate state of affairs, proclaimed the emancipation of the slaves, causing the edict to be ratified by that section of the planters which had refused to betray the mother- country. This step was followed by the decree of the National Assembly of February 4th, 1794, recognising equality of rights between all races. So great was the moral effect that in a few weeks the material position was completely reversed. On the appeal of Sonthonax, now become "le bon Dieu," a whole army sprang from the ground ; the black insurgents fighting in the name of the Spanish king changed their flag, and voluntarily espoused the cause of the rig. 194.— Scene of the Wae of Inbepenbexce. Scale 1 : 3.250,000. 60 Miles. French republic. After driving their late aUies back to the eastern part of the island, they successively captured the western towns that had been occupied by British garrisons. Toussaint Breda, the black general, changed his name to L'Ouverture, to show that a new era was dawning and a new order of things had certainly boon ushered in. "Work was resumed on the plantations, no longer for the benefit of a few great landowners, but to the profit of thousands of freemen, and the rural settlements again prospered. In 1795 the treaty of Basle yielded to France the Spanish part of San Domingo, and the French republic thus became oflScial mistress of a far larger colony than that inherited from the monarchj'-. But the political ties between the two countries were ruptured by the action of France herself. The first consul, INHABITANTS OF SAN DOMINGO 409 Bonaparte, after overthrowing the republic and restoring the ancien regime under a new name, attempted to effect a similar work in Haiti. The blacks at first hesitated, or resisted in a half-hearted way, especially after the treacherous capture of their leader, Toussaint-Louverture. But the truth gradu- ally leaked out, and the existence of the decree re-establishing slavery and the slave trade in the Antilles became known to all, especially after some mulattoes imported from Guadeloupe were publicly sold as slaves. The black troops immediately deserted and the war was resumed. As before, it assumed an atrocious character, and Dessalines, the black leader, ordered the massacre of all whites, the burning of the towns and plantations. The French on their part gave no quarter ; they even brought to the siege of Leogane two hundred Cuban bloodhounds, " that were fed on negro flesh and made Fig. 195. — Dbpoted Teeeitoet betwkex HAm akd Sajj Dojoxgo Scale 1 : 7,000,001. Depths. Disputed Territory. to 1,500 Fathoms. ],500 Fathoms aud opvards. 125 Miles. more savage by hunger." But the climate, on which the Haitians had calculated, at last secured them the victorv. A frishtful outburst of vellow fever almost com- pletely destroyed the invading army, carrying off 24,000 of the 35,000 that had been landed, and leaving only 2,200 capable of bearing arms when the time came to evacuate the island. Separation was now an accomplished fact, and on January 1st, 1804, independence was proclaimed at Gonaives. After its revolutionary period of fifteen years, Haiti, like the mother-country, constituted itself an " empire ; " then followed its monarchies and constitutional presidencies, and even a second empire (1849), just as in France, and then another republic, which still keeps up the outward semblance of a civilised state. In 1843 the alliance imposed bv force on the Spanish section of the island was broken, and all subsequent attempts to restore the union have ended in failure. 410 MEXICO, CENTEAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES. The severance of the two states is sufficiently explained by the differences in speech, traditions and race. While full-blood negroes dominate in Haiti, the people of colour, that is, mulattoes, form the great majority in the neighbouring state. The former speak French, or a creole patois of French origin, and their relations are mainly with France ; the latter are of Spanish speech, and their associations have chiefly been with the Hispano-American republics. Of the two states the eastern has always been the weaker in population, trade and militarj' strength. Hence not only has its independence been more frequently threatened, but it has had to repel the attacks of its western neighbour ; its terri- tory was even occupied by Spanish troops in 1861 and re-annexed to Spain till the year 1865. In 1869 the United States made several attempts to attract San Domingo within the orbit of its political sphere, and even for a time occupied Samana Bay. The limits of the conterminous French and Spanish colonies and, later, those of the two republics have often been modified. At present the frontier follows a very irregular line from north to south, and each state claims the upper basin of the Artibonite. The treaty of 1876 recognised the disputed territory as belonging to San Domingo, allowing the Haitians to hold it for an indemnity of £30,000 and the free admission of produce by land from San Domingo. This state is nearly double the size, but has only haK the population, of Haiti. II. — Republic of Haiti. Scarcely a single town in Haiti but recalls some siege, battle, or butchery. The very river marking the northern frontier is known by the name of Riviere du Massacre, in memory of a sanguinary conflict between the natives and the Spaniards. Since the war of independence the first town west of this river bears the name of Port- Libert e, which replaces that of Port -Dauphin. There is no better harbour in Haiti than this extensive inlet, which is perfectly sheltered from all winds and affords excellent anchorage in depths of from 26 to 65 feet ; but sailing vessels find it somewhat inaccessible owing to the long winding entrance scarcely a mile wide. Hence it is visited chiefly \>j steamers which here ship considerable quantities of dye woods felled in the districts of Trou and Ouanaminthe, the Guanaminto of the Arawak aborigines. On the north side the chief seaport is still Cap-Frangais, now Cap-Hditien, or simply Cap, which before the war was known as the " Paris of San Domingo." Having been several times burnt and overthrown by an earthquake in 1842, it has no longer any fine monuments ; but its harbour, which is rather a bay sheltered by reefs, does a flourishing trade in ceffee and tafia. Near Milot, 9 miles south of Cap-Hai'tien, stands the ruined chateau of San-Souci, hnili by General Christophe, who became " King of the North " under the name of Henry I. West of Cap-Haitien foUow the little havens of Port-Margot and Port-de-Paix, the Valparaiso of Columbus. This place lies due south of Tortuga Island, the famous stronghold of the buccaneers, and starting-point of the French conquest of Haiti. Farther west lies the estuary of the Trois-Rivieres, which flows from the REPUBLIC OF HAITI. 411 Black ilountaius through the populous communes of Marmclade, Plaimnce, and Gros-Monie. The Mole Saint- Nicolas, at the western extremity of the northern peninsula, ■was the first point of the coast touched by Columbus when he discovered Espanola (San Domingo). It was so named from the long promontory protecting the port like a mole or breakwater, and in 1693 became the chief stronghold of tho French in Haiti ; but the fortifications were reduced to a heap of shapeless ruins by the earthquake of 1842. In 17G4, 400 exiled Acadians received some lands in the district ; but the climate, having pi'ovcd fatal to most of them, the survivors were removed to Louisiana. A similar fate befell 2,400 Germans, who settled in Fig. 196. — St. Nicolas Pentmsttla. Scale 1 : -HKi.fKio. SO- ' IVesloF Greenwich 7>L'ia Depths. to 600 Fathoms. 500 Fathoms aud upwiuds. . 30 Jliles. the neighbourhood about the same time, and founded the station of Bombardopolis or Bomlanle, so named in honour of a financier. Some of their half-caste descen- dants are still found in the district, and a confluence of lagoons in the Mississippi delta still bears the name of " Lac des Allemands," from the remnant of the immi- grants who accompanied the Acadians to Louisiana. The port of Gonaives stands on the west coast at the head of Gonaives Bay, where two rivers of the same name and the Artibonite enter the sea. Thanks to its central position between the northern and western provinces, Gonaives has played an important part in the chequered history of the country. Here Toussaint- Louverture embarked for France, and here was proclaimed the independence of Haiti. 412 MEXICO, CENTRAL .AMERICA, WEST INDIES. Saint-Marc, farther south on the same coast between the headlands of Pointe Diable and Cap Saint- Marc, commands the outlet of the great Artibonite valley, the richest in Haiti, comprising in its upper basin the magnificent pastures of Saint- Eaphael, Saint-Michel de VAtalaije, and Sinche ; lower down, the mahogany forests of Las Caobas ; and on the plains the coffee and other plantations of Verreftes and Petite-Riviere. An isolated bluff near the mouth of the river is the famous Grete d Pierrot, which had been fortified by English engineers, and which the blacks defended so valiantly during the war of independence. South-east of Cap Saint- Marc, Mont-Roui, Arcahaye, and a few other coast villages follow as far as Port-au-Prince, capital of Haiti. This city, which owes its pre- Fig. 197. — Gulp op Poet-atj-Peincb. Scale 1 : 575,000. mi^ — ' — immm^ssiBsr-m reenwich 72-40 72'£0 to 60 Fathoms. Depths. 50 to 100 Fathoms. 100 Fathoms and upwards. 12 Miles. eminence to its favourable commercial position, dates only from the year 1749, when it was founded under the name of I'Eopital; the "prince" to whom its present name has reference has not been identified. All its old monuments have perished in the numerous fires by which it has so often been wasted, and it con- sists at present of low brick or wood houses, disposed in regular blocks between avenues lined with trees. The city, which is connected with its suburbs by a few lines of railway, was formerly defended by forts crowning the surrounding heights. North-east lies Croix-des-Bouquets, which so often changed hands during the revo- lutionary wars. The south-west peninsula, from Port-au-Prince to Cape Tiburon, is lined with o g s <; H O o Ci w w o TOPOGRAPHY OJ? HAITI. 413 numerous trading places, every creek and inlet having its little group of houses half concealed by forest growths, (^a Ira, at the point where a chain of reefs connects the coast with Gonavo Island, is the outlet of the important to-n-n of Leogane, the Yaguana of the aborigines, which was the capital of Ilaiti before Port-au-Prince. Farther on follow Gmiid-Go&ce and Petit-Go&ve, the latter, despite its name, the larger and more commercial of the two. Farther west lies the flourishing town of Mirafjodne, and the less important seaports of Nippes, Anse-d-Veati, Petit- Troii, and Bamderes. A cutting of about 200 yards would suffice to connect the spacious Baraderes Bay wit